Chapter XV: The Mackenzie River Region (1)

Topography, Agriculture and Arable Land.

Mackenzie River a King of Northern Waters.—Over Three Thousand
Miles of Waterway.—Domestic Cattle have Succeeded.—Barley
Always Ripens at Fort Simpson.—Potatoes and Other Vegetables
have for Many Years Been Grown at Fort Good Hope, a few Miles
from the Arctic Circle.—Wheat and Barley Grown at Liard for
Many Years.—Interesting Comparison With the Russian Province of
Tobolsk.—A Large Town as Far North as Fort Wrigley.—Why Better
Results in Grain Growing May be Expected in the Future.

Northern Alberta, including the Athabaska and Peace countries treated of in the chapters immediately preceding, is generally considered, and properly, as forming part of the Great Mackenzie Basin, and that it has been in this volume considered as separate from the immense region on both sides of the Mackenzie, surrounding Great Slave lake, and on both sides of Slave river from Fort Smith to its mouth at the lake in question, is due to the purpose, previously expressed, of treating as separate geographical units regions possessing particular characteristics either of location, soil, climate or natural resources.

The region discussed in the present and immediately succeeding chapters as “The Mackenzie River Region” includes the country north of the Alberta and British Columbia boundary line (the 60th parallel of north latitude) extending as far north as Beaufort sea. To the westward it is bounded by the Yukon territory boundary line, and to the eastward by the height of land east of Slave river, the height of land between the valley of Coppermine river and the lake and river system extending from the north arm of Great Slave lake to Great Bear lake, and a line in prolongation thereof northward to the sea.

There might be some question as to the advisability of considering the country north, south and east of Great Bear lake as part of the country lying more immediately adjacent to the great river of the north. It is true that the slight knowledge of the country north, south and immediately east of Great Bear lake tends to show that it is a region far less inviting than the immediate valley of the Mackenzie, and that it practically forms part of the so-called “Barren Lands” which extend as far eastward as Hudson bay. But this unfavourable evidence is not quite conclusive, and after all, the whole of the country within the limits decided upon is in the Mackenzie watershed, and has been considered in a broad sense as part of the Mackenzie region by the explorers, missionaries, traders, and travellers who have written of the country. So the adoption of the limits decided upon should simplify the geographical situation for the reader, and that is an important thing in considering a territory so vast as that immediately under review.

A KING OF NORTHERN WATERS.

Mackenzie river is one of the longest and broadest streams in the world. According to Mr. R. G. McConnell, of the Geological Survey, one of the first to attempt a scientific survey of the river, the Mackenzie “drains an area of six hundred and seventy-seven thousand, four hundred square miles, and has an approximate discharge at a medium stage of the water, according to some rough measurements made by the writer, of five hundred thousand cubic feet per second. Its basin is traversed for nearly one thousand three hundred miles by Rocky mountains, and the Mackenzie is probably unique among the rivers of the world in the fact of having a large proportion of its basin situated on the farther side of a great mountain chain. Two of its principal tributaries, Liard and Peace rivers, pierce Rocky mountains and drain large areas beyond, while the third, the Athabaska, originates in the heart of the same range, and is confined entirely to the eastern slope. The country from which the Mackenzie draws its supplies is of the most varied description and includes part of the broken plateau region west of Rocky mountains, Rocky mountains themselves through fifteen degrees of latitude, the northern part of the prairie district and the wooded and moss-covered country which succeeds it towards Arctic ocean, while tribute is also drawn from a wide belt of rough Laurentian country on the east, and from portion of the “Barren Lands.” From Great Slave lake to the sea the Mackenzie is an imposing stream, averaging about a mile in width with occasional expansions for long distances to twice this size. It is characterized by the comparative purity of its water, by its long straight reaches and by the absence of sudden bends. Its valley, usually shallow, follows closely all the sinuosities of the stream without the intervention of large flats. Clusters of islands obstruct its channel in a number of places, and are met with at intervals all the way down, while ranges of lofty mountains run parallel with it for part of its course, and form a fitting background to this king of northern waters.”

SILENT SWEEP OF A MIGHTY RIVER.

“Opposite Fort Simpson,” according to Mr. McConnell, “the main channel of the Mackenzie is almost exactly a mile wide, and it maintains and often exceeds this width for many miles below. Its course, as far as the Great Bend, a distance of seventy miles, is north-northwest, and its current in average stages of the water has a velocity of about four miles an hour. The banks of the valley appear low owing to the great size of the river, but in reality have often a height of two hundred feet or over. The appearance of this part of the Mackenzie and of the unending spruce forests which border it is monotonous and uninteresting, and is only relieved by the majesty inseparable from the silent sweep of a river of its magnitude.”

Slave river, which discharges the water of Lake Athabaska and Peace river into Great Slave lake, is practically an upper reach of the Mackenzie, its course being in the same general direction but the name “Mackenzie” is given only to that long stretch of navigable water from Great Slave lake to the sea.

As Mackenzie river itself is the outstanding geographical feature of the country, as it is the main channel of communication, and as all the settlements are situated upon its banks or those of its tributaries, a table of distances along this gigantic waterway may prove to be a useful guide to those readers of these pages, who are not familiar with the geography of the country. The table is compiled from the report by Wm. Ogilvie, D.L.S., of his survey, and the figures cover the route from Fort Smith, on Slave river, practically on the Alberta boundary line, to Fort McPherson on the delta of the Mackenzie:—

MILES.

Fort Smith 0
Fort Resolution 190·5
Buffalo creek 202·5
Buffalo river 249·5
Hay river 276·5
Great Slave lake 311·5
Fort Providence (lat. 61·4°) 357·5
Little lake 381·5
Yellowknife river 417·9
Head of Line 444·0
Fort Simpson (lat. 61·8°) 515·0
Nahanni river 590·2
Willow lake river 606·5
River between Two Mountains 645·5
Fort Wrigley (lat. 63°) 649·0
Le Vieux Grand Lac river 723·0
Gravel river 764·2
Fort Norman (lat. about 65°) 829·3
Great Bear river 829·5
Carcajou river 945·5
Mountain river 950·2
Sans Sault rapids 950·8
Beaver river 987·8
Ramparts 989·9
Fort Good Hope (lat. 66·16°) 998·8
Hare Indian river 1001·1
Loon river 1022·7
Large river entering on east side,
name unknown 1153·0
Red river 1213·4
Delta of Mackenzie 1241·4
Fort McPherson (lat. 67·26°) 1273·5

The Dominion census of 1911 gives us the following figures of the population of these places, and of one or two other posts which will be referred to later:—Fort Good Hope, 434; Fort Liard, 136; Fort McPherson, 387; Fort Norman, 315; Fort Providence, 473; Fort Rea, 774; Fort Resolution, 766; Fort Simpson, 375; Fort Smith, 50; Fort Wrigley, 79; Hay river, 146.

These figures do not represent only the local population at the posts, but in addition the inhabitants, white and red, of the surrounding districts.

MACKENZIE NAVIGATION.

For many years the Hudson’s Bay Company have maintained steam communication on the Mackenzie from Fort Smith to Fort McPherson by means of steamers. The pioneer steamer “Wrigley” is one of the historical associations of the country. According to Mr. William Ogilvie, the “Wrigley’s” log shows the following average between Fort Smith, the most southerly part of her run, and Fort McPherson, the most northerly, the distance between these points being about one thousand two hundred and seventy miles. From Fort Smith to Fort Resolution, nearly all on Great Slave river, average running time, about eighteen hours; between Resolution and Providence about seventeen hours, of which twelve and a half are in Great Slave lake; between Providence and Simpson about fourteen hours; Simpson to Wrigley about ten and a half; Wrigley to Norman, about fourteen hours; Norman to Good Hope, about thirteen hours; Good Hope to McPherson, about twenty-four and a half hours. The total running time is one hundred and twenty-three and one-half hours, somewhat over ten and a quarter miles an hour.

On “up” runs the following averages have been made:—McPherson to Good Hope, forty hours; Good Hope to Norman, thirty-four hours, Norman to Wrigley, thirty-nine hours; Wrigley to Simpson; nineteen hours; Simpson to Providence, about twenty-eight hours; Providence to Fort Rae, not certain, appears to be about thirteen hours; Providence to Resolution, about twenty hours; Resolution to Smith, about thirty-five hours; Resolution to Rae, about fifteen hours and a return about the same, as it is all lake water. The duration of these runs varied somewhat by the force and direction of the wind. The total running from McPherson to Smith as shown above is two hundred and fifteen and one-half hours, which give a rate of 5·9 miles per hour. The mean of the up and down times is a fraction over eight miles an hour, which is said to be her normal speed.

A LONG NAVIGABLE STRETCH.

Mr. Ogilvie, in his report, points out:—“Excepting a short distance at the head of Mackenzie river, where it is doubtful, it is certain that vessels drawing at least seven or eight feet of water can navigate from the delta of the Mackenzie to the rapids on Great Slave river, a distance of one thousand two hundred and seventy-three miles. If Mackenzie delta also allows that draught, we have about one thousand three hundred and forty miles of navigable water from the rapids to Arctic ocean.”

“Wherever possible the width of the river was determined by triangulation. Between the narrows and Fort Good Hope it is never less than a mile wide and is often more than two, even reaching three miles at some points.

“Since I followed the shore, I cannot speak of the depth of water from personal observation. Captain Bell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s steamer ‘Wrigley,’ informed me that the shallowest water found by him in any part of the river, in what he considered the channel, was eleven feet. But as, when I saw him, he had made only two trips on the lower river, he could not speak very definitely as to its depth. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, who discovered the river and descended to its mouth in July, 1789, had a lead line with which to make soundings; but in the swift current a short distance above Fort Simpson his lead caught in the bottom, the line broke and the lead was lost. I have the depths according to him, and will give them in their proper place. One would expect, in such an expanse of water as this, to find some of it shallow, but it appears from all the evidence I could gather that vessels drawing from eight to ten feet of water would find no difficulty in navigation as far as Great Slave lake. Although the river is reported to be shallow where it leaves this lake, doubtless a channel could be found affording the draught above mentioned.

“In the fall of 1887, a whale made its way up the river to the Ramparts, remaining there the whole season, and before the river froze over it was often seen blowing. At first the Indians were afraid, but they soon became accustomed to the sight, and shot at the whale whenever it approached the shore. In the spring its dead body was beached by the ice on the west shore seven or eight miles below Fort Good Hope, and the Indians used part of it for dog meat. I enquired its dimensions of several who had seen it. They described it as being about twice as long as one of their canoes and thicker through than their own height. This would mean a length of from twenty-five to twenty-eight feet. I have often heard it stated that all the channels of Mackenzie delta are shallow, but the presence of this whale assures us that one of them at least is over six feet deep.”

OVER THREE THOUSAND MILES OF WATERWAY.

Mr. Ogilvie claims that there is a grand total of three thousand three hundred and sixty-nine miles of water in Mackenzie basin, all navigable, except for eighteen miles, at but two points, one a rapid two miles long on Peace river, and the other Sixteen Mile rapid on Great Slave river. A thorough knowledge of the two great lakes (Great Bear and Great Slave) with all their tributary streams would probably increase this vast length of navigable water by several hundred miles. This does not take into account the Mackenzie delta and sea near its mouth, of the navigability of which nothing very definite is known at present.

Mr. Ogilvie, writing in 1890, figured out these distances in this way:—“The Hudson’s Bay Company’s steamer ‘Grahame’ traverses the waters of Peace and Athabaska rivers, the former from the falls to the rapid at Fort Smith, and the latter up to McMurray. The distance from Chipewyan to the post at the falls on Peace river is two hundred and twenty-two miles.”

“During the last two years the Hudson’s Bay Company has had another steamer, the ‘Athabaska,’ plying on upper Athabaska river, between Little Slave river and Grand rapids. Both this steamer and the ‘Grahame’ on the lower river are flat bottomed stern-wheelers, drawing, when loaded, not more than two and a half to three feet of water. They can each carry about one hundred and forty tons.”

“Upper Peace river is navigable for steamers drawing three or four feet of water, and, with a little improvement at two points, a draught of five to six feet could be utilized. This upper Peace river affords a navigable stretch of five hundred and fifty-seven miles, which, with two hundred and twenty-two miles on lower Peace river, and two hundred on Lake Athabaska, and, say, two hundred on the lower Athabaska, together with the distance given in the above table, gives us two thousand five hundred and sixty-nine miles of navigable water.”

“From our present knowledge, meagre as it is, I think we may assume that Great Slave lake affords us at least five hundred miles more, considering its length and its many deep bays. To this we may add two hundred and forty miles on the Liard, and at least sixty on Peel river.”

THE SEASON OF NAVIGATION.

As to the length of the season of navigation on the Mackenzie, Mr. Wm. Ogilvie, in his report, publishes some tables showing dates at which the ice formed and broke up at Fort Norman (latitude about 65°), and Fort Simpson (latitude 61° 52′ north). These tables were compiled from figures taken from the journals kept at all Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts. From these figures it appears that the first ice, between 1872 and 1888, never formed earlier than October 7 at Fort Norman, and in 1883 did not form until October 24. The earliest date at which the river was closed by the ice was November 2, in 1879, and the latest November 18, in 1874. The earliest date at which the ice broke up was May 9, in 1879, and the latest May 24, in 1887.

At Fort Simpson, during the decade of 1876-1886, the drift ice was seen as early as October 11, in 1884, and as late as November 12, in 1879. The earliest date at which the river closed was November 17, in 1876, and the latest was November 30, in 1882. The earliest date at which the ice broke up was May 1, in 1883, and the latest May 14, in 1876.

LANDMARKS ALONG THE MACKENZIE.

Some notes culled from Mr. Ogilvie’s report as to the principal tributaries of the Mackenzie between Great Slave lake and the sea, and as to a few of the more remarkable stretches of the main river, will prove interesting at this point. Seventy miles below Great Slave lake is Little lake, which is about twelve miles long and ten to twelve miles wide, being merely an expansion of the river, like Lakes St. Francis and St. Peter in St. Lawrence system. Thirty-six miles lower down, Yellowknife river enters the Mackenzie from the south. It would appear from the statements of Indians to Mr. Ogilvie that this is the largest tributary of the Mackenzie between the Liard and Fort Providence. Twenty-seven miles below the confluence of the Yellowknife, and continuing to a short distance above the confluence of the Liard, the Mackenzie narrows to an average width of a little over half a mile, with a generally swift current. This continues for seventy and a half miles or nearly as far as Fort Simpson, near the mouth of the Liard and causes this part of the river to be called “The Line,” from the fact that large boats cannot be rowed against the current, but have to be hauled by a line attached to them, and pulled by men on shore. This is the common mode of navigation on all the northern rivers where there are no steamers, as it is less laborious than rowing against a current.

By the survey it is seven hundred and fifty-eight and one-half miles from Fort Simpson to Fort McPherson. The former fort is situated on an island just below the junction of Mackenzie and Liard rivers.

Ninety miles below Fort Simpson, on the west side, a river flows in from the southwest. Mr. Ogilvie had seen its name spelled Na-hone, but remembered that it is spelled by the Reverend Father Petitot, Na-hauner. It is, however, now known as North Nahanni river. This stream, as seen from the opposite side of the river, seems about two hundred yards wide, but it is shallow and rough at the mouth as was ascertained by the noise of its waters being plainly heard across the Mackenzie, here a mile wide. Mr. Ogilvie could get no information as to what it was like for any distance above its mouth, but it pierces the range of mountains to the west, which here come close to the river. The valley thus formed can be seen extending southwesterly through the mountains for many miles. The banks in the stretch of the Mackenzie from Simpson to this point are alternately low and swampy and moderately high, consisting of gravel and sand.

SOME TRIBUTARIES.

Sixteen miles below the confluence of the North Nahanni, but from the opposite or eastern side, Willow lake river enters the Mackenzie. It is a quarter of a mile wide, deep with a slack current. It is said to flow out of a lake of considerable extent, not far from the Mackenzie.

Thirty-nine miles lower down, and three and a half miles above Fort Wrigley, a stream known to the Indians as “The River between Two Mountains” discharges into the Mackenzie from the east. It is about one hundred and fifty yards wide and shallow.

Seventy-four miles below Fort Wrigley, on the west side, a river discharges a large volume of clear, black water, which rushes bodily half way across the Mackenzie, and preserves its distinctive character for several miles before it mingles with the main stream. The name applied to this river by the people at Fort Wrigley was “La Rivière le Vieux Grand Lac.” It is said to flow out of a lake of considerable extent lying not far from the Mackenzie. Many peaks can be seen up its valley.

A little more than thirty miles lower down, on the same side of the river, another stream enters, apparently not more than a hundred yards wide at its mouth. Mr. Ogilvie saw it from the opposite side of the river only, and heard nothing concerning it.

A small stream enters the Mackenzie opposite this place, and up its valley, about two miles eastward from the river, a sharp peak rising one thousand five hundred feet above the water was noted by Mr. Ogilvie.

GRAVEL RIVER.

Forty-one miles below the confluence of le Vieux Grand Lac river, or sixty-five miles, by the survey, above Fort Norman, a large river enters from the west. It is shallow at its mouth, as it is throughout its course, according to the reports of the Indians. The current, they say, is swift. They ascend it a long way in the winter to hunt, and descend in the spring on rafts. How far they go up, Mr. Ogilvie could not learn, their unit of distance being the unknown quantity of a day’s travel, but they go much farther than on any other tributary of the lower river.

Mr. Ogilvie obtained the name from some Indians who had travelled it and they called it “Pecat-ah-zah.” This translated means Gravel river, by which name it is known to all the white men in the vicinity, on account of its shallowness and numerous gravel bars.

Mr. Keele, reporting upon his descent of Gravel river in 1908, wrote:—“On Gravel river the high mountains approach to within a distance of about fifty miles of Mackenzie river, and are then replaced by a belt of foothills about three thousand feet in height above sea-level. These foothills in turn decline in elevation and finally die out in a broken, wooded plain, about six hundred feet above sea-level, bordering Mackenzie river. Gravel river has built up an alluvial flat at its mouth, and several alluvial islands in the Mackenzie below this point are probably due to the great load of sediment carried in at flood-time. On account of the long period of sunshine during the days, nearly all the snow disappears from Mackenzie mountains before the summer ends. Vegetation advances very rapidly in summer, and where the soil is good, vegetables of many kinds may be grown along the river banks in the principal valleys.”

FORT NORMAN.

Fort Norman is situated on the east bank of the Mackenzie just above the entrance of Great Bear river. This river is from two to three hundred yards wide at the mouth, with a moderate current, but a short distance up becomes shallow and the current increases. The color of the water is a beautiful greenish-blue, although when Mr. Ogilvie passed it was somewhat turbid.

Ten miles below Great Bear river, a stream about one hundred yards wide comes in on the westerly side.

Eighty-three miles below Fort Norman, or six and one-half miles above Sans Sault rapids, Carcajou river empties its waters into the Mackenzie from the west.

Nearly five miles lower down again, a river called Mountain river flows in from the west. It is from one hundred to one hundred and fifty yards wide, and shallow.

SANS SAULT RAPID.

Less than a mile farther down Sans Sault rapid is reached. This is all on one side of the river, which is here a mile and a quarter wide. As Mr. Ogilvie went up the west side, and the rapid was on the other, extending but little more than a third of the way across, he did not see anything of it. He heard the roar plainly enough, but saw nothing except a swift current. It is caused by a ledge of rocks extending partially across the river. Captain Bell of the “Wrigley,” reported deep water in the channel at the end of the ledge, and the steamer has no serious trouble in ascending. In very low water it is said that this rock is scarcely covered.

About a mile above the Ramparts there is a similar rapid when the water is low, but when Mr. Ogilvie passed there was no sign of it.

Thirty-seven miles below Sans Sault rapid and twenty-one miles above Fort Good Hope, Beaver river joins on the west, but as Mr. Ogilvie continued only on the east side he saw only its mouth, which appeared to be about one hundred yards wide. An Indian with him said that it took its name from the number of beavers formerly found on it. This stream rises in the mountains, but does not seem to be of any importance.

Somewhat less than two miles from Beaver river, and only a short distance above the Ramparts, a river flows into the Mackenzie on its west side. Mr. Ogilvie saw it only across the river, but it appeared to be about two hundred yards wide at its mouth. All he could learn about it at Fort Good Hope was that it came from far up in the mountains.

THE RAMPARTS OF THE MACKENZIE.

Mr. Ogilvie remarks in his report that in the more southwesterly part of the country the Ramparts would be called a “Cañon.” Here, for a distance of seven miles, the river runs between perpendicular and occasionally overhanging walls of rock. At the upper end they rise fifty or sixty feet above the water, but their height increases towards the lower end, at which point they are not less than one hundred and fifty feet above water. At the upper end the cañon is not more than half a mile wide, but its walls gradually expand three miles down, and the width gradually expands to nearly a mile at the lower end. Sir Alexander Mackenzie when passing through sounded at its upper end, and found three hundred feet of water, which accounts for the fact that, although the cañon is so narrow, the current is not perceptibly increased.

According to Mr. McConnell’s description:—“The Ramparts form one of the most interesting features of the Mackenzie. For some distance above, the river is expanded beyond its usual size, but here suddenly contracts to about five hundred yards in width, and bending to the east runs for three or four miles between vertical walls of limestone and shale. At the upper end of the gorge the bounding cliffs are a hundred and twenty-five feet in height, but increase towards the lower end to about two hundred and fifty feet. The current is steady and runs at the rate of four or five miles an hour. In high water there is no sign of a rapid, but in low water a considerable fall occurs near the head, and it is only with difficulty that York boats are taken up. The Ramparts are frequently the scene of great ice jams in the spring and the dammed-back water is stated to have risen on one occasion over a hundred feet, and on its recession left a boat stranded on the heights above.”

FORT GOOD HOPE.

Fort Good Hope is situated a couple of miles or so below the lower end of the Ramparts. According to Mr. Preble (See p. 22), Fort Good Hope probably existed in effect as a Northwest post early in the nineteenth century, but accounts differ as to the precise location, both Sans Sault rapid and the foot of the Ramparts being given as the earliest site. A temporary post was built in the summer of 1805 at “Bluefish river,” about sixty miles below the mouth of Bear lake river. (Masson, Les Bourgeois, II, p. 104, 1890). It was established as a Hudson’s Bay Company’s post on the west bank of the Mackenzie, about one hundred miles below the Ramparts, about 1823, after the union of the rival companies, being spoken of by Franklin in 1825, as “but recently established.” It was removed about 1835 to Manitou island, below the Ramparts, where its site may still be seen on the eastern shore of the island nearly opposite the present establishment. It was destroyed in June, 1836, by a flood caused by an ice jam in the Ramparts, and was rebuilt on its present site in 1837.

THE GRAND VIEW.

The “Grand View” is a name given to an expanded portion of the Mackenzie below Fort Good Hope, about twenty miles in length. Mr. McConnell writes:—“The river here is almost straight, but curves gently to the north, and is from two to three miles wide. Its great width gives it more the appearance of a lake than a river, and in no other part of the Mackenzie is the magnitude of the mighty volume of water which this river carries to the sea, impressed so forcibly on the mind. The banks are low and the sinuous shore-lines show a succession of wooded points stretching out until concealed by the haze of the atmosphere. The bordering plains slope gently down almost to the water’s edge, and are covered with a scattered growth of willow, spruce and tamarack, with here and there patches of aspens on the drier ridges.”

A little over two miles below Fort Good Hope, Hare Indian river flows into the Mackenzie on its east side. It is about two hundred yards wide at its mouth, and is said to preserve this width for a long distance. The Indians report that this stream rises in a range of hills on the northwest side of Great Bear lake, but about its navigability Mr. Ogilvie could learn nothing.

Twenty-two miles lower down Loon river enters from the east. This river is from eighty to one hundred yards wide. An old man whom Mr. Ogilvie met at Fort Good Hope had explored this stream for some distance and gave him the following notes:—For eight miles there is good navigation, then a rapid half a mile long occurs, at the head of which is a lake about three miles long and one broad, in which the Indians catch many fish. This is called “Rorrie lake” and, some distance above it, is another some two miles in diameter, and called “Round lake” from its shape. Above this again is a succession of lakes for many days’ travel.

One hundred and thirty miles below Loon river a stream one hundred yards wide enters from the northeast. This is a river which the old man at Fort Good Hope described to Mr. Ogilvie as one up which a Hudson’s Bay Company’s officer went many years ago to its source, which he found to be not far from the head waters of Anderson river, which flows into Arctic ocean. It would appear from the old man’s statement that several trips up it have been made since, but this information was vague, and Mr. Ogilvie afterwards met no one who could give him a reliable account of this river.

Sixty miles lower down, Red river enters the Mackenzie on its west side just at the foot of the Narrows. It is about two hundred yards wide at its mouth and appears to be shallow. As far as Mr. Ogilvie could learn from persons acquainted with the river, it comes from a flat, swampy country.

WHERE THE RIVER BRANCHES.

Where the upper end of the branch of the Mackenzie channel on which Fort McPherson is situated connects with Mackenzie proper, according to Mr. Ogilvie:—“The channel is three-fourths of a mile wide, but it is only one of four, there being four large islands there. The whole width of the river cannot be less than three or four miles.

“Looking northward down the westerly channel the view is bounded by the sky and widens in the distance so that one can fancy he is looking out to sea. This can hardly be so; but, from the altitude of the bank where I stood, added to my own height, the horizon must have been six miles away, and a bank in the channel of equal height to that on which I stood would have been visible twice that distance. Now, if the supposed bank was timbered, as was that on which I stood, it would be visible ten or twelve miles farther, but none was in sight.

“From the entrance of the small channel of Peel river to the head of the upper island in the Mackenzie is nine miles. From the west shore to the southerly point of this island is a mile and a quarter; from the island to the east shore the distance is nearly as great, showing the river to be more than two miles wide at this point. However, it gradually narrows, and five miles above this is a little over a mile wide, which it averages up to the narrows, about sixty miles from Fort McPherson, or twenty-eight from where we entered it.

“A north wind raises quite a swell here and the salty odour of the sea air is quite perceptible above the delta.”

AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES.

Alexander Mackenzie and the explorers who immediately followed him down the great river of the north, being fur traders, devoted no space in their published journals to a discussion of the agricultural possibilities of the country, and as their time was necessarily restricted they took no time on their journeys to examine any part of the territory, contenting themselves with noting the main features affecting the navigation of the main stream, the mouths, the tributaries, the occurrence of game, Indian camps, etc.

Following close upon the establishment of permanent trading posts and missions, came the pioneer attempts at agriculture in Mackenzie valley, and we find members of the first exploring parties sent to the country for scientific research commenting upon the crude experiments of the pioneer agriculturalists.

Doctor John Richardson, who accompanied Franklin’s expedition in 1826 (See p. 13), in his volume “The Polar Regions”, in a general description of the resources of the country at that date, wrote:—“Wheat has not been raised within the Arctic circle in America, nor indeed within six degrees of latitude of it. It requires a summer heat of one hundred and twenty days, but it is said to be cultivated up to the 62nd or 64th parallel on the west side of Scandinavian peninsula. Barley ripens well at Fort Norman on the 65th parallel, in the valley of the Mackenzie, after the lapse of ninety-two days from the time of its being sown. All attempts to cultivate it at old Fort Good Hope, two degrees farther north, have failed. Sixty-six degrees of latitude may therefore be considered as the extreme limit of the barley in Norway. Oats do not succeed so far north as barley here.

“At Fort Good Hope, on the Mackenzie (the new fort), in latitude 66¼ degrees north, a few turnips and radishes, and some other culinary vegetables, are raised in a sheltered corner, which receives the reflection of the sun’s rays from the walls of the house, but none of the cerealia will grow, and potatoes do not repay the labour.”

DOMESTIC CATTLE INTRODUCED.

Doctor Richardson again referred to the same subject, after his return from his trip with Doctor Rae in 1848 in search of Sir John Franklin’s missing party, and we find in his book published after his return to England, “The Arctic Searching Expedition” (Vol. 1., p. 153), the following:—“We reached Fort Resolution at 10 a.m. and having received some supplies of fish, and two or three deals for repairing the boats, we resumed our voyage, after a halt at the Fort for an hour. Domestic cattle have been introduced at this place, and at the posts generally throughout the country, even up to Peel river and Fort Good Hope and within the Arctic circle. At this season the moschetoes (mosquitos) prevent them from feeding, except when urged by extreme hunger, and fires are made for their accommodation near the forts, to which they crowd, and lying to leeward amidst the smoke, ruminate at their ease.”

At page 165, regarding Fort Simpson (61° 51′ 25′′ north 121° 51′ 15′′ west) Richardson in the same book writes:—“Barley is usually sown here from May 20 to 25, and is expected to be ripe on August 20—ninety-two days. In some seasons it has ripened on August 15. Oats do not thrive quite so well, and wheat does not come to maturity. Potatoes yield well and no disease has yet affected them, though early frost sometimes hurts the crop. Barley in favorable seasons gives a good return at Fort Norman, which is farther down the river; and potatoes and various garden vegetables grow there. The 60th parallel of latitude may, therefore, be considered as about the northern limit of cerealia in this meridian; for though in good seasons and in warm sheltered spots a little barley might possibly be reared at Fort Good Hope, the attempts hitherto made there have failed.

“A number of milch cows are kept at Fort Simpson, and one or two fat oxen are killed annually. Hay for the winter provender of the stock is made about one hundred miles up the river, where there are good meadows or marshes, and whence it is rafted down in boats in September.”

LAPLAND REINDEER.

The occurrence of immense numbers of caribou in the Canadian Northland (see chapters XVIII and XXII), and the fact that this animal in its appearance and habits is practically identical with the Lapland reindeer, which has been successfully introduced into Labrador and Alaska, have led to the belief that the last mentioned animal might be introduced with splendid results into the country, and the Department of the Interior has inaugurated an experiment to ascertain if the plan is feasible. In September, 1911, three carloads of reindeer were despatched to Fort Smith, where they are being taken care of. As these animals serve as beasts of burden, as well as provide meat, milk and leather, this experiment might have an important effect upon the future development of all these northern areas.

GRAIN GROWING AT FORT LIARD.

At page 170 in the same volume, referring to Fort Liard, Richardson states:—“Though this post is more elevated than Fort Simpson, by at least one hundred and fifty feet, and is only ten degrees of latitude to the southward, its climate is said to be very superior, and its vegetable production of better growth and quality. Barley and oats yield good crops, and in favorable seasons wheat ripens well. This place, then, or the 60th parallel, may be considered as a northern limit of the economical culture of wheat.”

Whatever the discouragements of the pioneer agriculturalists in Mackenzie valley may have been, there was sufficient encouragement to induce the missionaries and employees of the fur companies stationed in the country to persevere.

Mr. A. Isbister, a native of the West, who had lived for three years in Mackenzie river district, but left that country when under twenty years of age, examined before the British parliamentary committee of 1857, stated that he had himself raised barley, oats and potatoes as far north as Fort Norman on Mackenzie river, upwards of a thousand miles from the United States boundary and near the Arctic circle. On the Liard, large crops could be raised, as the soil is better on that river, and wheat had been occasionally raised there. It was possible that settlement might extend to Great Bear lake. There would be sufficient territory in the north to make “a very large state indeed.” Asked if he thought that the whole country on Mackenzie river was all adapted to the wants of civilized man, Mr. Isbister remarked:—“The climate is very severe there, but the soil, so far as I have an opportunity of judging, is tolerably well adapted for cultivation. You can raise barley and potatoes very well indeed, without any risk whatsoever.”

BARLEY ALWAYS RIPENED THERE.

In the Dominion Government Pacific Railway report of 1878 it is stated (p. 333):—“Mr. Hardisty, late Chief Factor in charge of Fort Simpson in latitude 61·8°, informed Professor Macoun that barley always ripened there; that wheat was sure four times out of five. Melons if started under glass ripened well, frost seldom doing them much harm.” In the 1880 report Reverend D. M. Gordon is quoted (p. 102) as authority for the statement that “wheat is grown as far north as Fort Simpson.” In the report of 1878 (p. 333) it is also stated:—“Chief trader Macdougall, in 1875, said all kinds of grain and garden stuff always come to maturity at Fort Liard (latitude 60·25°).”

In 1882 Doctor Bompas, the heroic Church of England Bishop of Mackenzie river, in the course of a report to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, wrote:—“The English schoolmaster at Simpson has made successful experiments of farming in that northern region, and through his energetic labours a good crop of barley was raised in the mission fields; also some wheat and potatoes, beans, pease, beet roots and other vegetables.”

The evidence taken before the select committee of the Senate of Canada in 1888 as to agricultural possibilities in Mackenzie valley, excited general interest.

MANY NATURAL PRAIRIES.

The Right Reverend Isidore Clut, O.M.I., missionary Bishop of Arindele, whose diocese included Mackenzie basin, and whose name is still held with reverence throughout this country, examined before the Committee stated that in several places in the basin of the Mackenzie there were a great number of natural prairies, those with round hay and those with flat hay. The round hay, in certain places, grew from three to five feet in height. The flat hay was also very fine but a little shorter. It grew everywhere in the low and wet places.

At the Roman Catholic mission at Providence, the residence of the bishop, one year he had one thousand four hundred and forty barrels of potatoes—(one barrel, ten gallons)—from sixty kegs of seed, but this was a very favourable year. They had been greatly favoured by the heat and by rain at opportune times. On two or three occasions they had had a thousand and twelve hundred barrels of the same roots.

At the Providence mission there was an excellent clay, which was very good for cultivation. Throughout the country in general the bishop found all sorts of land, black soil, loam, clay, sand, marl, etc. Generally they harvested their potatoes at Providence from September 20 to 30. Turnips, carrots, beets, etc., they harvested a little later. Wheat on the banks of Peace river and Liard river was ripe towards the end of August; at Athabaska and at Providence from September 15 to 25. Barley was ripe a little sooner throughout. Rye does not ripen any sooner than wheat, but witness had not made many experiments, for the reason that they like wheat better than rye. Oats they harvested at the same time as wheat, but they had sowed them only once. Potatoes they harvested at Athabaska and at Providence, from September 20 to 30. Turnips, carrots, beets, radishes, etc., they harvest later. Indian corn generally cannot get ripened below Athabaska or on the Mackenzie. Strawberries commenced to ripen towards July 15; gooseberries ripened towards the end of August, and at the commencement of September. Raspberries and currants come after the strawberries. There were also in places many blueberries, cranberries, and other small fruits, such as poires sauvages (Saskatoon), etc. Barley ripened at Fort Norman, at the mouth of Great Bear lake river. Consequently it grew at Fort Wrigley, Fort Simpson, and at Fort Providence. In Liard river and Peace river countries it succeeded also very well. Brother Kearney and the Hudson’s Bay Company had grown potatoes at Fort Good Hope (Arctic circle). At the mission at Providence, and at all the Roman Catholic missions on Mackenzie river, Liard river, Peace river and Slave river, etc., potatoes and other vegetables were

CULTIVATED VERY SUCCESSFULLY.

Wheat grew, according to the Bishop’s evidence, at Providence mission, and at Fort Simpson, but it rarely arrived at perfect maturity. It ripened much better on the borders of Liard river and Peace river. At the mission of the Nativity (Chipewyan at Lake Athabaska) they had often grown fine wheat. At the mission of the Nativity (Athabaska), at Fort Resolution (Great Slave lake), at Fort Smith, at the mission of Fort Providence, they sowed from the time the land began to thaw, that is to say, from May 15 until June 8 or 10. Throughout the length of Liard and Peace rivers, sowing began a little earlier. At the end of August they had already harvested barley and wheat.

Plants which were deep in the ground, such as potatoes, took a good deal of time to spring up because of the ground being frozen below, but those which were near the surface of the ground commenced to grow very soon, and the nearer one approached the north, for example at the Arctic circle, the more rapidly did the vegetation begin, because of the greater length of the days, or the days being without nights. In 1886 the bishop observed the matter at Good Hope. Towards June 7 or 8, vegetation commenced, and in five or six days the leaves of the trees had reached their natural size. It was because it commenced to be warm then, and very warm, and that continued, save when sometimes north winds set in, which would bring back the snow and cold and sometimes injure the crops.

It was difficult, Bishop Clut remarked, to say the extent of country fit for pasturage, and the cultivation of cereals or other plants, for the reason that cultivation had not been tried, except by the missionaries, and a little by the Hudson’s Bay Company.

During his examination before the committee, Bishop Clut was asked:—“How far north has the potato been grown to your knowledge?”

He replied:—“We raise potatoes even as far north as the Arctic circle, at Fort Good Hope, but they are very small. We have no bread there, and an Irish brother has

RAISED POTATOES EVERY SUMMER.

Once I passed a winter there and they had very little potatoes. Out of five bushels planted they got only six bushels. Two years ago I passed the winter there, and out of ten kegs planted they got twenty-five.” The bishop added that there were then at nearly all of the missions gardens in which were raised potatoes, carrots, beets, onions, cabbages, turnips and lettuce. Even at Fort Good Hope they raised turnips and carrots.

Wild roses grew in abundance as far north as Good Hope.

Horses, at that date, had not been taken farther than Great Slave lake, but cattle had been taken as far north as Fort Good Hope. They were found at the principal establishments of the missionaries, and at the forts of the Hudson’s Bay Company.

Bishop Clut stated that he was certain that if Mackenzie country became settled and cultivated on a large scale, the occasional white frosts of the summer months would be much less frequent. That was the result which they had already observed at their principal mission posts; the more they cleared to any extent the less were the fields susceptible to frost. The months of September and October were generally dry, and the blue sky made them charming. In general they had a clear sky without a cloud and that is what makes the climate so healthy in the basin of the Mackenzie. People could live there to a greater age than in any other part of the globe.

“CHINOOKS” AT THE ARCTIC CIRCLE.

At Arctic circle the southwest “Chinook” wind often made its effect felt, even in winter. The Rev. Father Séguin and Brother Kearney, who had been at Good Hope for twenty-eight years had observed its effect. The bishop had observed it also himself during the winters of 1885 and 1886. This wind modified the temperature a good deal. The missionaries had not remarked that the intensity of the frost had any effect on the native trees of the country. The bishop had not kept account himself of the degrees of heat in summer, but he was able to say that it was excessively hot; and the farther one went towards the north the warmer he would find it becoming; and that heat lasted the twenty-four hours of the day, without sensibly diminishing in its intensity from 10 p.m. to 3 a.m.

Ex-Judge Malcolm MacLeod, Q.C., of Aylmer, Que., a northwesterner by birth, on examination before the committee produced a number of letters received by his father while he held the appointment of senior officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company in the northern district. Among these letters was one which showed that the original explorers of the country between the Mackenzie and the Yukon described it as “a land of milk and honey.”

Judge McLeod added:—“We know for certain that at Fort Liard, wheat is a reliable crop for four years out of five, at any rate.”

Hon. William Christie, ex-member of the Northwest Council, was at one time inspecting chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company service. This witness was examined before the committee and explained that as inspecting factor of the Hudson’s Bay service he was in charge of all the districts from Red river to Fort Simpson—from Fort Garry northward—Red river district, Swan river district, English river district, Athabaska river district, and Mackenzie river district. All of these were

UNDER HIS SUPERVISION.

He had travelled over the whole of them and descended Mackenzie river as far as Fort Simpson. He did not think that any authoritative attempt had ever been made up to that time to collect statistics, etc., as to resources of this region. The business of the Hudson’s Bay Company was confined to the fur trade, and if there were any scientific investigations in the old days these were conducted under the authority of the British government. The Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts on Mackenzie river were established at convenient points for the fur trade all the way down the river. Fort Simpson was at the head of the whole Mackenzie river district.

There was no settlement around any of the company’s forts. The white men in the forts were largely from England and Scotland—gentlemen’s sons—and some were married to Indian girls and French half-breeds. Traders, other than those of the company, were at that date going in for furs, up as far as Great Slave lake. The Hudson’s Bay Company opposed them the best way they could, but had sold the country to the Canadian government. The Church of England, as well as the Roman Catholic Church, had missions throughout the region, and had had them for many years.

Mr. Christie informed the committee that he did not think there would be any difficulty in navigating with suitable steamers the Mackenzie from its headwaters to Arctic ocean, because the year before his examination they had had the experience of a successful voyage of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s steamer from Fort Simpson down Mackenzie river nearly to its mouth, below Peel river. They could have gone through to Arctic sea if they had wished to do so, but having no pilot, and not knowing which of the channels they should take, they did not like to venture. It would have been a disastrous thing to the company if that steamer had met with any accident which would have prevented it from returning to Slave river that season.

REACHED THE MACKENZIE FROM THE NORTH.

As to outside communication via the north, Mr. Christie considered navigation by Hudson bay more certain than by Behring strait. During the search for Sir John Franklin’s lost expedition, however, Commander Pullen, of H.M.S. _Plover_, sailed from Honolulu for Behring strait and Mackenzie river. He went as far north as he possibly could get with the _Plover_. Then with Lieut. Hooper and some sailors he took to the boats and coasted along to the outlet of Mackenzie river. The party ascended that river with their boats to Fort Simpson the same fall—tracked their boats. The _Plover_ returned to Honolulu that same season.

Donald McIvor, farmer, of Kildonan East, Manitoba, who had been sixteen years in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s service, and had been stationed in Mackenzie river district for over six years, communicated in writing to the committee a very interesting series of answers in response to a schedule of questions submitted by the committee. Witness explained that he considered he had fair knowledge of the district watered by Mackenzie, Athabaska and Slave rivers.

The soil is black loam chiefly, sometimes a little sandy. Witness considered three-fourths of the country fit for pasturage or coarse grains. Barley and potatoes had been grown successfully as far north as Fort Norman. He saw some wheat, very fine, at Methye portage, grown by an Indian, but did not know of its being tried further north then. He never saw any Indian corn during his stay in the district. At Fort Athabaska, barley sown the middle of May was ready the first or second week in August. Farther north, at Fort Norman, barley sown the middle of May could be reaped the middle or the last week in August. In cases where wheat was grown it ripened about the last week in August, potatoes the first of September. The ground was usually fit for seeding about three weeks after the first spring flowers showed. The summer rains began about the latter end of May. At the time witness was in the country nothing was done to any extent in agriculture. Stock raising was carried on at most of the forts, and succeeded admirably.

TEN YEARS AT FORT LIARD.