Chapter XI (1)

Hope of release at the new year--Bove's excursion to the
open water--Mild weather and renewed severe cold--Mercury
frozen--Popular lectures--Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj
--Another despatch of letters home--The natives' accounts
of the state of the ice on the coast of Chukch Land--
The Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America and
Siberia--Excursions in the neighbourhood of winter quarters
--The weather during spring--The melting of the snow--
The aurora--The arrival of the migratory birds--The animal
world of Chukch Land--Noah Elisej's relief expedition--
A remarkable fish--The country clear of snow--Release--
The North-East Passage achieved.

The new year came in with a faint hope of release. For since the north and north-west winds that had prevailed almost constantly towards the close of December had given place to winds from the east and south, considerable "clearings" were again formed out at sea, and the Chukches again began to say that the ice would drift away, so that the vessel would be able to continue her voyage; a prediction which they always ended with a declaration, expressed both by words and gestures, that they would then bitterly lament, which they would also have had sufficient reason to do, considering the very friendly way in which they were treated by all on board the _Vega_, both officers and men.

On New Year's Day, in order to see the state of the ice farther out to sea, Lieut Bove, accompanied by the hunter Johnsen, again made an excursion to the open water. Of this he gave the following account:--

"I left the vessel on the forenoon of 1st January and
reached the open water after four hours' steady walking.
The deep loose snow made walking very fatiguing, and three
rows of _torosses_ also contributed to this, mainly in
consequence of the often snow-covered cracks, which
crossed the ice-sheet in their neighbourhood. One of the
_torosses_ was ten metres high. The size of the blocks of
ice, which were here heaped on each other, showed how
powerful the forces were which had caused the formation of
the _torosses_. These ice ramparts now afford a much
needed protection to the _Vegas_ winter haven. About
halfway between the open water and the vessel the way was
crossed by cracks running from east to west, and clearly
indicating that the opening in the ice would have extended
to the distance of a kilometre from the vessel, if the
violent storm in December had lasted twelve hours longer.
The _Vega_ would thereby have been in great danger. The
edge of the ice towards the open water was evenly cut, as
with an immense knife, and was so strong that one could
walk along it as on a rock. Even from the top of a
five-metre-high ice-rampart no boundary of the open water
could be seen to the north-east or north. Partly from
this, partly from the extension of the water-sky in this
direction, I draw the conclusion that the breadth of the
open water was at least thirty-five kilometres. The
"clearing" was bounded on the east by an ice-rampart
running north, which at a distance of nine or ten
kilometres appeared to bend to the east. Possibly farther
to the east beyond this ice-rampart there was another open
water basin. The depth at the edge of the ice was
twenty-one metres, the temperature of the water 2 deg.
C. The water ran at a considerable speed right out from
the coast (_i.e._ from S.S.E.) As it ran here nearly in a
straight line, the current may have been a tidal one. The
open water swarmed with seals, according to Johnsen both
bearded and rough. Neither Polar bears, walrusses, nor
birds were seen."

Lieut. Bove's report confirmed me in my supposition that the open water, as towards the end of January 1873 at Mussel Bay, might possibly extend as far as our anchorage and open for us the way to Behring's Straits, in which case we could not refrain from continuing our voyage, however unpleasant and dangerous it might be at this season of the year. The Chukches also declared repeatedly that the open water in January would continue for a considerable time, and in expectation of this got their simple fishing implements ready. But both they and we were disappointed in our expectation. The _Vega's_ ice-fetters remained undisturbed, and the blue border at the horizon grew less and again disappeared. This caused so great a want of food, and above all of train oil, among the natives, that all the inhabitants of Pitlekaj, the village nearest to us, were compelled to remove to the eastward, notwithstanding that in order to mitigate the scarcity a considerable quantity of food was served out daily at the vessel.

It appeals, however, as if an actual experience from the preceding year had been the ground of the Chukches' weather prediction. For on the 6th February a south-east wind began to blow, and the severe cold at once ceased. The temperature rose for a few hours to and even above the freezing-point. A water-sky was again formed along the horizon of the ice from north-east to north, and from the heights at the coast there was seen an extensive opening in the ice-fields, which a little east of Irgunnuk nearly reached the shore. Some kilometres farther east even the shore itself was free of ice, and from the hills our sailors thought they saw a heavy sea in the blue water border which bounded the circle of vision. If this was not an illusion, caused by the unequal heating and oscillatory motion of the lower stratum of the atmosphere, the open water may have been of great extent. Perhaps the statement of the natives was correct, that it extended as far as Behring's Straits. But we could not now place complete reliance on their statements, since we had rewarded with extra treating some predictions, relating to ice and weather, that were favourable to us. Even between the vessel's anchorage and the land various cracks had been formed, through which the sea water had forced its way under the snow, and in which some of us got cold feet or leg baths during our walks to and from the land.

The Chukches at Irgunnuk were now successful in killing a Polar bear and seventy seals, of which some were ostentatiously set up in rows, along with frozen slices of blubber, along the outer walls of the tents, and others were laid down in the blubber cellars, which were soon filled to overflowing. At Yinretlen, the encampment nearer us, the hunters on the other hand had obtained only eight seals. Gladness and want of care for the morrow at all events prevailed here also, and our skin-clad friends availed themselves of the opportunity to exhibit a self-satisfied disdain of the simple provisions from the _Vega_ which the day before they had begged for with gestures so pitiful, and on which they must, in a day or two, again depend. The children, who had fallen off during recent weeks, if not in comparison with European children, at least with well-fed Chukch ones, began speedily to regain their former condition, and likewise the older people. Begging ceased for some days, but the vessel's deck still formed a favourite rendezvous for crowds of men, women, and children. Many passed here the greater part of the day, cheerful and gay in a temperature of -40 deg. C, gossiped, helped a little, but always only a little, at the work on board and so on. The mild weather, the prospect of our getting free, and of an abundant fishing for the Chukches, however, soon ceased. The temperature again sank below the freezing-point, that is _of mercury_, and the sea froze so far out from the shore that the Chukches could no longer carry on any fishing. Instead we saw them one morning come marching, like prisoners on an Egyptian or Assyrian monument, in goose-march over the ice toward the vessel, each with a burden on his shoulder, of whose true nature, while they were at a distance, we endeavoured in vain to form a guess. It was pieces of ice, not particularly large, which they, self-satisfied, cheerful and happy at their new bit, handed over to the cook to get from him in return some of the _kauka_ (food) they some days before had despised.

The first time the temperature of the air sank under the freezing-point of mercury, was in January. It now became necessary to use instead of the mercury the spirit thermometers, which in expectation of the severe cold had been long ago hung up in the thermometer case. When mercury freezes in a common thermometer, it contracts so much that the column of mercury suddenly sinks in the tube; or if it is short, goes wholly into the ball. The position of the column is therefore no measure of the actual degree of cold when the freezing takes place. The reading of -89 deg., or even of -150 deg., which at a time when it was not yet known that mercury could at a low temperature assume the solid form, was made on a mercurial thermometer in the north of Sweden,[258] and which at the time occasioned various discussions and doubts as to the trustworthiness of the observer, was certainly quite correct, and may be repeated at any time by cooling mercury under its freezing-point in a thermometer of sufficient length divided into degrees under 0 deg.. The freezing of mercury[259] takes place from below upwards, the frozen metal as being heavier sinking down in that portion which is still fluid. If when it is half frozen the fluid be poured away from the frozen portion, we obtain groups of crystals, composed of small octohedrons, grouped together by the edges of the cube. None of our mercurial thermometers suffered any damage, nor was there any alteration of the position of the freezing-point in them from the mercury having frozen in them and again become fluid.

During the severe cold the ice naturally became thicker and thicker, and by the continual northerly winds still higher _torosses_ were heaped up round the vessel, and larger and larger snow masses were collected between it and the land, and on the heights along the coast. All hopes or fears of an early release were again given up, and a perceptible dullness began to make itself felt after the bustle and festrvities of the Christmas holidays. Instead there was now arranged a series of popular lectures which were held in the lower deck, and treated of the history of the North-East Passage, the first circumnavigations of the globe, the Austrian-Hungarian Expedition, the changes of the earth's surface, the origin of man, the importance of the leaf to the plants, &c. It became both for the officers and scientific men and the crew a little interruption to the monotony of the Arctic winter life, and the lecturer could always be certain of finding his little auditory all present and highly interested. Some slight attempts at musical evening entertainments were also made, but these failed for want of musical instruments and musical gifts among the _Vega_ men. We had among us no suitable director of theatrical representations after the English-Arctic pattern, and even if we had had, I fear that the director would have found it very difficult to gather together the dramatic talents requisite for his entertainment.

On the 17th February Lieutenant Brusewitz made an excursion to Najtskaj, of which he gives the following account:--

"I and Notti left the vessel in the afternoon, and after
two hours came to Rirajtinop, Notti's home, where we
passed the night, together with his three younger brothers
and an invalid sister, who all lived in the same
tent-chamber. Immediately after our arrival one of the
brothers began to get the dog-harness and sleigh ready for
the following day's journey, while the rest of us went
into the interior of the tent, where the invalid sister
lay with her clothes off, but wrapt in reindeer skins. She
took charge of two train-oil lumps over which hung two
cooking vessels, one formerly a preserve tin, and the
other a bucket of tinned iron. One of the brothers came in
with a tray, on which was placed a piece of seal blubber,
together with frozen vegetables, principally willow
leaves. The blubber was cut into small square pieces about
the size of the thumb, after which one of the brothers
gave the sister a large portion both of the blubber and
vegetables. The food was thus served out to the others.
Every piece of blubber was carefully imbedded in vegetable
before it was eaten. When the vegetables were finished
there was still some blubber, which was given to the dogs
that lay in the outer tent. After this the boiled
spare-rib of a seal were partaken of, and finally a sort
of soup, probably made from seal's blood. The sister had a
first and special helping of these dishes. I also got an
offer of every dish, and it did not appear to cause any
offence that I did not accept the offer. After the close
of the meal the cooking vessels were set down, the "pesks"
taken off, and some reindeer skins taken down from the
roof and spread out. The older brothers lighted their
pipes, and the younger lay down to sleep. I was shown to
one of the side places in the tent, evidently Notti's own.
One of the lamps was extinguished, after which all slept.
During the night the girl complained several times, when
one of the brothers always rose and attended to her. At
six in the morning I wakened the party and reminded them
of our journey. All rose immediately. Dressing proceeded
slowly, because much attention was given to the foot
covering. No food was produced, but all appeared quite
pleased when I gave them of my stock, which consisted of
bread and some preserved beef-steaks. Immediately after
breakfast four dogs were harnessed to the sleigh, with
which Notti and I continued our journey to Najtskaj, I
riding and he running alongside the sleigh. At Irgunnuk, a
Chukch village about an English mile east of Rirajtinop, a
short stay was made in order to try to borrow some dogs,
but without success. We continued our journey along the
shore, and at 10 o'clock A.M. arrived at Najtskaj, which
is from fifteen to eighteen kilometres E.S.E. from
Irgunnuk. Here we were received by most of our former
neighbours, the inhabitants of Pitlekaj. Of the thirteen
tents of the village the five westernmost were occupied by
the former population of Pitlekaj, while the eight lying
more to the eastward were inhabited by other Chukches. The
Pitlekaj people had not pitched their common large tents,
but such as were of inconsiderable size or small ones
fastened close together. In all the tents here, as at
Rirajtinop and Irgunnuk, there was much blubber laid up,
we saw pieces of seal and whole seals piled up before the
tents, and on the way to Najtskaj we met several sledges
loaded with seals, on their way to Pidlin. At Najtskaj I
went out hunting accompanied by a Chukch. We started eight
hares, but did not succeed in getting within range of
them. A red fox was seen at a great distance but neither
ptarmigan nor traces of them could be discovered. At two
in the afternoon I returned to Irgunnuk and there got
another sleigh drawn by ten dogs, with which I soon
reached the vessel."

On the 20th February three large Chukch sledges laden with goods and drawn by sixteen to twenty dogs stopped at the _Vega_. They said they came from the eastward, and were on their way to the market in the neighbourhood of Nischni Kolymsk. I again by way of experiment sent with them home-letters, for which, as they declined to take money, I gave them as postage three bottles of rum and abundant entertainment for men and dogs. In consideration of this payment they bound themselves faithfully to execute their commission and promised to return in May. And they kept then word. For on the 8th and 9th May a large number of sledges heavily laden with reindeer skins and drawn by many dogs, passed along the coast from west to east. Of course all rested at the _Vega_, the only house of entertainment on the coast of the Asiatic Polar Sea, considering it as a matter of indisputable right, that they should in return for a little talk and gossip obtain food and "ram." Very eagerly they now informed us that a letter would come with another dog train that might be expected in a few hours. This was for us a very great piece of news, the importance of which none can understand who has never hungered for months for news from home, from the home-land and the home-world. Eager to know if we had actually to expect _a post_ from Europe, we asked them how large the packet was "Very large" was the answer, and the "ram" was of course measured accordingly. But when at last the letter came it was found to be only an exceedingly short note from some of the Russian officials at Kolyma, informing me that our letters had reached him on the 4th April/23rd March and had been immediately sent by express to Yakutsk. Thence they were sent on by post, reaching Irkutsk on the 20th/14th May, and Sweden on the 2nd August.

During autumn and midwinter the sunshine was not of course strong and continuous enough to be painful to the eyes, but in February the light from the snow-clouds and the snow-drifts began to be troublesome enough. On the 22nd February accordingly snow-spectacles were distributed to all the men, an indispensable precaution, as I have before stated, in Arctic journeys. Many of the Chukches were also attacked with snow-blindness somewhat later in the season, and were very desirous of obtaining from us blue-coloured spectacles. Johnsen even stated that one of the hares he shot was evidently snow-blind.

On the evening of the 22th February there burst upon us a storm with drifting snow and a cold of -36 deg.. To be out in such weather is not good even for a Chukch dog. Of this we had confirmation the next day, when a Chukch who had lost his way came on board, carrying a dog, frozen stiff, by the backbone, like a dead hare. He had with his dog gone astray on the ice and lain out, without eating anything, in a snow-drift for the night. The master himself had suffered nothing, he was only hungry, the dog on the other hand scarcely showed any sign of life. Both were naturally treated on board the _Vega_ with great commiseration and kindness. They were taken to the 'tweendecks, where neither Chukches nor Chukch dogs were otherwise admitted, for the man an abundant meal was served of what we believed he would relish best, and he was then allowed, probably for the first time in his life, to sleep if not under a sooty, at least under a wooden roof. The dog was for hours carefully subjected to massage, with the result that he came to life again, which struck us, and, as it appeared, not least the Chukch himself, as something wonderful.

In the beginning of March there passed us a large number of sledges laden with reindeer skins, and drawn by eight to ten dogs each. Every sledge had a driver, and as usual the women took no part in the journey. These trains were on a commercial journey from Irkaipij to Paek at Behring's Straits. We found among the foremen many of our acquaintances from the preceding autumn, and I need not say that this gave occasion to a special entertainment, for the people, bread, a little spirits, soup, some sugar, and tobacco, for the dogs, pemmican. Conversation during such visits became very lively, and went on with little hindrance, since two of us were now somewhat at home in the Chukch language. For if I except two men, Menka and Noah Elisej, who could talk exceedingly defective Russian, there was not one of the reindeer or dog-foremen travelling past who could speak any European language, and notwithstanding this they all carry on an active commerce with the Russians. But the Chukch is proud enough to require that his own language shall prevail in all international commerce in the north-east of Asia, and his neighbours find their advantage in this.

During the course of the winter, Lieutenant Nordquist collected from the Chukch foremen coming from a distance who travelled past, information regarding the state of the ice between Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits at different seasons of the year. Considering the immense importance of the question, even in a purely practical point of view, I shall quote verbatim the statements which he thus collected.

_Statements regarding the state of the ice on the coast between Cape Yakan and Behring's Straits by Chukches living there._

"1. A Chukch from Yekanenmitschikan, near Cape Yakan, said that it is usual for open water to be there the whole summer.

"2. A Chukch from Kinmankau, which lies a little to the west of Cape Yakan, said the same.

"3. A Chukch from Yakan stated that the sea there becomes free of ice in the end of May or beginning of June. On the other hand it is never open in winter.

"4. Tatan from Yakan stated that the sea there is open from the end of May or beginning of June to the latter part of September or beginning of October, when the ice begins to drift towards the land.

"5. Rikkion from Vankarema said that the sea there is covered with ice in winter, but open in summer.

"6. A reindeer Chukch, Rotschitlen, who lives about twelve English miles from the _Vega's_ winter quarters, said that Kolyutschin Bay, by the Chukches called Pidlin, is clear of ice the whole summer.

"7. Urtridlin from Kolyutschin said that neither at that island nor in Kolyutschin Bay is there any ice in summer.

"8. Ranau, from Yinretlen, also said that Kolyutschin Bay is always open in summer.

"9. Ettiu, from the village Nettej, between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that the sea at Nettej is open in summer, independently of the wind, in winter only when the wind is southerly.

"10. Vankatte, from Nettej, stated that the sea there becomes open during the month "Tautinyadlin," that is, the latter part of May and the beginning of June, and is again covered with ice during the month "Kutscshkau," or October and November.

"11. Kepljeplja, from the village Irgunnuk, lying five English miles east of the _Vega's_ winter quarters at Pitlekaj, said that the sea off these villages is open all summer, except when northerly winds prevail. On the other hand, he said that farther westward, as at Irkaipij, ice could nearly always be seen from the land.

"12. Kapatljin, from Kingetschkun, a village between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated on the 11th January that there was then open water at that village. He said further, that Behring's Straits in winter are filled with ice when the wind is southerly, but open when the wind is northerly. The same day a Chukch from Nettej-Kengitschkau, also between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that ice then lay off that village. He confirmed Kapatljin's statement regarding Behring's Straits.

"13. Kvano, from Uedlje, near Behring's Straits, said that there the sea is always open from May to the end of September."

On the 13th March we came to know that spirits, too, form an article of commerce here. For, without having obtained any liquor from the _Vega_, the Chukches at Yinretlen had the means of indulging in a general fuddle, and that even their friendly disposition gives way under the effects of the intoxication we had a manifest proof, when the day after they came on board with blue and yellow eyes, not a little seedy and ashamed. In autumn a tall and stout Chukch giantess, who then paid us a visit, informed us that her husband had been murdered in a drunken quarrel.

Sledges of considerable size, drawn by reindeer, began after the middle of March to pass the _Vega_ in pretty large numbers. They were laden with reindeer skins and goods bought at the Russian market-places, and intended for barter at Behring's Straits.

The reindeer Chukches are better clothed, and appear to be in better circumstances and more independent than the coast Chukches, or, as they ought to be called in correspondence with the former name, the dog Chukches. As every one owns a reindeer herd, all must follow the nomad mode of living, but at the same time they carry on traffic between the savages in the northernmost parts of America and the Russian fur-dealers in Siberia, and many pass their whole lives in commercial journeys. The principal market is held annually during the mouth of March, on an island in the river Little Anjui, 250 versts from Nischni Kolymsk. The barter goes on in accordance with a normal price-list, mutually agreed upon by the Russian merchants and the oldest of the Chukches. The market is inaugurated on the part of the Russians by a mass performed by the priest,[260] who always accompanies the Russian crown commissioner, and in the Chukches' camp with buffoonery by one of the Chukch Shamans. At such a market there is said to be considerable confusion, to judge by the spirited description which Wrangel gives of it (_Reise_, i. p. 269). We ought, however, to remember that this description refers to the customs that prevailed sixty years ago. Now, perhaps, there is a great change there. In the commercial relations in north-eastern Asia in the beginning of this century, we have probably a faithful picture of the commerce of the Beormas in former days in north-eastern Europe. Even the goods were probably of the same sort at both places, perhaps, also, the stand-points of the culture of the two races.

Besides the traders, a large number of Chukches from Kolyutschin Island and other villages to the west, travelled past us with empty sledges, to which were harnessed only a few dogs. They returned in the course of a few days with their sledges fully laden with fish which they said they had caught in a lagoon situated to the eastward. They also sometimes sold a delicious variety of the Coregonus taken in a lake in the interior some distance from the coast.

Further on in winter a number of excursions were undertaken in different directions, partly to find out these fishing places, partly to get an idea of the mode of life of the reindeer Chukches. I, however, never ventured to give permission for any long absence from the vessel, because I was quite convinced that the sea round the _Vega_ after a few days' constant southerly storm might become open under circumstances which would not permit us to remain in the open road where we lay moored, my comrades' desire to penetrate far into the Chukch peninsula could not on that account be satisfied. But short as these excursions were, they give us, however, much information regarding our winter life, and our contact with the little-known tribe, on the coast of whose homeland the _Vega_ had been beset, and on that account, perhaps, there may be reasons for making extracts from some of the reports given in to me with reference to these journeys.

_Palander's and Kjellman's excursion to a reindeer Chukch camp south-west of Pitlekaj_, is sketched by the former thus:--

"On the 17th March, 1879, accompanied by Dr. Kjellman, I
went out with a sledge and five men, among them a native
as guide, to the reindeer Chukch camp in the neighbourhood
of Taffelberg (Table Mountain), with a view to obtain
fresh reindeer flesh. The expedition was fitted out with
two days' provisions, tent, mattrasses, and _pesks_. The
reindeer Chukches were met with eleven English miles from
the vessel. On an eminence here were found two tents, of
which one at the time was uninhabited. The other was
occupied by the Chukch, Rotschitlen, his young wife, and
another young pair, the latter, if I understood them
right, being on a visit, and properly having their home at
Irgunnuk.

"Round the tent, which was considerably smaller than those
we daily saw at the coast, lay a number of sledges piled
up on one another. These sledges differed from the common
dog-sledges in being considerably larger and wider in the
gauge. The runners were clumsy and axed from large wood.

"Our proposal to purchase reindeer was immediately
declined, although we offered in exchange bread, tobacco,
rum, and even guns. As a reason for this refusal they
stated that the reindeer at this season of the year are
too lean to be slaughtered. We saw about fifty reindeer
pasturing on an eminence at a distance of several thousand
feet from us.

"In the afternoon Kjellman and I were invited into the
tent, where we passed an hour in their sleeping chamber.
On our entrance the lamp, which was filled with seal oil,
was lighted, a sort of moss (sphagnum) was used as a wick.
Our hostess endeavoured to make our stay in the tent as
agreeable as possible, she rolled together reindeer skins
for pillows and made ready for us a place where, stretched
at full length, we might enjoy much needed repose. In the
outer tent the other women prepared supper, which
consisted of boiled seal's-flesh. We received a friendly
invitation to share their meal, but as we had no taste for
seal's-flesh, we declined their offer under the pretext
that we had just had dinner. They took their meal lying
with the body in the inner tent, but with the head under
the reindeer-skin curtain in the outer, where the food
was. After the meal was partaken of, their heads were
drawn within the curtain, our host divested himself of all
his clothes, the trousers excepted, which were allowed to
remain. Our hostess let her _pesk_ fall down from her
shoulders, so that the whole upper part of the body thus
became bare. The reindeer-skin boots were taken off, and
turned outside in, they were carefully dried and hung up
in the roof over the lamp to dry during the night. We
treated the women to some sugar, which, in consequence of
their want of acquaintance with it, they at first examined
with a certain caution, finding afterwards that it tasted
exceeding well. After the meal our host appeared to become
sleepy, we accordingly said good-night, and went to our
own tent, where it was quite otherwise than warm, the
temperature during the night being about -11 deg. C.

"After for the most part a sleepless night, we rose at
half-past six next morning. When we came out of the tent
we saw all the reindeer advancing in a compact troop. At
the head was an old reindeer with large horns, that went
forward to his master, who had in the meantime gone to
meet the herd, and bade him good-morning by gently rubbing
his nose against his master's hands. While this was going
on the other reindeer stood drawn up in well-ordered
ranks, like the crew in divisions on board a man-of-war.
The owner then went forward and saluted every reindeer,
they were allowed to stroke his hands with their noses. He
on his part took every reindeer by the horn and examined
it in the most careful way. After the inspection was ended
at a sign given by the master the whole herd wheeled round
and returned in closed ranks, with the old reindeer in
front, to the previous day's pasture.

"The whole scene made a very favourable impression on us,
it was not the grim hard savage showing in a coarse and
barbarous way his superiority over the animals, but the
good master treating his inferiors kindly, and having a
friendly word for each of them. Here good relations
prevailed between man and the animals. Rotschitlen himself
was a stately young man, with an intelligent appearance
and a supple handsome figure. His dress, of exceedingly
good cut and of uncommonly fine reindeer skin, sat close
to his well-grown frame, and gave us an opportunity of
seeing his graceful and noble bearing, which was most
observable when he was in motion.

"On our repeating our proposal to purchase reindeer we
again met with a refusal, on which we struck our tent and
commenced our return journey. We came on board on the 18th
March at 3 o'clock P.M., after a march of four hours and
three-quarters.

"The way to the reindeer camp rose and fell gently. The
snow was hard and even, so that we could go forward
rapidly. On the way out four foxes and some ravens were
seen. At one place we found a large number of lemming
passages excavated through the snow in an oblique
direction towards the ground. Most of them were scratched
up by foxes. The descent to an untouched lemming nest was
cylindrical, and four and a half centimetres in diameter.
During both days we had snow, and a thick and foggy
atmosphere, so that we could see only a short distance
before us, we did not however go astray, thanks to the
good eyes and strongly developed sense of locality of our
guide, the native."

_Brusewitz's and Nordquist's Excursion to Nutschoitjin_

Of this Nordquist gives the following account:--

"On the 20th March, at 9 o'clock A.M. Lieut Brusewitz,
boatswain Lustig, the Norwegian hunters Johnsen and
Sievertsen, the Chukch Notti, and I, left the _Vega_. Our
equipment, which consisted of provisions for eight days,
cooking apparatus, canvas tent, india-rubber mattrasses,
reindeer-skin _pesks_, &c., we drew after us on a sledge.
At 2.45 P.M. we came to Nutschoitjin (Coregonus Lake).
During our journey we passed a river which flows between
Nutschoitjin and the mountain Hotschkeanranga, about ten
English miles south of this lake and falls into the great
lagoon south of Prtlekaj. Farther into the interior this
river, according to Notti's statement, flows through
several lakes: he also informed us that in summer it
abounds very much in salmon (_lienne_). Some sandy hills
formed the watershed between it and Nutschoitjin. The only
animal we saw during our outward journey was a fox. On the
other hand we found traces of hares, ptarmigan, and a
couple of lemmings. After we had found a suitable
camping-place, we began to build a snow-house, which,
however, we could not get ready till next day.

"On the 21st Brusewitz and I went out to view our nearest
surroundings. On a hill north of the lake, where
Potentilla, Carex, and Poa stuck up through the
snow-covering, we saw a large number of traces of the fox,
the hare, and the ptarmigan. We employed the 22nd in
cutting some holes in the ice, which was about one and a
half metres thick, and in setting a net. For I wished to
ascertain what species of Coregonus it is which, according
to Notti's statement, occurs in abundance in this lake. At
the place where the net was set there was something more
than a metre of water under the ice The bottom consisted
of mud. When we cut a hole in the middle of the lake in
order to get deeper water we found that the ice, one and a
half metres thick there, reached to the bottom.

"Next morning we got in the net eleven Coregoni, of which
the largest were about thirty-five centimetres long.
Although the weather was grey and we could not see very
far, we went the same day to the hill Hotschkeanranga;
partly to determine its height, and partly from its
summit, which is visible for a great distance, to get a
view of the appearance of the surrounding country. After
crossing the river which flows between Nutschoitjin and
Hotchkeanranga, we began to ascend the long slope on whose
summit Hotchkanrakenljeut (Hotchkeanranga's head) rises
with steep sides above the surrounding country. Over the
slope were scattered loose blocks of stone of an eruptive
rock. The crest of "the head" was also closely covered
with loose stones. On the north of wind side these stones
were covered with a hard beaten crust of snow nearly two
feet thick, on the south side most of them were bare.
According to Brusewitz the southern slopes are still
steeper than the northern. South of the hill he saw a
large valley--probably a lake--through which flows the
river which we crossed.

"As on the outward journey I went with Notti, he advised
me to offer a little food and brandy to the Spirit of the
Lake, _itjaken kamak_, in order to get good net fishing.
On my inquiring what appearance he had, Notti replied
"_uinga lilapen_," "I have never seen him." Besides this
spirit there are in his view others also in streams, in
the earth, and in some mountains. The Chukches also
sacrifice to the sun and moon. On the other hand they do
not appear, as some other races, to pay any sort of
worship to their departed friends. When I gave him a
biscuit and bade him offer it, he made with the heel a
little depression in the snow on Nutschoitjin, crumbled a
little bit of the biscuit in pieces, and threw the crumbs
into the hollow. The rest of the biscuit he gave back,
declaring that _kamak_ did not require more, and that we
should now have more fish in the net than the first time.
Notti said also that the Chukches are wont to sacrifice
something for every catch. Thus have probably arisen all
the collections of bear and seal skulls and reindeer
horns, which we often saw on the Chukch coast, especially
on eminences.

"After we had read off the aneroid, we speedily made our
way to the snow-house, because during the interval a
violent storm of drifting snow had arisen, so that we
could not see more than half a score of paces before us.
On the slope below "the head" we had already on our way
thither seen traces of two wild reindeer. Notti said that
there are a few of them on the hill the whole winter. The
greater number, however, draw farther southward, and
approach the coast only during summer. Johnson had wounded
an owl (_Strix nyctea_), which however made its escape. On
the 24th snow fell and drifted during the whole day, so
that we could not go out to shoot. On the 25th we came on
board again.

"According to the aneroid observations made during the
journey, the highest summit we visited had a height of 197
metres."

_Lieutenant Bove's Account of an Excursion to Najtskaj and Tjapka._

"On the 19th April, at 4 o'clock A.M. the hunter Johnsen
and I started on a short excursion eastward along the
coast, with a view to pay a visit to the much frequented
fishing station Najtskaj, where our old friends from
Pitlekaj had settled. We had a little sledge which we
ourselves drew, and which was laden with provisions for
three days and some meteorological and hydrographical
instruments.

"At 6 o'clock A.M. we reached Rirajtinop, where we found
Notti, a serviceable, talented, and agreeable youth. The
village Rirajtinop, which formerly consisted of a great
many tents, now had only one tent, Notti's, and it was
poor enough. It gave the inhabitants only a slight
protection against wind and cold. Among household articles
in the tent I noticed a face-mask of wood, less shapeless
than those which according to Whymper's drawings are found
among the natives along the river Youcon, in the territory
of Alaska, and according to Dr. Simpson among the
West-Eskimo. I learned afterwards that this mask came from
Paek, Behring's Straits, whither it was probably carried
from the opposite American shore.

"The village Irgunnuk lies from three to four hundred
metres from Rirajtinop, and consists of five tents, one of
which two days before had been removed from Yinretlen. The
tents are as usual placed on earthy eminences, and have if
possible the entrance a couple of paces from some steep
escarpment, manifestly in order that the door opening may
not be too much obstructed with snow. I reckon the
population of Irgunnuk at forty persons.

"Off this village the ice is broken up even close to the
land into _torosses_, five to six metres high, which form
a chain which closely follows the shore for a distance of
five to six hundred metres to the eastward. The coast from
Irgunnuk to Najtskaj runs in a straight line, is low, and
only now and then interrupted by small earthy eminences,
which all bear traces of old dwellings. Each of these
heights has its special name: first Uelkantinop, then
Tiumgatti, and lastly Tiungo, two miles west of Najtskaj.
In the neighbourhood of Uelkantinop we were overtaken by a
reindeer-Chukch, who accompanied us to Najtskaj in order
there to purchase fish and seal-blubber. At noon we
reached Najtskaj, where our arrival had been announced by
a native, who, with his dog-team, had driven past us on
the way. Accordingly on our entrance we were surrounded by
the youth of the village, who deafened us with then
unceasing cries for bread (_kauka_), tobacco, _ram_, &c.
After some moments the begging urchins were joined both by
women and full-grown men. We entered a tent, which
belonged to a friend or perhaps relation of Notti. There
we were very well received. In the same tent the
reindeer-Chukch also lodged who had given us his company
on the way. He went into the sleeping chamber, threw
himself down there, took part in the family's evening
meal, all almost without uttering a word to the hostess,
and the next morning he started without having saluted the
host. Hospitality is here of a peculiar kind. It may
perhaps be expressed thus _To-day I eat and sleep in your
tent, to-morrow you eat and sleep in mine_; and
accordingly, as far as I saw, all, both rich and poor,
both those who travelled with large sledges, and those who
walked on foot, were received in the same way. All are
sure to find a corner in the tent-chamber.

"The tent-chamber, or _yaranga_, as this part of the tent
is called by the natives, takes up fully a third-part of
the whole tent, and is at the same time work-room,
dining-room, and sleeping chamber. Its form is that of a
parallelepiped; and a moderately large sleeping chamber
has a height of 1.80 metre, a length of 3.50, and a
breadth of 2.20 metres. The walls are formed of reindeer
skin with the hair inwards, which are supported by a
framework of posts and cross-bars. The floor consists of a
layer of grass undermost, on which a walrus skin is
spread. The grass and the skin do not form a very soft
bed, yet one on which even a tried European wanderer may
find rest. The interior of the sleeping-chamber is lighted
and warmed by lamps, whose number varies according to the
size of the room. A moderately large chamber has three
lamps, the largest right opposite the entrance, the two
others on the cross walls. The lamps are often made of a
sort of stone, which is called by the natives _ukulschi_.
They have the form of a large ladle. The fuel consists of
train-oil, and moss is used for the wick. These lamps
besides require constant attention, because half-an-hour's
neglect is sufficient to make them smoke or go out. The
flame is at one corner of the lamp, whose moss wick is
trimmed with a piece of wood of the shape shown in the
drawing. The lamp rests on a foot, and it in its turn in a
basin. In this way every drop of oil that may be possibly
spilled is collected. If there is anything that this
people ought to save, it is certainly oil, for this
signifies to them both light and heat. In the roof of the
bedchamber some bars are fixed over the lamps on which
clothes and shoes are hung to dry. The lamps are kept
alight the whole day, during night they are commonly
extinguished, as otherwise they would require continual
attention. Some clothes and fishing implements, two or
three reindeer skins to rest upon--these are the whole
furniture of a Chukch tent.

"Every tent is besides provided with some drums (_yarar_).
These are made of a wooden ring, about seventy centimetres
in diameter, on which is stretched a skin of seal or
walrus gut. The drum is beaten with a light stick of
whalebone. The sound thus produced is melancholy, and is
so in a yet higher degree when it is accompanied by the
natives' monotonous, commonly rhythmical songs, which
appear to me to have a strong resemblance to those we hear
in Japan and China. A still greater resemblance I thought
I observed in the dances of these peoples. Notti is a
splendid _yarar_-player. After some pressing he played
several of their songs with a feeling for which I had not
given him credit. The auditors were numerous, and by their
smiles and merry eyes one could see that they were
transported by the sounds which Notti knew how to call
from the drum. Notti was also listened to in deep silence,
with an admiration like that with which in a large room we
listen to a distinguished pianist. I saw in the tent no
other musical instrument than that just mentioned.

"The day we arrived at Najtskaj we employed in viewing the
neighbourhood of the village. We accordingly ascended a
hill about thirty metres high to the south of the village
in order to get a clear idea of the region. From the
summit of the hill we had a view of the two lagoons west
and east of Najtskaj. The western appeared, with the
exception of some earthy heights, to embrace the whole
stretch of coast between Najtskaj, the hill at Yinretlen,
and the mountains which are visible in the south from the
Observatory. The lagoon east of Najtskaj is separated from
the sea by a high rampart of sand, and extends about
thirty kilometres into the interior, to the foot of the
chain of hills which runs along there. To the eastward the
lagoon extends along the coast to the neighbourhood of
Serdze Kamen. This cape was clearly seen and, according to
an estimate which I do not think was far from the truth,
was situated at a distance of from twenty-five to twenty-six
kilometres from Najtskaj. It sinks terracewise towards the
sea, and its sides are covered with stone pillars, like
those we saw in the neighbourhood of Cape Great Baranoff.
Serdze Kamen to the south is connected with mountain heights
which are the higher the farther they are from the sea.
Some of these have a conical form, others are table-shaped,
reminding us of the Ambas of Abyssinia. Ten or twelve miles
into the interior they appear to reach a height of
six hundred to nine hundred metres.

"The fishing in the eastern lagoon takes place mainly in
the neighbourhood of Najtskaj, at a distance of about five
kilometres from the village. Hooks are exclusively used,
and no nets or other fishing implements. In a few minutes
I saw twenty cod (_urokadlin_) caught, and about as many
small fish, called by the natives _nukionukio_. For the
fishing the natives make a hole in the ice, a decimetre in
diameter. Round the hole they build, as a protection
against wind and drifting snow, a snow wall eighty
centimetres high, forming a circle with an inner diameter
of a metre and a half. The fish-hooks are of iron and are
not barbed. The line is about five metres long, and is
fixed to a rod nearly a metre in length. At the end of the
angling line hangs a weight of bone, and beside it the
hook. It is generally the women who fish, yet there are
generally two or three men about to open the holes, build
the walls, and keep the fishing-places clear. All the
holes with their shelter-walls lie in an arc, about a
kilometre in length, whose convex side is turned to the
east. The ice in the lagoon was 1.7 metre thick, the water
3.2 metres deep, and the thickness of snow on the ice 0.3
metre.

"The day after our arrival at Najtskaj we visited the
village Tjapka, which lies at a distance of six
kilometres. This village contains thirteen tents, some of
which are more roomy and better built than any Chukch tent
I have previously seen. We lodged in a tent which belonged
to Erere, a friendly man with a face that was always
cheerful. His sleeping-chamber was so large that it could
hold more than one family. We found the inmates there
completely naked, Erere's wife, Kedlanga, not excepted.
Kedlanga was well formed, her bosom full, her stomach
somewhat projecting, the thighs poor, the legs slender,
the feet small. The men appeared to have a greater
disposition to stoutness than the women. Some of the
children had disproportionately large stomachs. Both men
and women wore copper rings on the legs, the wrists, and
the upper arms. On festivals they decorate themselves with
iron rings, with which some reminiscence appears to be
connected, to judge by the fact that they will not part
with them.

"Erere's family was very numerous, according to the
prevailing state of matters here. He had five children,
whose names, according to their age, were, Hatanga,
Etughi, Vedlat, Uai, and Umonga. In all the tents which I
visited I have inquired the number of children. Only two
or three wives had more than three; the average may be
estimated at two.

"The children are from their tenderest years set apart for
each other, thus Etughi, Erere's second son, who was
little more than eight, was set apart for Keipteka, a girl
of six or seven. Etughi and Keipteka slept under the same
roof, though apart. "When they grow bigger," said Erere to
me, "then sleeping-places will be put alongside each
other". At what age this takes place I have not
ascertained, but I suppose that it is very early, as is
common with all Oriental races.

"Right opposite Tjapka lies a small island, by the natives
called Idlidlja, which is about 800 metres in
circumference. Its shores rise perpendicularly on all
sides except that which is opposite Tjapka, in which
direction it sinks with a steep slope. On the north end of
it we found three or four whales' bones and some pieces of
driftwood, but nothing to indicate that there had been any
Onkilon dwellings there. The island swarmed with hares,
which the inhabitants of Tjapka hunt with the bow. For
this hunting they are accustomed to build circular walls
of snow, pierced with loopholes, through which they shoot
the unsuspecting animals.

"Regarding life in the tent I have still the following
notes. The most troublesome work is given to the older
women. They rise early to light and attend to the lamps,
yoke the dogs, and go fishing. The young women, on the
other hand, sleep far into the day. The housewives return
at noon, then work is then finished, if we do not consider
as work the constant motion of the tongue in talk and
gossip. The younger people have it assigned to them to sew
clothes, arrange the fishing-lines and nets, prepare
skins, &c. Sewing-thread is made from the back sinews of
the reindeer, which they procure by barter from the
reindeer-Chukches, giving for them fish and seal-blubber.

"One cannot, without having seen it, form any idea of the
large quantity of food they can consume. One evening I saw
eight persons, including one child, eat about 30 lbs. of
food. The bill of fare was: 1, raw fish; 2, soup; 3,
boiled fish; 4, seal-blubber; 5, seal-flesh. The raw fish
commonly consists of frozen cod. The soup is made partly
of vegetables, partly of seal-blood; I saw both kinds.
Vegetable soup was prepared by boiling equal quantities of
water and vegetables, till the mixture formed a thick pap.
The blood soup is cooked by boiling the blood together
with water, fish, and fat. They are very fond of this
soup. The seal-blubber they eat by stuffing into the mouth
the piece which has been served to them, and then cutting
a suitable mouthful with the knife, which they bring close
to the lips. In the same way they do with the flesh.

"With the exception of the old women's gossip the greatest
quietness prevails in the sleeping-chamber. It is not
uncommon for men to visit each other. Thus the first night
we spent at Najtskaj the tent where we lodged was full of
people, but without the least disturbance arising. If one
had anything to say he talked in quite a low tone, as if
he were shy. He was listened to attentively, without any
interruption. First when he had finished another began.

"Affection between spouses and parents and children is
particularly strong. I have seen fathers kiss and caress
their children before they went to rest, and what I found
most remarkable was that the children never abused this
tender treatment. Whatever one gave them, it was their
first thought to divide it with their parents. In this
respect and in many others they were far in advance of a
large number of European children."

_Lieutenant Bove's Report on an Excursion along with Dr. Almquist to the Interior of the Chukch Peninsula, from the 13th to the 17th June, 1879._