Chapter I: Part 1

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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

* * * * * *

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT

GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. _A Narrative History_

PRINCESS KALLISTO, _and other Tales of the Fairies_

ROBERT CAVELIER. _A Novel_

THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. _A Novel_

THE SPELL. _A Novel_

THE LEVER. _A Novel_

THE MOTH. _A Novel_

* * * * * *

The Writer’s Desk Book

_Being a reference volume upon questions of_ PUNCTUATION · CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER WRITING POSTAL REGULATIONS · _Etc_ · _Etc_

_By_ WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT _for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now associated with_ THE PLIMPTON PRESS · _Norwood Mass._

New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII

Copyright, 1912, by Frederick A. Stokes Co.

Second Edition

The · Plimpton · Press [W · D · O] Norwood · Mass · U · S · A

CONTENTS

PAGE

PUNCTUATION 1

Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation
marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the
colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation —
the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses —
brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen

CAPITALIZATION 20

Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of
institutional terms — of references — of ordinals —
in general — use of small capitals

SPELLING 31

Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for
numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography
— accented words — participles — variable endings —
list of variable spellings

COMPOUND WORDS 45

General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and
examples

DIVISION OF WORDS 52

Rules and examples

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING 55

Various forms used in display — en échelon —
irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked —
definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of
paragraphs — length of paragraph

SPACING 59

General principles — kerned letters — examples of
varying spaces

ITALIC 62

Its origin — its uses — when required and when not

ABBREVIATIONS 65

Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial
— of given names — geographical — miscellaneous —
scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs —
medical signs

NUMERALS 93

History of their evolution — lists

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION 99

Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words
and phrases commonly misused

LETTER WRITING 114

Its importance — business, informal, formal — the
heading — the address — the salutation — the text
— the complimentary close — the signature — the
envelope — postal cards — in general — examples

POSTAL INFORMATION 129

Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail
matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be
mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign
rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money
order fees — registered mail — special delivery
system — postal distances and time from New York City

APPENDIX 142

Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative
thermometers — weights and measures — British weights
and measures

INDEX 163

{ 1}

THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

{2}

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

, Comma ; Semicolon : Colon . Period ? Interrogation ! Exclamation () Parentheses [] Brackets ’ Apostrophe - Hyphen ´ Acute accent ` Grave accent ^ Circumflex accent ~ Circumflex or tilde ̄ Long or macron ˘ Short or breve ¨ Dieresis ç Cedilla ‸ Caret “ ” Quotation-marks {} Brace * * * Ellipsis . . . Ellipsis, leaders * Asterisk † Dagger ‡ Double dagger § Section ‖ Parallels ¶ Paragraph ☞ Index * * * Asterisks

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words _signum sectionis_, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned _∫_ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged.

{3}

PUNCTUATION

In early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation. From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in which it occurs.

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

THE COMMA

Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the quotation-marks when used in connection with them.

The comma is required:

1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the conjunction: e.g., _He suddenly started, and fell_.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: _He possessed a calm, exasperating manner_; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., _A clear cold day_. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., _The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner_.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive _and_ is used before the last one: e.g., _He was tall, thin, and pale_.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

_’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too._

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., _Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position_. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., _Of his intentions there could be no doubt_.

7. To separate the adverbs _however_, _now_, _then_, _too_, _perhaps_, and _indeed_ from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., _This idea, however, had not occurred to him_. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., _It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage_.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., _His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious_.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., _The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms_. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., _I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management_. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., _The poet Tennyson was born in 1809_.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., _Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus_; _Woodrow Wilson, LL.D._

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., _The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it_.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., _Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium_. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called _restrictive_) do not require the comma: e.g., _He did that which he was obliged to do_.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by _if_, _when_, _unless_, _though_, _where_, _wherever_, etc.: e.g., _If we stand together, success is assured_. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., _William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston_.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., _He was_ {7} _courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., _Price, seventy-five cents_.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., _I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong_.

18. Before _not_, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., _He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue_.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., _I tell you, you are wrong_.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., _March 1, 1912_; _In 1911, 869 cases were reported_.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., _To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”_

22. Before the word _of_, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., _Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts_.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., _My dear Mother_, but, when formal, _Gentlemen_:

The comma is not required:

1. Before or after conjunctions such as _and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_, and _yet_ when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., _Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., _Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., _The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them_.

3. Before the conjunction _too_ when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., _I hope that you will come too_.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., _Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false_.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., _He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches_.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., _Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly_.

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.

Use the semicolon:

1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., _He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., _His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves_. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., _The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable_.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. {10}

THE COLON

The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.

Use the colon:

1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., _There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter_.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., _Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world_.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., _Imagination_ {11} _is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made_.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., _These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work_, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., _In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”_

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., _Gentlemen_:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., _My dear Mother_,

[1] See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4.

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., _11 : 30_ A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., _“The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers)_.

THE PERIOD

Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}

Use the period:

1. After every abbreviation.

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . .

Do not use the period:

1. After running-heads.

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., _Vol. VIII_; _George V is king of England_.

[2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about 1850.

THE DASH

The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}

Use the dash:

1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended: e.g., _You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself by asking the question_.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., _1912–1918_.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “_If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —_”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., _We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue_.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., _Matt. 1:4–8_; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., _See pp. 21–42_.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., _Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!_

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., _Mrs. B——_.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., _Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations_. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., _The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much_.

* * * * *

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., _They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said_, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

THE EXCLAMATION

The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io, signifying joy, written vertically ̥I.

The exclamation-point is required:

1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g., _God forbid! “Mind that, Fagin!”_

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “_For Brutus is an honorable man!_”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., _“Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have!”_

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between _Oh!_, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative _O_, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “_Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!_” and “_O that I had wings like a dove!_”

THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of the Latin word _quaestio_ (_a question_) placed one over the other; as {16} ̥Q. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., _When can this order be shipped? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods?”_

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., _This volume is said to be bound in real (?) morocco_.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., _He inquired when it would be ready_.

QUOTATION-MARKS

1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., _“I insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”_

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase _etc._, and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

Quote:

1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g., _“Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations in roman type_.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., _Her literary “salon” will long be remembered_; _This so-called “captain of industry.”_

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., _Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”_

4. Serial titles: e.g., _the “Oriental Series,”_ _“Stories of Nations.”_

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., _The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism._

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., _Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.”_ {18}

PARENTHESES

1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., _I am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I cannot now give_.

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., _There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader_.

BRACKETS

Use brackets:

1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries, directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other than the original writer: e.g., _Let them clamor to get them back again [cheers]_.

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.

THE APOSTROPHE

Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter _s_):

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., _The nation’s {19} hope_; _For Jesus’ sake_; _James’s apple_; _For appearance’ sake_; _The boys’ camp_.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., _They passed by in two’s and four’s_; _She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s_; _That came from Perkins’_. Add _es_ or _s_ for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., _The Fosses_. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double _s_: e.g., _Sickles’ corps_, not _Sickles’s_.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., _That’s ’ow ’twas_; _The spirit of ’76_; _High o’er our heads_; _I’ll_ for _I will_; _Don’t_ for _do not_, _sha’n’t_, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter _e_ in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., _At ev’ry word a reputation dies_. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons.

THE HYPHEN

The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.) {20}

CAPITALIZATION

The original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain definite rules of capitalization as follows:

RELIGIOUS TERMS

Capitalize:

1. Titles of parables: e.g., _the parable of the Prodigal Son_, etc.

2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books: e.g., _Old Testament_, _Book of Job_, etc.

3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., _King James Version_, _Revised Version_, etc.

4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., _the Jesuits_, _the Black Friars_, etc.

5. The word _Church_ when it stands for the Church universal, or when part of a name: e.g., _the Church_, _the First Congregational Church_, _the Church of Rome_; but use lower case when referring to _church history_.

6. The word _Gospel_ when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the _Gospel of John_, or {21} the _Gospels_; but use lower case when referring to the _gospel message_.

7. Pronouns referring to _God_ or _Christ_ when used in direct address, or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.

8. General biblical terms: e.g., _Priestly Code_, _Apostles’ Creed_, _Lord’s Prayer_, _Lord’s Supper_, _The Prophets_, and _Major and Minor Prophets_, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but use lower case for the adjectives _biblical_ and _scriptural_.

9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or as a general name for any demon: e.g.,

“When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be; When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.”

10. The word _Holy_ in the _Holy place_ and the _Holy of holies_.

11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the _Twenty-fourth Psalm_.

12. Capitalize the following:

Almighty Authorized Version Common Version Creator Deity Father God Holy Bible Holy Spirit Holy Writ Jehovah Jesus Christ King Logos Lord Messiahship Messiah Messianic Passover Pentecost Redeemer Revised Version Sabbath Saviour Scriptures Son of Man Son Spirit The Trinity The Virgin Mary Word

{22}

Do not capitalize:

1. Words like _epistle_, _book_ (as the _book of Ruth_), _psalm_, or _psalms_ when not used distinctively, or _psalmist_ when the author of a single psalm is intended.

2. Words like _heaven_, _heavenly_, _hell_.

3. The words _fatherhood_ and _sonship_, _god_ when a pagan deity is referred to, _temple_.

PROPER NAMES

Capitalize:

1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names: e.g., _Peter the Great_, _the Pretender_, etc.

2. The words _Pilgrim Fathers_ and _Early Fathers_ (referring to the Early Church), etc.

3. The word _Revolutionary_ when referring to the Revolution of 1776: e.g., _a Revolutionary soldier_.

4. The words _river_, _creek_, _brook_, _mountain_, _mine_, _district_, _county_, _channel_, when used as a part of a title: e.g., _Hudson River_, _Clear Brook_, _Rocky Mountains_; but use lower case when preceded by _the_: e.g., _the Hudson river_, etc.

5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or divisions of the world: e.g., _the North_, _the South_, _the West_, _the Old World_; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth, _the Northern Kingdom_, _the Southern Kingdom_. Also capitalize the adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., _Northerner_, _Southerner_, _Oriental_, {23} _Occidental_. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g., _He is now in southern California_, etc.

6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., _Pride flaunts herself_; _Nature gives willingly of her abundance_.

7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., _Beacon Street_, _Copley Square_, _Franklin Park_, _Tremont Building_, etc.

8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., _N.Y.C._ & _H.R.R.R._

9. The abbreviation _Co._ (_Company_) in firm or corporation names.

10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., _Ichneumon Fly_ (_Thalessa lunator_), _Reptilia_, _Vertebrata_, etc.

11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g., _It was a bright spring day_; but, _Spring, beautiful Spring_; _the Spring of 1911_, etc.

12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except _sun_, _moon_, _stars_, _earth_): e.g., _the Dipper_, _the Milky Way_, _Venus_, etc.

13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived from proper names: e.g., _Clover-root Borer_, _Hylesinus trifolii_, _Pterygomatopus schmidti_. {24}

14. Capitalize the following:

Articles of Confederation Bill of Rights Commonwealth (Cromwell’s) Commune Constitution Crusades Hundred Years’ War Inquisition Magna Charta Middle Ages Reformation Renaissance Restoration Revolution of July Seven Years’ War Stone Age

Do not capitalize:

1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and personality of their origin: e.g., _fletcherize_, _macadamize_, _quixotic_, _italicize_, etc.

2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass: e.g., _He came from the north_, _western New York_, _upper Canada_, etc.

3. The words _father_, _mother_, _mamma_, and all other family appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or without a possessive pronoun: e.g., _I expect to meet my mother_, but, _I have received a telegram from Mother_; _My aunt gave me this_, but, _It is a present from Aunt Mary_.

TITLES

Capitalize:

1. The word _State_ when it refers to a political division of the Union: e.g., _the State {25} of Massachusetts_; but use lower case when the word is employed as an adjective.

2. The words _Federal_, _Government_, _Constitution_, _Cabinet_, _Administration_ when they refer to United States Government, and _President_ when referring to the President of the United States.

3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., _His Excellency_, _Her Majesty_, _Father William_, _Mother Hubbard_, _Cousin John_, _Deacon Smith_.

4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g., _President Taft_, _King George_, the _Governor_, _General Grant_, etc.; but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when following the name: e.g., _William H. Taft, president of the United States_.

5. The names of societies: e.g., _Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor_, _Boston Congregational Club_, _Second Church Parish_.

6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., _Brockton Fair_, _Congress of Physiology_, etc.

7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., _Ph.D._, _LL.D._, _Litt.D._, omitting space between the letters.

8. Such titles as _von_, in German, _le_, _la_, _du_, _de_, or _d’_, in French, _da_, _della_, _di_, or _de’_, etc., in Italian, when the forename is not given: e.g., _Von Humboldt_, _Da Ponte_; but when the article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should not be capitalized: e.g., _Lorenzo de’ Medici_. _Van_ in Dutch is always capitalized.

9. After _Whereas_ and _Resolved_, followed by a comma, begin the first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, _It has pleased Almighty God_ . . .; _therefore be it_ Resolved, _That_ . . .

10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such introductory phrases as _namely_, _as follows_, _for instance_, _the point is this_, _my conclusion is this_, etc.

11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., _The Fall of the House of Usher_.

Do not capitalize:

1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names; e.g., _transatlantic_, _unamerican_.

2. The words _apostle_, _pope_, _bishop_, _canon_, _rector_, _chaplain_, _minister_, etc., when separated from names or used descriptively: e.g., _the apostle Paul_; but in direct address they should be capitalized: e.g., “_O Apostle Paul_.”

INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

Capitalize:

1. _Thanksgiving Day_, _Lord’s Day_, _New Year’s Day_, _the Fourth_ (referring to the {27} Fourth of July), _Children’s Day_, _Easter_, _Founder’s Day_, etc.

2. The word _College_ or _University_ only when part of the title: e.g., _Amherst College_, _Harvard University_.

3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar significance: e.g., _the Dreibund_, _the Insurgents_.

4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., _the Treaty of Portsmouth_, _the Declaration of Independence_, _the Edict of Nantes_.

5. Names of political parties: e.g., _Republican_, _Democrat_, etc.; but use lower case for _republican form of government_, _a true democrat_, etc., where reference is not made to members of political parties.

6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g., _Hottentots_, _Celestials_, etc.; but use lower case for _negro_, _colored people_, _the blacks_, _the whites_, _poor whites_, etc.

7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (_a_) when the term is an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g., _the Russian Empire_, _Norfolk County_, etc.; (_b_) when it is used with the preposition _of_ as an integral part of the name indicating administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., _Commonwealth of Massachusetts_; (_c_) when it is used singly as designation for a specific division: e.g., _the Dominion_ (_of Canada_), _the Union_; (_d_) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real geographical name: e.g., _the Pine Tree State_, _the Promised Land_; but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the specific name: e.g., _the empire of Germany_, _the county of Norfolk_.

8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., _Ward Eleven_, _Fifth Precinct_, _Eleventh Congressional District_, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. The words _legislature_, _circuit court_, _district court_, _city council_, _supreme court_, _senate_, and _house of representatives_ except when specifically applied: e.g., _the legislature of the State_, _the circuit court_, etc.; but _Congress_, _the Circuit Court of Suffolk County_, _the House of Representatives of the United States_.

2. The words _high school_, _grammar school_, except as part of title: e.g., the _Dorchester High School_; but the _high school of Dorchester_.

REFERENCES

Capitalize:

1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., _Act I_, _Vol. VIII_, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often lower-cased.

Do not capitalize:

1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references: e.g., _line_, _verse_, _note_, _section_, _chapter_, _page_, etc. {29}

ORDINALS

Capitalize:

1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g., _the Fifty-fourth Congress_, _the Sixteenth Dynasty_, _the Forty-fourth Massachusetts_.

IN GENERAL

Capitalize:

1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of poetry.

2. The words _I_ and _O_.

3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an independent meaning: e.g., _My explanation is: Competition forces each manufacturer to study economies_.

4. Words having special meanings: e.g., _the Referee’s decision_, _a Bachelor’s degree_.

5. The first word of every direct quotation.

6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.

7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address, _sir_, _friend_, _father_, _brother_, _sister_, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., _The speed of the Twentieth-century Limited_, _West Twenty-third Street_, etc.

2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., _second_, _minute_, _hour_, _ounce_, _pound_, _foot_, _yard_, etc.

3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (_a_) if it is closely connected with what precedes it; (_b_) if the phrase is dependent upon the preceding clause; or (_c_) if the words following the colon contain comment: e.g., _These explanations occur to me: either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have become indifferent_.

4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers or magazines: e.g., _the Boston Herald_, _the Review of Reviews_.

* * * * *

¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature; caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.

¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., _Queen Maria Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine_.

¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.

SMALL CAPITALS

1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. _480_. {31}

SPELLING

The difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling. To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly, but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following rules are observed:

(_a_) Prefer the form most correct etymologically (_b_) Prefer the shortest and simplest (_c_) Prefer the more phonetic form (_d_) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign.

With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:

NUMBERS

1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., _1/2 of 1 per cent_. {32}

2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., _Back in the eighties_.

3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., _Edward is five years and four months old_.

4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.

5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g., _The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the ream._

6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than three digits: e.g., _We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000 volumes in all_.

7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and others of less, use figures for all: e.g., _The packages contain, respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets_, not _fifty, eighty-five, and 128_.

8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though approximate statements: e.g., _The population of the United States is about one hundred millions_; but, _The population of the United States is 92,000,000_.

9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be reconstructed.

10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use figures, omitting the word _o’clock_: e.g., _The doors open at 7:30_ P.M.

DIPHTHONGS

1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially _æ_ and _œ_, but retain _æ_ and _œ_ in Latin words and in nominal English forms like _formulæ_ and other plurals, _arbor vitæ_, etc. Established English words having now or formerly the ligature _æ_ or _œ_ are generally written with the simple _e_.

SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY

1. Monosyllablic words which end in _f_, _l_, or _s_, when preceded by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., _muff_, _still_, _lass_. Exceptions: _clef_, _of_, _if_, _bul_, _nul_, _sal_, _sol_, _as_, _gas_, _has_, _was_, _yes_, _gris_, _is_, _his_, _this_, _pus_, _us_, _thus_.

2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than _f_, _l_, or _s_ do not double their final letter. Exceptions: _abb_, _add_, _ebb_, _odd_, _mumm_, _inn_, _bunn_, _err_, _purr_, _burr_, _butt_, _mitt_, _fizz_, _fuzz_, _buzz_.

3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter. Exception: _guess_.

4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending with a single consonant (excepting _h_ or _x_) preceded by a single vowel, or by _qu_ and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of the addition of another syllable: e.g., _stop, stopped_; _regret, regretting_. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., _prefer´, pref´erable_.

5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an added termination does not double the final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., _profit, profited_; _cancel, canceled_; _benefit, benefited_; _equal, equality_, _novel, novelist_, and all the derivatives of _parallel_.

6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., _agreeing_, _calling_, _recall_. Exceptions: _instalment_, _enrolment_, _skilful_, _wilful_, _enthralment_, _pontific_, _withal_, _until_, and similar derivatives.

7. Words ending in _-our_, the _u_ being unsounded, are spelled _-or_, with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to retain the _-our_ in most words having this ending.

8. Words derived from words ending in silent _e_ after a consonant retain the _e_ when the added termination begins with a consonant: e.g., _state, statement, stately_; _pale, paleness_; _move, movement_. Exceptions: _abridgment_, {35} _acknowledgment_, _judgment_, _lodgment_, _nursling_, _wholly_, _wisdom_.

When another vowel (except _e_ or _i_) immediately precedes the final _e_, the final _e_ is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., _argue, argument_; _awe, awful_; _true, truly_, etc. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule: e.g., _eye_, _eyesight_, etc.

When the termination begins with a vowel, the final _e_ is omitted: e.g., _sale, salable_; _bride, bridal_; _force, forcible_. Exceptions: _mileage_, etc.

9. When words end in _ce_ or _ge_ the final _e_ is retained before added terminations beginning with _a_ or _o_: e.g., _change, changeable_; _courage, courageous_.

10. In participles the final _e_ is sometimes retained for the purpose of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having a different meaning: e.g., _singe, singeing_, to distinguish from _singing_; _dye, dyeing_, to distinguish from _dying_, etc. The _e_ is also retained in _hoeing_, _toeing_, and _shoeing_.[3]

[3] See list on page 37.

11. Words ending in _ie_ change their termination to _y_ upon adding _ing_: e.g., _die, dying_; _vie, vying_.

12. Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change the _y_ to _i_ before any added termination not beginning with _i_: e.g., {36} _merry_, _merriment_; _happy_, _happiness_. Exceptions: adjectives of one syllable: e.g., _dry_, _dryly_; _sly_, _slyness_. Also except derivatives formed by adding _ship_ and _hood_: e.g., _suretyship_, _babyhood_; but _hardihood_.

When the final _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is usually changed to _i_: e.g., _gay_, _gaiety_; _day_, _daily_; _pay_, _paid_; _lay_, _laid_, etc.

13. The French ending _-re_ in _theater_, _center_, _meager_, _sepulcher_, etc., is not now generally considered good usage.

14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in _s_ or other sibilant is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the word is of one syllable: e.g., _James’s apple_; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of more than one syllable: e.g., For _Jesus’ sake_.[4]

15. Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_, _-mit_, _-rt_, _-se_, _-ss_ take the ending _-sion_: e.g., _abscind_, _abscission_; _seclude_, _seclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _admit_, _admission_; _revert_, _reversion_; _confuse_, _confusion_; _impress_, _impression_. Other words take the ending _-tion_.[5]

[4] See page 19.

[5] See list of irregular forms, and departures from rule on page 39.

ACCENTED WORDS

The following is a partial list of words in common use in which accented letters occur: {37}

attaché chargé d’affaires confrère coup d’état coup de grâce crèche débris en arrière en échelon en règle entrée entrepôt exposé façade faïence habitué lèse majesté matériel matinée mêlée née papier-maché procès verbal protégé régime résumé rôle señor soirée tête-à-tête vis-à-vis visé

PARTICIPLES

These participles should be spelled as follows:

acknowledging agreeing awing bluing dyeing encouraging gluing grudging hieing hoeing icing judging owing shoeing singeing tingeing trudging truing

VARIABLE ENDINGS

1. The following words are spelled with the termination _ize_:

aggrandize agonize analyze anatomize anglicize apologize apostrophize apprize (_to value_) authorize baptize brutalize canonize catechize catholicize cauterize centralize characterize christianize civilize colonize criticize crystallize demoralize dogmatize economize emphasize epitomize equalize eulogize evangelize extemporize familiarize fertilize {38} fossilize fraternize galvanize generalize gormandize harmonize immortalize italicize jeopardize legalize liberalize localize magnetize memorialize mesmerize metamorphize methodize minimize modernize monopolize moralize nationalize naturalize neutralize organize ostracize paralyze particularize pasteurize patronize philosophize plagiarize pulverize realize recognize reorganize revolutionize satirize scandalize scrutinize signalize solemnize soliloquize specialize spiritualize standardize stigmatize subsidize summarize syllogize symbolize sympathize tantalize temporize tranquilize tyrannize universalize utilize vaporize vitalize vocalize vulcanize vulgarize

2. The following words are spelled with the termination _ise_:

advertise advise appraise apprise (_to inform_) arise chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise devise disfranchise disguise emprise enfranchise enterprise exercise exorcise franchise improvise incise manuprise merchandise premise reprise revise rise supervise surmise surprise

3. The following words have the termination _-ible_; words not included in this list {39} end in _-able_[6], except a few words pronounced similarly, but spelled differently.

accessible admissible appetible apprehensible audible cessible coercible compatible competible comprehensible compressible conceptible contemptible contractible controvertible convertible convincible corrigible corrosible corruptible credible decoctible deducible defeasible defensible descendible destructible digestible discernible distensible divisible docible edible effectible eligible eludible enforcible evincible expansible expressible extendible extensible fallible feasible fencible flexible forcible francible fusible gullible horrible illegible immiscible impassible[7] intelligible irascible legible miscible negligible partible passible[7] perceptible permissible persuasible pervertible plausible possible productible reducible reflexible refrangible remissible reprehensible resistible responsible reversible revertible risible seductible sensible tangible terrible transmissible visible

[6] RULE: Derivations of the first conjugation in Latin take _a_; those of the other conjugations, _i_.

[7] See page 42.

4. These are the irregular forms of the endings _-sion_ and _-tion_.

adhesion assertion attention coercion cohesion crucifixion {40} declension dimension dissension distortion divulsion expulsion impulsion insertion intention occasion propulsion recursion repulsion revulsion scansion suspicion tension version

5. The following words are pronounced similarly, but the meaning changes with the spelling:

Advice counsel
advise to counsel
albumen white of egg
albumin viscous substance
alegar ale vinegar
aleger cheerful, sprightly
ante preceding
anti against
apprise to inform
apprize to value
auger tool
augur to predict by signs

Base bottom, vile
bass lowest tone
bask to lie in warmth
basque apparel
berth place to sleep
birth coming into life
breach gap
breech hinder part of a gun

Cannon gun
canon law or rule
canyon gorge
cannot denial of power
can not affirmation of power
canvas cloth {41}
canvass to solicit
capital chief, money, stock
capitol building
caster vial
castor rodent
censer incense-pan
censor critic
cere to wax
sear to burn the surface
seer prophet
sere dry, withered
claimant one who claims
clamant beseeching
complement fulness
compliment praise
conveyer one who conveys
conveyor contrivance for conveying objects
coquet to trifle in love
coquette flirt
council deliberative body
counsel to advise
consular pertaining to a counsel
councilor member of a council
counselor adviser
corespondent one who answers jointly with another
correspondent one who corresponds by letter

Depositary receiver
depository place of deposit
discreet prudent
discrete distinct
dyeing coloring
dying expiring

Emigrant one who moves out of a country
immigrant one who moves into a country
emigration moving out
immigration moving in
empirical experimentative
empyrical combustible principle of coal {42}

Faker cheat, swindler
fakir Oriental religious ascetic
farther as applied to distance
further signifying additional

Galipot resin or pitch
gallipot medicine pot
gantlet “running the gantlet”
gauntlet glove
grisly horrible
grizzly grayish

Hoard accumulate
horde troop

Immanent inherent
imminent impending
impassible incapable of emotion
impassable not passable
incipient commencing
insipient stupid, foolish
indict charge with crime
indite compose, write
indiscreet imprudent
indiscrete compact
intension stretching
intention determination

Lessen to reduce
lesson something to be studied

Maize corn
maze labyrinth
marten animal
martin bird
meat flesh
meet to join, proper
mete to measure
miner digger
minor under age
mucous slimy
mucus viscid fluid {43}

O wish, imprecation
oh! an exclamation

Panel sunken plane with raised margins
pannel rustic saddle
parol oral declaration
parole word of honor
passable admitting passage
passible unfeeling
pendant ornament
pendent hanging
premices first-fruits
premises property
principal adjective
principle noun
prophecy prediction
prophesy to foretell

Rabbet groove in edge of boards
rabbit small animal
resin semi-liquid exudation of the pine
rosin solid product of turpentine
rigger a fitter of ships’ rigging
rigor muscular rigidity
riot tumult
ryot tiller of the soil

Saver one who saves
savor flavor
subtle sly, artful
suttle net weight
sheath scabbard
sheathe to cover
sleight artful trick
slight small

Theocracy government by direction of God
theocrasy mixture of worship of different gods
ton measure of weight
tun large cask {44}

Vertical perpendicular
verticle axis, hinge

Wheal raised mark, a welt
wheel rotating disk

{45}

COMPOUND WORDS

The general theory of compounding is that when two words are used together with but a single meaning, the hyphen is employed if the emphasis of pronunciation falls upon the first word, but omitted if it is the second word which requires the emphasis. Practice, however, has shown that this theory is not sufficiently specific in its expression to guide the student who is desirous of making consistent use of the hyphen, and recourse to the various dictionaries adds to his confusion because of the many variations. Good usage, therefore, becomes his only refuge, and the rules which are formulated and collated here are based wholly upon what appears to the present writer to come within this definition. Many words originally compounded or written as two words are now written as one; on the other hand, modern usage now compounds or breaks into two words many words which were originally written as one.

¶ In general, hyphens should always be omitted when the meaning can be equally well expressed by using the same words separately. {46}

Use the hyphen:

1. With the prefix _mid_, except in cases of words in common use: e.g., _mid-channel_, but _midsummer_, _midday_, etc.

2. When two or more words (except proper names which form a unity in themselves) are combined, preceding a noun: e.g., _the well-known financier_, _up-to-date equipment_, _go-as-you-please race_; but _a quaint old English tea-room_.

In applying this rule be careful not to hyphenate adjectives and participles with adverbs which end in _ly_, nor with combinations such as those referred to when following a noun or qualifying a predicate: e.g., _possessed of highly developed intelligence_, _a lawyer well thought of in his own city_.

3. In such words as _attorney-general_, _vice-president_, _rear-admiral_, etc.; but not in _viceroy_, _vicegerent_, etc.

4. Compounds of color: e.g., _olive-green_, _silver-gray_, _lemon-yellow_, _red-hot_, etc. But in simple cases of adjective and noun, as _brownish yellow_ or _yellowish white_ the words are not compounded.

5. In nouns which stand in objective relation to each other, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb: e.g., _I am your well-wisher_, _He is a large property-holder_, _hero-worship_, but not in _bookkeeper_, _bookmaker_, _copyholder_, _dressmaker_, _lawgiver_, _proofreader_, {47} _taxpayer_, and similar common short compounds.[8]

[8] See page 50, Sec. 5.

6. In compounds of fellow: e.g., _play-fellow_, _fellow-creatures_, etc.; but _bedfellow_.

7. In compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_: e.g., _father-feeling_, _mother-country_, _brother-love_, _sister-empire_, _foster-father_, _great-grandfather_, etc.; but _fatherland_, _fatherhead_, _grandfather_.

8. In compounds of _world_ and _life_: e.g., _life-story_, _world-influence_, etc.; but _lifetime_.

9. In compounds of _master_: e.g., _master-painter_, etc.; but _masterpiece_.

10. In compounds of _god_: e.g., _sun-god_, _rain-god_, etc.; but _godson_.

11. When _half_ or _quarter_, etc., is combined with a noun: e.g., _half-circle_, _half-title_, _quarter-mile_, etc.; but _quartermaster_, _headquarters_, etc.

12. In compounds of _self_: e.g., _self-esteem_, _self-respecting_, etc., but not in _selfhood_, _selfish_, _selfsame_, or _oneself_.

13. In connecting _ex_, _vice_, _general_, _elect_, etc., constituting parts of titles, with the chief noun: e.g., _ex-Governor Draper_, _Governor-elect Wilson_, etc.

14. In compounds of _by_: e.g., _by-laws_, _by-products_, etc.

15. In connection with prefixes _co_, _pre_, and _re_ when followed by words beginning with the same vowel as that in which they terminate, but not when followed by a {48} different vowel or a consonant: e.g., _co-operation_, but _coeducation_; _pre-empted_, but _prearranged_; _re-elected_, but _recast._ Exceptions: combinations with proper names, long or unusual formations, and words where the hyphen defines the meaning: e.g., _re-creation_ and _recreation_, _re-form_ and _reform_, _re-collect_ and _recollect_, _pre-Raphaelite_.

16. In writing ordinal numbers when compounded with such words as _first-rate_, _second-hand_, etc.

17. In connection with the word _quasi_ prefixed to a noun or to an adjective: e.g., _quasi-corporation_, _quasi-compliant_, etc.

18. In connection with the Latin prepositions _extra_, _infra_, _semi_, _supra_, and _ultra_: e.g., _extra-hazardous_ but _extraordinary_; _ultra-conservative_ but _Ultramontane_.

19. In spelling out fractional numbers involving more than two words: e.g., _The supply is three-quarters exhausted_; but, _This leaves twenty-five hundredths_.

20. In compounding numerals of one syllable with self-explanatory words of various meanings: e.g., _three-legged_, _four-footed_, _one-armed_, etc.

Also in combining numerals with nouns, to form an adjective: e.g. _twelve-inch rule_, _hundred-yard dash_, _two-horse team_, etc.

21. In compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun: e.g., _jews’-harp_, _crow’s-nest_, etc. {49}

22. In some compounds with _tree_: e.g., _apple-tree_; but _whippletree_, _crosstree_, etc.