Chapter II: Part 2

23. In compounding personal epithets: e.g., _hard-headed_, _bow-legged_, etc.

24. Use the hyphen in the following words:

after-years bas-relief birth-rate blood-feud blood-relations common-sense cross-examine cross-reference cross-section death-rate feast-day folk-song food-stuff fountain-head guinea-pig horse-power page-proof pay-roll poor-law post-office sea-level sense-perception son-in-law subject-matter man-of-war object-lesson thought-process title-page wave-length well-being well-nigh will-power

Do not use the hyphen:

1. When writing points of the compass: e.g., _northeast_, _southwest_; but _north-northeast_, etc.

2. In words ending in _like_, unless compounded with nouns containing more than one syllable (except when ending in _l_): e.g., _childlike_, _lifelike_; but _business-like_, _bell-like_, etc.

3. In compounds ending with _man_ or _woman_: e.g., _workman_, _needlewoman_, etc.

4. In phrases such as _by and by_, _by the bye_, _good morning_, _attorney at law_, _coat of arms_, etc.

5. In words ending in _boat_, _house_, _look_, _room_, _side_, _yard_, _shop_, _mill_, _field_, _work_, _chair_, _maker_, _holder_, _keeper_, _skin_, _store_, _book_, _fold_, _score_, _penny_, _pence_ when the prefixed noun {50} contains but a single syllable: e.g., _twofold_, _schoolroom_, _handbook_, _windmill_, _bookkeeper_, _workshop_, etc. Exceptions: _Court-house_ and _State House_.

When prefixed noun contains two syllables, use the hyphen: e.g., _bucket-shop_, _twenty-fold_, _ante-room_, _mason-work_, _paper-mill_, etc.[9]

When prefixed noun contains three or more syllables write as two separate words: e.g., _policy shop_.

6. In compounds of _bi_, _tri_, _semi_, or _demi_: e.g., _bimonthly_, _tricolor_, _semiannual_, _demijohn._ Exceptions: long or unusual formations: e.g., _bi-centennial_, etc.

7. In _today_,[10] _tonight_, _tomorrow_, _viewpoint_, or _standpoint_.

[9] See page 47, Sec. 5.

[10] _Cf._ the old English words _to-morn_, _to-year_, etc.

8. In connection with the negative prefixes _un_, _in_, and _a_: e.g., _unrepublican_, _inanimate_, etc., but the prefix _non_ requires the hyphen except in words which have become common: e.g., _non-conductor_, but _nonsense_.

9. In connection with the words _over_ and _under_ employed as prefixes: e.g., _overestimate_, _undersecretary_; but _over-soul_, _over-spiritual_, _under-man_.

10. In connection with the Latin prepositions _ante_, _anti_, _inter_, _intra_, _post_, _sub_, and _super_: e.g., _antedate_, _antidote_, _subtitle_, etc.; but _ante-room_, _anti-imperialistic_, _intra-atomic_. {51}

11. In spelling out a series of fractions: e.g., _I can secure you one, two, or three fifths_, not _one-_, _two-_, or _three-fifths_.

Nor in writing ordinary fractions: e.g., _one half_, _five eighths_, etc.

But another class of fractions require the hyphen: e.g., _twenty-fifth_, _twenty-two one-hundredths_.

12. In compounds ending with _holder_ or _monger_: e.g., _stockholder_, _ironmonger_.

13. In compounds beginning with _eye_: e.g., _eyeglass_, _eyebrow_, _eyelash_, _eyewitness_, etc.

14. In compounds with the word _school_: e.g., _schoolmates_, _schoolmaster_, etc. Exceptions: when made with a participle: e.g., _school-teaching_; or in combinations where separate words are more clear: e.g., _school committee_, _school children_, etc.

15. In compounds with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, etc., unless the compound is unusual: e.g., _electrotype_, _pseudonym_, etc.

16. In compound adverbs: e.g., _meantime_, _moreover_, _forever_, _everywhere_, etc. But in phrases like _after a while_, _in the mean time_, _for ever and ever_, the words should be separated.

17. In words like _anybody_, _anyhow_, _anything_, _anyway_, _anywhere_, _somebody_, _somehow_, _something_, _sometime_, _somewhat_, _somewhere._ But _any one_ and _some one_ are written as separate words. {52}

DIVISION OF WORDS

The unnecessary division of a word should always be avoided. The whole word should be carried over whenever possible.

2. A word should be divided in accordance with its natural division in correct pronunciation, rather than according to derivation: e.g., _knowl-edge_, not _know-ledge_; but divide according to meaning and derivation as far as is compatible with good spacing and pronunciation: e.g., _dis-pleasure_, not _displeas-ure_.

3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined with the first vowel if short, but with the latter if long: e.g., _riv-er_, _ri-val_; but avoid dividing words as short as these if possible.

4. When two consonants come together between two vowels the consonants should be divided: e.g., _mil-lion_, _struc-ture_.

5. When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of which is short, all which can be pronounced together go with the last syllable: e.g., _han-dle_, _chil-dren_, _frus-trate_, etc.

6. Whenever practicable, and always when the pronunciation of a word is peculiar, the division should come upon the vowel: e.g., _pro-duct_, _colo-nel_, _sepa-rate_, _peo-ple_, _pro-gress_. {53}

Exceptions: words ending in _-able_ and _-ible_, which should carry the vowel over into the next line.

7. The letters _c_ and _g_ must never be separated from the vowels _e_, _i_, and _y_ upon which their soft sound depends: e.g., _re-li-gion_, _ca-pa-ci-ty_, etc.

8. _X_ must never begin a syllable, _j_ must never end one, and _q_ must not be separated from _u_, which invariably follows it.

9. When used as terminations, _ing_, _en_, _ed_, _er_, _est_, and the plural _es_ are considered as syllables, except when the preceding consonant is doubled, or when they follow _c_ or _g_ soft: e.g., _speak-ing_, _tak-en_, _long-er_; but _lat-ter_, _for-cing_, _ran-ging_.

10. Two-letter divisions should always be avoided. These words should never be divided: _eleven_, _heaven_, _power_, _faster_, _finer_, _houses_, _given_, _flower_, _prayer_, _soften_, _liken_, _verses_, _listen_, _often_, _voyage_, _nothing_, _even_, etc.

11. When a derivative word ends in _t_, the _t_ is carried over when the accent changes: e.g., _instinc-tive_ (instinct); but not otherwise: e.g., _construct-ive_ (construct).

12. More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided.

13. A division at the end of the last full line of a paragraph should be avoided.

14. A word of four letters is not divisible. Dividing words of five or six letters should be avoided if possible. {54}

15. An amount that is stated in figures should not be divided.

16. A word in the past tense, pronounced as one syllable, should not be divided: e.g., _beamed_.

17. The separation of two initials of a person’s name, or such combination as B.C., A.M., should be avoided.

18. A divided word that will appear on the last line of one page and the top line of the next page is to be avoided.

19. Separating a divisional mark (_a_) or (_b_) from the matter to which it pertains should be avoided.

20. Adjectives ending in _-ical_ should be divided upon the _i_: e.g., _musi-cal_, not _music-al_ or _mu-sical_.

21. Word endings _-tion_, _-sion_, _-tial_, _-cial_, _-tive_, etc., are treated as one syllable.

22. In compound words additional hyphens should be avoided: e.g., _music-lesson_, not _music-les-son_.

Keep prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc., as distinct as possible.

NOTE. Division of words in French, Italian, German, and Spanish, may be found in De Vinne’s “Correct Composition,” pp. 434–446. {55}

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING

In prose manuscript, each paragraph should be written with _regular_ indention.

2. When paragraphs are numbered, the figure should be written where the capital letter of the first word would otherwise be placed.

3. In poetry, lines which overrun should be written with _reverse_ indention.

4. When poetry is quoted in a prose composition, it should begin on a new line. If the continuation of the prose writing does not call for a new paragraph, the next line of prose text begins without indention.

5. When a prose quotation is introduced, it should be treated as in Rule 4 if it contains more than a single sentence; otherwise it is “run in,” with the proper quotation-marks and punctuation.

6. There are different forms of indention in typography which are used for different purposes, viz.:

«Irregular indention.»— For this form of indention there are no specified rules, and it is used principally in certain styles of poetry and in display work. {56}

«En échelon indention» is largely used for display in posters and advertisements. It consists in the diagonal arrangement of words, thus:

CARPETS

CHAIRS

TABLES

STOVES

«Hanging indention», which makes the first
line of full width and indents all the
following lines one or more ems on the
left, as shown in these four lines.

«Half-diamond indention» was used largely by
early printers, particularly by Aldus,
not only for title-pages, but also
for chapter endings. It consists
in arranging all lines
right and left
thus

«Lozenge indention» requires an arrangement of the lines in this manner:

IT IS ALWAYS A
TROUBLESOME THING
TO ACCOMPLISH AS IT TAKES
MUCH EXPERIMENTING
TO GAIN RESULTS

BLOCKED INDENTION CALLS FOR
AN ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS
IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE
LINES ARE ALL OF EQUAL LENGTH

{57}

PARAGRAPHING

Indention and Display are the methods employed in typography to secure clearness and to add distinction to the printed page, but clearness in the body of the text is dependent upon the skill of the writer in properly dividing his composition into paragraphs. Just as correct punctuation assists the reader in his understanding of a sentence, so does correct paragraphing add to the understanding of the composition as a whole. The following rules may be formulated, based upon the practice of the most careful writers:

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic, to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in {58} considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_ between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences, developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed. {59}

SPACING

Each line should be spaced evenly throughout.

2. The spaces in a line should never vary more than the difference between a _three to em_ space and an _en_ quad.[11]

[11] See page 60.

3. Uniformity in appearance shows excellence in printing. To have one line thin-spaced and the next wide-spaced is in bad taste. Even in narrow measure this inequality can be avoided with proper care.

4. In fonts of type where ends of hyphens and dashes touch the adjoining letters, hair-spaces should be used. Also use hair-spaces before colons, semicolons, interrogation-points, exclamation-marks, and inside quotation-marks.

5. No space should be left between superior letters, or letters indicating powers, and inferior figures or letters; or between letters forming products.

6. No space should be left between the abbreviations A.D. and B.C., A.M. and P.M., between titles, such as _LL.D._, _Ph.D._, etc., or between the abbreviations of States, such {60} as _N.Y._, _R.I._, _N.H._, etc., except in a wide-spaced line.

7. Scripture references should be spaced as follows: _II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12._

8. No space should be left between the symbols $ and £ and the succeeding figures.

9. An indention of one or more ems should be allowed at the end of the last line of a paragraph.

10. The same space should be left on each side of short words, such as _a_, _an_, etc.

11. It is poor typography to thin-space or wide-space a line in order to avoid a turn-over.

12. Beginning and ending a line with the same word in wide measure should be avoided, but not at the expense of good spacing.

13. The kerned letters _f_ and _j_ require a hair-space before them when they begin a line. When kerned letters end a line a hair-space is necessary after them to prevent breaking off in printing.

14. Should wide spacing be necessary, it should occur where it will be least noticed; viz., between words ending or beginning with tall letters.

15. This is an en dash: –
This is an em dash: —
This is a 2 em dash: ——
This is a 3 em dash: ———

{61}

16. This line is hair-spaced.
This line is spaced with 5-em spaces.
This line is spaced with 4-em spaces.
This line is spaced with 3-em spaces.
This line is spaced with en quads.
This line is spaced with em quads.

{62}

ITALIC

The first italic types were designed and used by Aldus Manutius, the celebrated Italian printer, of the fifteenth century. It is said that the style was suggested by the handwriting of Petrarch. In the first fonts only the lower case letters were italic, the capitals being roman; but this irregularity soon gave way to the more regular style of italic capitals and lower case.

1. Italic is not used for the text of a book, but it is permissible for the preface, extracts, etc.

2. For poetry and other matter of a literary character italic has a decorative effect.

3. Italic is used for emphasis in roman composition and vice versa.

4. Italic is used frequently for subheads, running-heads, and side-heads, as well as for important paragraphs or extracts.

5. Italic is often used instead of roman-quoted for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, and names of ships.

6. Signatures or credits are often placed in italic at the end of an article.

7. Foreign words and phrases are often required to be set in italic, but there are many which are now so familiar to English readers {63} that they are kept in the ordinary text. The following is a list of the most familiar words:

à propos ad valorem addenda aide-de-camp alias alibi alma mater anno domini ante-bellum beau idéal billet-doux bon-ton bona fide bravo café canto carte blanche chapeau chaperon chargé d’affaires chiaroscuro cicerone contra corrigenda data débris début depot diarrhœa diatum dilettante dramatis personæ ennui entrepôt erratum et cetera facsimile fête finis gratis hoi polloi imprimatur innuendo literati mandamus manœuvre mignonette naïve ollapodrida onus paterfamilias patois per annum per capita per cent. per centum per se post-mortem pro rata protégé quondam régime rendezvous rôle savant seraglio sobriquet ultimatum verbatim vice vice versa viva voce

8. The following expressions, which are not as a rule so well known, should be italicized:

_ab ovo_ _ancien régime_ _bête noire_ _comme il faut_ _de quoi vivre_ _de trop_ _en passant_ _fait accompli_ _grand monde_ _hors de combat_ _inter alia_ _jeu d’esprit_ _locum tenens_ _mise en scène_ _noblesse oblige_ _raison d’être_ _sans cérémonie_ _tour de force_

{64}

9. Italic is used in the following words, phrases, and abbreviations employed in literary and legal references: e.g., _ibid_, _idem_, _loc. cit._, _op. cit._, _ad loc._, _s.v._, _supra_, _infra_, _passim_, _vide_, _circa_ (_ca._). Exceptions: cf., i.e., e.g., v. (versus), viz., etc., which are always roman.

10. Punctuation marks which are placed after italicized words should be italic.

Italic is used:

1. For the names of plaintiff and defendant in the citation of legal causes.

2. In algebraic, geometric, and similar matter to designate unknown quantities, lines, etc.

3. For _s._ and _d._ (_shilling_ and _pence_) following the figures: e.g., 1_s._ 6_d._

4. For specific names in Botany, Zoölogy, and Geology.

5. In medical matter roman is used instead of italic for scientific terms.

6. For names of stars or constellations in astronomical matter.

7. In resolutions for the word _Resolved_.

In MS. one line drawn beneath a word or sentence signifies that it is to be put in italic. {65}

ABBREVIATIONS

DATES

Dates are not usually abbreviated in writing or in regular text matter; but when necessary the following rules may be followed:

1. Do not use _st_, _d_, _rd_, or _th_ after a date given in figures; e.g., _June 3_, not _June 3d_ or _3rd_. If a date is spelled out, the rule is as follows: e.g., _June the third_, not _June three_.

2. Do not use _ult._, _inst._, or _prox._, but always name the month: e.g., _Oct. 25_, not _25th ult._, _Nov. 10_, not _10th inst._

3. Use generally accepted abbreviations for the names of months when the day of the month is also given, and prefer dates in order of day, month, and year: e.g., _7 Jan., 1912_. When the name of the month is used alone or followed only by the year, do not abbreviate: e.g., _February, 1912_, not _Feb., 1912_.

4. For ordinary purposes use these as the generally accepted abbreviations for the months and days of the week:

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat.

5. In tables and wherever matter must be _greatly_ condensed use the Dewey dates, {66} which are the briefest possible without ambiguity, in the order of (_a_) day of week, (_b_) day of month, (_c_) month, (_d_) year. These abbreviations are not desirable except in tabular matter.

Ja. F. Mr. Ap. My. Je. Ju. Ag. S. O. N. D.

Sn. M. Tu. W. Th. F. St.

PROPER NAMES

1. Abbreviate _company_ in firm names: e.g., _John Brown & Co._

2. Spell out names of companies, railroads, etc., using the ampersand (&) only between proper names: e.g., _Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company_; _Norfolk & Western Railroad_; but _American Smelting and Refining Company_. If names of railroads are abbreviated, use no space between the letters: e.g., _N.Y._, _N.H. & H.R.R._

3. Abbreviate _United States_ when immediately associated with the name of an officer of the army or navy, as _Lieut. John Doe, U.S.A._; when it is the name of an organization of the army or navy, as _First Regiment U.S.V._; when preceding the name of a government vessel, as _U.S.S. Brooklyn_.

4. In referring to plays, specify act, scene, and line, also part if necessary: e.g., _2 Henry IV, I, ii, 1–7_.

5. Christian names should be spelled in full, as _John_, _George_, _Charles_, except in an {67} original signature, or when following copy in a quotation.

6. When necessary to abbreviate Christian names, use the forms _Dan._, _Edw._, _Sam._, _Thos._, etc. _Alex_, _Ben_, _Ed_, and _Sam_ are not always abbreviations, and copy should be followed as regards period. Use the following list:

Alex. Alexander And. Andrew Anth. Anthony Ap. Appius Arch. Archibald Aug. August, Augustus

Benj. Benjamin

C. Caesar Caes. Aug. Caesar Augustus Cath. Catherine Chas. Charles

Dan. Daniel

Eben. Ebenezer Edm. Edmund Edw. Edward Eliz. Elizabeth Esd. Esdras Esth. Esther Ez. Ezra Ezek. Ezekiel

Ferd. Ferdinand Fran. Francis Fred. Frederic, Frederick

Geo. George

Herbt. Herbert Hos. Hosea {68}

Jas. James Jona. Jonathan Jos. Joseph Josh. Joshua

Matt. Matthew

Nath. Nathaniel

Pet. Peter Phil. Philip, Philander Philem. Philemon

Reg. Reginald Richd. Richard Robt. Robert

Sam. Samuel

Theo. Theodore Thos. Thomas Tim. Timothy

Wm. William

TITLES

1. In ordinary body matter use generally accepted abbreviations of titles when they are immediately prefixed to names.

2. Do not abbreviate a title used as part of a name: e.g., _Bishop Lawrence_, not _Bp. Lawrence_.

3. Such titles as _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Gen._, _Dr._, _Hon._, _Rev._, when prefixed to names, may be abbreviated; but _Colonel_, _Major_, _Professor_, _President_, _ex-President_, etc., are better spelled in full. Compound titles, such as _Major-General_, _Lieutenant-Colonel_, _Rear-Admiral_, etc., should also be spelled and both {69} words capitalized. Where a person has been mentioned by name and title, and is afterward mentioned by title only, the title should be capitalized. Where initials of a name are used, abbreviate the title: e.g., _Col. T. G. Benson, of the Second Illinois Regiment, has returned from Havana. The Colonel’s friends gave him a warm reception_.

4. When the names of sovereigns of a country are mentioned only occasionally, such names may be given in full: e.g., _George the Fifth_, _Charles the First_. When such names occur frequently, they may be printed with roman numerals without a period: e.g., _George V_, _Charles I_

5. The following is a full list of the usual abbreviations:

A.B. or B.A. (_Artium Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Arts Abp. Archbishop A.C. Archchancellor A.D. Archduke A.D.C. Aide-de-camp Adjt. Adjutant Adm. Admiral Admr. Administrator Admx., Admrx. Administratrix Adv. Advocate Agt. Agent Aldm. Alderman A.M. or M.A. (_Artium Magister_) Master of Arts Amb. Ambassador A.P.A. American Protective Association Asst. Assistant A.T. Archtreasurer Atty. Attorney {70}

B.A. or A.B. Bachelor of Arts Bart. Baronet B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law B.D. (_Baccalaureus Divinitatis_) Bachelor of Divinity B.LL. (_Baccalaureus Legum_) Bachelor of Laws B.M. (_Baccalaureus Medicinae_) Bachelor of Medicine Bp. Bishop B.R. (_Banco Regis_ or _Reginae_) the King’s or Queen’s Bench Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General Bro(s). Brother(s) B.S. Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Surgery B.V. (_Beata Virgo_) Blessed Virgin

Cantab. (_Cantabrigia_) Cambridge Capt. Captain Capt.-Gen. Captain-General Cash. Cashier C.B. Companion of the Bath C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas C.E. Civil Engineer C.J. Chief Justice C.M.G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George Col. Colonel Com. Commander, Commodore Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary Corp. Corporal C.S. Court of Sessions C.S. (_Custos Sigilli_) Keeper of the Seal

D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law D.D. Doctor of Divinity D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery Dea. Deacon Dep. Deputy D.F. Defender of the Faith D.M. Doctor of Music {71} Dr. Doctor D.Sc. Doctor of Science D.T. (_Doctor Theologiae_) Doctor of Divinity D.V.M. or M.D.V. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine E. (_after titles_) Edinburgh Esq. Esquire F.D. (_Fidei Defensor_) Defender of the Faith F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society Fr. Father F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society F.R.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts

G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath G.C.H. Knight of the Grand Cross of Hanover G.C.M.G. Knight of the Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St. George Gen. General Gov. Governor Govt. Government G.R. (_Georgius Rex_) King George

H.B.M. His or Her Britannic Majesty H.M. His or Her Majesty H.M.S. His or Her Majesty’s Service Hon. Honorable H.R. House of Representatives H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness

I.N.R.I. (_Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum_) Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews Insp. Inspector Insp. Gen. Inspector General I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows {72}

J.A. Judge-Advocate J.P. Justice of the Peace J. Prob. Judge of the Probate Jr. or Jun. Junior

K. King K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia K.A.N. Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia K.B. King’s Bench; Knight of the Bath K.B.A. Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in Portugal K.B.E. Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia K.C. King’s Council; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath K.C.H. Knight Commander of Hanover K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of Order of St. Michael and St. George K.C.S. Knight of Charles III, in Spain K.E. Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of Spain K.F.M. Knight of Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily K.G. Knight of the Garter K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath K.G.F. Knight of the Golden Fleece K.G.H. Knight of the Guelph of Hanover K.G.V. Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden K.H. Knight of Hanover K.J. Knight of St. Joachim K.L.H. Knight of the Legion of Honor K.M. Knight of Malta K. Mess. King’s Messenger K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in Holstein K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria K.M.T. Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria K.N.S. Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden K.P. Knight of St. Patrick {73} K.R.E. Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia K.S. Knight of the Sword, in Sweden K.S.A. Knight of St. Anne of Russia K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in France K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando of Spain K.S.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples K.S.G. Knight of St. George of Russia K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria K.S.J. Knight of St. Janarius of Naples K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia K.S.M. & S.G. Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Ionian Isles K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland K.S.S. Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils; Knight of the Sword, in Sweden K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia Kt. Knight K.T. Knight of the Thistle K.T.S. Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal K.W. Knight of William of the Netherlands K.W.E. Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland

L. (_after titles_) London L.C. Lord Chancellor L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice Leg. Legate Legis. Legislature Lieut. Lieutenant Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General Litt.D. (_Litterarum Doctor_) Doctor of Literature LL.B. (_Legum Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Laws LL.D. (_Legum Doctor_) Doctor of Laws

M. Monsieur M.A. Master of Arts Maj. Major Maj.-Gen. Major-General {74} M.B. (_Medicinae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Medicine; (_Musicae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Music M.C. Member of Congress M.D. (_Medicinae Doctor_) Doctor of Medicine Messrs. Messieurs Mgr. Manager; Monsignor Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary Mlle. Mademoiselle Mme. Madame M.P. Member of Parliament M.R. Master of the Rolls Mr. Mister or Master Mrs. Mistress Mus. Doc. Doctor of Music

Oxon. (_Oxonensis_) Oxford

P.C. (_Patres Conscripti_) Conscript Fathers; Senators; Privy Counsellor Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy Ph.G. Graduate in Pharmacy P.M. Postmaster P.M.G. Postmaster-General P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy Pres. President Prof. Professor Prov. Provost P.R.S. President of the Royal Society

Q. Queen Q.M. Quartermaster

R.A. Royal Academician R.E. Royal Engineers Reg. Prof. Regius Professor Rev. Reverend R.M. Royal Marines R.N. Royal Navy R.N.O. (_Riddare af Nordstjerneorden_) Knight of the Order of Polar Star {75} R.S.S. (_Regiae Societatis Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society Rt. Hon. Right Honorable Rt. Rev. Right Reverend Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful R.W. Right Worthy R.W.O. (_Riddare af Wasa Orden_) Knight of the Order of Wasa

Sec. Secretary Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation Serg. Sergeant Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major S.J. Society of Jesus S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court Sol. Solicitor Sol.-Gen. Solicitor-General Sr., Sen. Senior S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society S.T.D. (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_) Doctor of Divinity S.T.P. (_Sacrae Theologiae Professor_) Professor of Divinity St. Saint, Street Supt. Superintendent

Tr(s). Trustee(s) Treas. Treasurer

U.J.C. (_Utriusque Juris Doctor_) Doctor of both Laws

V.C. Vice-Chancellor V.D.M. (_Verbi Dei Minister_) Preacher of the Word Vice-Pres. Vice-President Visc. Viscount

W.S. Writer to the Signet

{76}

6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS

A1 Highest class or grade Acct. Account Advt., Ad. Advertisement Agt. Agent Amt. Amount Anon. Anonymous Ans. Answer Art. Article Av., Ave. Avenue

Bal. Balance Bd. Bound Bdl. Bundle Bds. Boards Bldg. Building B.O. Buyer’s Option Bro(s). Brother; Brothers

Chap. Chapter C.I.F. Cost, insurance, freight Co. Company C.O.D. Cash on Delivery Cr. Creditor

Dept. Department Do. Ditto, the same Dr. Debtor

E.E. Errors excepted E.O.D. Every other day E. & O.E. Errors and omissions excepted Etc. (_Et cetera_) and so forth Ex., Exch. Exchange Exp. Express

Fgt. Freight F.O.B. Free on board

H. Hour H.P. Half pay, horse-power {77}

Incor. Incorporated Ins. Insurance

K.D. Knock down (_of furniture_, etc.)

L.P. Large paper

Memo. Memorandum Mfg. Manufacturing Mfr. Manufacturer Min. Minute

No. (_numero_) number

O.K. All right

Payt. Payment Pd. Paid Per an. (_Per annum_) by the year Per cent. (_Per centum_) by the hundred Pkg. Package Pl. Plate, plates Pref. Preface

Rd. Road Rem. Remarks Rep. Reports R.R. Railroad Ry. Railway

Ser. Series Sq. Square S.S. Steamship, steamer

T.F. Till forbidden

7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

Ala. Alabama Alaska Alaska Ariz. Arizona Ark. Arkansas Austral. Australasia {78}

B.A. British America Br. Col. British Columbia

Cal. California Can. Canada C.B. Cape Breton Colo. Colorado Conn. Connecticut C.W. Canada West (Ontario)

D.C. District of Columbia Del. Delaware Den. Denmark

E. East (London Postal District) East Isl. Eastern Islands E.C. East Central (London Postal District) E.I. East Indies Eng. England, English

Fin. Finland Fla. Florida

Ga. Georgia G.B. Great Britain Glas. Glasgow

H.I. Hawaiian Islands

Ia. Iowa Idaho Idaho Ill. Illinois Ind. Indiana Ind. Ter. Indian Territory (_now Oklahoma_) Ire. Ireland It. Italy

Jam. Jamaica Jap. Japan

Kan. Kansas Ky. Kentucky

La. Louisiana L.C. Lower Canada {79}

Man. Manitoba Mass. Massachusetts Md. Maryland Me. Maine Mex. Mexico Mich. Michigan Minn. Minnesota Miss. Mississippi Mo. Missouri Mont. Montana

N. North (London Postal District) N.A. North America N.B. New Brunswick; North Britain (Scotland) N.C. North Carolina N. Dak. North Dakota N.E. New England; Northeast (London Postal District) Neb. Nebraska Neth. Netherlands Nev. Nevada N.F. Newfoundland N.H. New Hampshire N.J. New Jersey N. Mex. New Mexico N.S. Nova Scotia N.W. Northwest (London Postal District) N.Y. New York N.Y.C. New York City N. Zeal. New Zealand

O. Ohio Okla. Oklahoma Ont. Ontario Ore. Oregon

Pa. Pennsylvania Pal. Palestine P.D. Postal District (London) {80} P.E.I. Prince Edward Island Per. Persia Phila. Philadelphia P.I. Philippine Islands Port. Portugal P.R. Porto Rico Prus. Prussia

Que. Quebec

R.A. Russian America (_now Alaska_) R.I. Rhode Island Russ. Russia

S. South (London Postal District) S.A. South America S.C. South Carolina Scot. Scotland Sc. Pen. Scandinavian Peninsula S. Dak. South Dakota S. E. Southeast (London Postal District) Sic. Sicily S. Isl. Sandwich Islands Soc. Isl. Society Islands S. lat. South latitude Sp. Spain Sw. Sweden Switz. Switzerland Syr. Syria

Tenn. Tennessee Tex. Texas

U.C. Upper Canada (Ontario) U.K. United Kingdom U.S. United States U.S.A. United States of America Utah Utah

V. Victoria Va. Virginia Vt. Vermont {81}

W. Welsh, West; West (London Postal District) Wash. Washington W.C. West Central (London Postal District) W.I. West Indies W. lon. West longitude W. Va. West Virginia Wis. Wisconsin Wyo. Wyoming

8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

A.C. (_Ante Christum_) before Christ A.D. (_Anno Domini_) in the year of our Lord Ad lib. (_Ad libitum_) at pleasure Adj. Adjective Adv. Adverb Aet. (_Aetatis_) of age, aged A.H. (_Anno Hegirae_) in the year of the Hegira Alt. Altitude A.M. (_Anno Mundi_) in the year of the world; (_Ante Meridiem_) before noon An. (_Anno_) in the year An. A.C. (_Anno ante Christum_) in the year before Christ Anat. Anatomy Anc. Ancient Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon Anom. Anomalous Anon. Anonymous Ap. Apostle Apo. Apogee Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha A.R. (_Anno regni_) in the year of the reign Arch. Architecture A.R.R. (_Anno regni regis_) in the year of the reign of the king Arr. Arrival Art. Article {82} Assoc., Assn. Association Astrol. Astrology Astron. Astronomy A.U.C. (_anno urbis conditae_) in the year of the building of the city (Rome) Auth. Ver. or A.V. Authorized Version (of the Bible) Av. Average Ave. Avenue

B. (_Basso_) Bass; bay; born B.C. Before Christ Boul. Boulevard B.V. (_Bene Vale_) Farewell

C. Cape Caet. par. (_Caeteris paribus_) other things being equal Cap. (_Caput_) Chapter C. or Cent. Centigrade Cf. (_confer_) compare Ch. Child or children C.H. Court House Chap. Chapter Circ. Circle(s) Cit. Citizen Col. Column Coll. College Comp. Companion; comparative Cong. Congress C.Q.D. Marconi distress signal

D.B. Domesday Book D.C. (_Da Capo_) From the beginning; again Dec. Declination Deg. Degree(s) Del. (_Delineavit_) he drew it Dem. Democrat D.G. (_Dei gratia_) by the grace of God; (_Deo gratias_) thanks to God D.V. (_Deo volente_) God willing {83}

E. East; Eagle(s) Ea. Each E.B. English Bible (common) Ed. Editor, Edition E.E. Errors excepted E.g. (_Exempli gratia_) by way of example Elec. Electricity E.N.E. East-northeast Ent. Entomology E.S.E. East-southeast Et al. (_Et alibi_) and elsewhere; (_et alii_) and others Etc. (_Et caetera_) and so forth Et seq. (_Et sequentia_) the following Ex. Example Exc. Exception

F., Fahr. Fahrenheit (thermometer) Fec. (_Fecit_) he made it Fem. or f. Feminine Fig.(s) Figure(s) Finn. Finnish Fol. or f., ff. Folio(s) For. Foreign Ft. Fort

Gent. Gentleman Ger. German Goth. Gothic Gr. Greek

H. Husband Hdkf. Handkerchief H.e. (_Hoc est_) that is, or, this is Hist. History, Historical H.J.S. (_Hic jacet sepultus_) here lies buried H.M.P. (_Hoc monumentum posuit_) erected this monument H.R.I.P. (_Hic requiescit in pace_) here lies in peace H.S. (_Hic situs_) here lies {84}

Ibid., Ib. (_Ibidem_) in the same place Id. (_Idem_) the same I.e. (_Id est_) that is I.H.S. First letters of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, Greek for _Jesus_[12] Illus. Illustrated Imp. Imperative (mood) Incog. (_Incognito_) unknown Indef. Indefinite Indic. Indicative (mood) Infin. Infinitive (mood) In lim. (_In limine_) at the outset In loc. (_In loco_) in the place Inst. (_Instante_) the current month Int. Interest Interj. Interjection In trans. (_In transitu_) on the passage Ion. Ionic Ir. Irish Irreg. Irregular Isl. Island Ital. Italic Itin. Itinerary

J.H.S. See I.H.S. Jour. Journal

Lat. Latin, latitude L.c. (_Loco citato_) in the place cited L.l. (_Loco laudato_) in the place quoted Lon. or Long. Longitude L.S. (_Locus sigilli_) place of the seal LXX The Septuagint

M. (_Meridies_) noon M. Married Mem. Memorandum, Memoranda Mgr. Manager Misc. Miscellaneous Mo.(s) Month, months {85} M.S. (_Memoriae sacrum_) sacred to the memory MS. (_Manuscriptum_) manuscript MSS. Manuscripts Mt. Mount, _Mont_ Myth. Mythology

N. Noun; note(s) Nat. National Naut. Nautical N.B. (_Nota Bene_) note well Nem. con. or (_Nemine contradicente_ or _nemine nem. diss. dissentiente_) none opposing N.l. (_Non liquet_) it does not appear N. lat. North latitude N.N.E. North-northeast N.N.W. North-northwest Nom. Nominative Nol. pros. (_Nolle prosequi_) indicates in law that a complaint will not be prosecuted N.S. New Style (_after 1752_) N.T. New Testament N.u. name(s) unknown N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary N.W. Northwest

Ob. (_Obiit_) he or she died Obj. Objective (case) Obs. Obsolete O.F. Odd Fellow(s) Olym. Olympiad O.H.M.S. On His Majesty’s Service Op. Opposite O.S. Old Style (_before 1752_) O.T. Old Testament

P. or pp. Page or pages Par. or ¶ Paragraph Par. Pas. Parallel Passage(s) Parl. Parliament Part. Participle {86} Partic. Particle Pass. Passive (voice) Pen. Peninsula Pent. Pentecost Perf. Perfect (tense) Pers. Person Pers. pron. Personal Pronoun Persp. Perspective Phil. Philosophy Pinx. (_Pinxit_) he painted it Pl. Plate(s) Plur. Plural Plup. Pluperfect Plff. Plaintiff P.M. (_Post meridiem_) afternoon to midnight P.O. Post-office Pop. Population Posit. Positive P.p. Past participle P.P.C. (_Pour prendre congé_) to take leave P. pr. Participle present Pro tem. (_Pro tempore_) for the time being P.R. (_Populus Romanus_) the Roman people Pret. Preterite tense Pron. Pronoun Pr. p. Present participle Pref. Preface P.S. Privy Seal P.T.O. Please turn over Pt. Point Pub. Publisher Pub. Doc. Public Document(s)

Q. Question Q.B. Queen’s Bench Q.C. Queen’s College; Queen’s Council Q.d. (_Quasi dicat_) as if he should say; (_Quasi dictum_) as if said; (_Quasi dixisset_) as if he had said Q.E. (_Quod est_) which is {87} Q.E.D. (_Quod erat demonstrandum_) which was to be proved Q.E.F. (_Quod erat faciendum_) which was to be done Q.l. (_Quantum libet_) as much as you please Q. Mess. Queen’s Messenger Qm. (_Quomodo_) by what means, how Q.p. or q. pl. (_Quantum placet_) as much as you please Qr. Quarter Q.s. (_Quantum sufficit_) a sufficient quantity Q.v. (_Quantum vis_) as much as you will Q.v. (_Quod vide_) which see Qy. Query

R., Reaum Reaumur (thermometer) R. (_Regina_) Queen; (_Rex_) King Rem. Remark(s) R.A. Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery R. E. Royal Engineers Recd. Received Rect. Rector Ref. Reformation; Reformed Ref. Ch. Reformed Church Ref. Reference Regr. Registrar Regt. Regiment Rel. pron. Relative Pronoun Rep. Representative Repub. Republican R.M. Royal Marines R.N. Royal Navy Ro. (_Recto_) right-hand page Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic R.P. (_Res Publica_) Republic Ru. Runic

S. Solo (_in Italian music_); South S. SS. Section(s), Saint(s) S.a. (_Secundum artem_) according to art {88} Sax. Saxon S.C. (_Senatus consultum_) a decree of the Senate S.C (_in law_) same case Sch. Schooner(s) Schol. (_Scholium_) a note Sci. Science Sculp. (_Sculpsit_) he engraved S.E. Southeast Sen. Senate; Senator Seq. or sq. (_Sequente_) and in what follows Seqq. or sqq. (_Sequentibus_) and in the following (places) Ser. Series Shak. Shakspere Sing. Singular (number) S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court S. lat. South latitude S.O.S. Marconi distress signal S.P. (_Sine prole_) without issue Sp. gr. Specific gravity S.P.Q.R. (_Senatus Populusque Romanus_) the Senate and the Roman People S.R.I. (_Sacrum Romanum Imperium_) the Holy Roman Empire S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society S.S. Sunday School S.S.E. South-southeast S.S.W. South-southwest St. Saint; street Stat. Statute(s) Ster. Sterling Subj. Subjunctive Subst. Substantive Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothic Super. Superfine Superl. Superlative S.W. Southwest {89}

T. Tenor (_in music_); (_Tutti_) the whole orchestra, after a solo Ter. Territory Term. Termination Theor. Theorem Tr. Translator; transpose

Um. Unmarried Univ. University U.S.A. United States Army U.S.M. United States Mail U.S.N. United States Navy U.S.S. United States Ship U.s. (_Ut supra_) as above

Vat. Vatican V.a. Verb active V. aux. Verb auxiliary V. def. Verb defective V. dep. Verb deponent Ven. Venerable V.g. (_Verbi gratiâ_) for example V. imp. Verb impersonal V. in Verb intransitive V. irr. Verb irregular V. n. Verb neuter Vo. (_Verso_) left-hand page Voc. Vocative Vol. Volume V. r. Verb reflexive V. tr. Verb transitive V. Vulgate (Version)

W. West; wife W. lon. West longitude W.N.W. West-northwest W.S.W. West-southwest

Xmas Christmas

Zoöl. Zoölogy

[12] Erroneously _Jesus hominum Salvator_.

{90}

9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS

OLD TESTAMENT (O. T.)

Gen. Exod. Lev. Num. Deut. Josh. Judg. Ruth I and II Sam. I and II Kings I and II Chron. Ezra Neh. Esth. Job Ps. (Pss.) Prov. Eccles. Song of Sol. (or Cant.) Isa. Jer. Lam. Ezek. Dan. Hos. Joel Amos Obad. Jonah Mic. Nah. Hab. Zeph. Hag. Zech. Mal.

NEW TESTAMENT (N. T.)

Matt. Mark Luke John Acts Rom. I and II Cor. Gal. Eph. Phil. Col. I and II Thess. I and II Tim. Titus Philem. Heb. Jas. I and II Pet. I, II, and III John Jude Rev.

APOCRYPHA

I and II Esd. Tob. = Tobit Jud. = Judith Rest of Esther Wisd. of Sol. Eccles. Bar. Song of Three Children Sus. Bel and Dragon Pr. of Man. I, II, II, and IV Macc.

10. MONETARY SIGNS

$ Dollar or dollars cts. Cents gn. Guinea £ (_English_) Pound or pounds ∠ or s. Shilling or shillings {91} d. (_Denarius_) penny or pence fr. Franc or francs c. (_French_) Centime or centimes m. Mark or marks pf. Pfennig or pfennigs cr. (_Austrian_) Crown or crowns hr. Heller or hellers rub. Ruble or rubles kop. Kopec or kopecs kr. (_Danish_) Crown or crowns öro, öre Oro or öre £ (_Italian_) Lira or lire c. (_Italian_) Centesimo or centesimi

11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

+ Plus − Minus ± Plus or minus ∓ Minus or plus × Multiplied by[13] ÷ Divided by = Equal to ≠ Not equal to ≡ Identical with ≢ Not identical with ≅ Congruent to ＞ Greater than ＜ Less than ≏ The difference between ≎ Is equivalent to ∫ Integration ∶ and ∷ Proportion ∝ Varies as ≐ Approaches as a limit

∞ Infinity ∴ Therefore {92} ∵ Because ⋯ Continuation √ The radical sign ⊥ Perpendicular to [∟5] Factorial sign ∥ Parallel ⌒ Arc of circle ° Degree of circle ′ Minute of circle ″ Second of circle ∠ ⦠ Angle ∟ Right angle □ Square ▭ Rectangle ▱ Parallelogram △ Triangle

[13] This is also indicated algebraically by a dot, as, _a_ · _b_

12. MEDICAL SIGNS

āā (ἀνά) of each ℞ (_Recipe_) take ℥, ℥i Ounce, one ounce ℥ss Half an ounce ℥iss One ounce and a half ℥ij Two ounces Ʒ Drachm ℈ Scruple ○ (_Octavius_) Pint ℥ Fluid ounce Ʒ Fluid drachm _m._ Minim or drop

{93}

NUMERALS

According to Astle, the combination of Greek numerical characters was not well known to the Latins before the thirteenth century, although Greek numerical characters were frequently used in France and Germany in episcopal letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all the Greek ciphers the episemon βαῦ was most in use with the Latins; it gradually assumed the form of _G_ with a tail, for so it appears in a Latin inscription of the year 296. It is found to have been used in the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for 6, and this value has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that there is no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with even Mabillon, have been mistaken in estimating it as 5, but in a posthumous work he acknowledges his error.

Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed _U_, for the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different. Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express any number except 5.

The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in the application of their letters.

The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks, learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V inverted (Ʌ), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over ̄X expressed 10,000, etc.

When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus _vir_ after those six units signified _sex-vir_. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (IↃ,) without lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CIↃ, CD, ∞, ⅿ. The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number.

In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX, etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was put 102 1/2. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5.

In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90. The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France, Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the fifteenth century. {96}

The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French.

The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc.

NUMERAL LETTERS

_Roman_ _Arabic_ Unus, a, um I 1 Duo, ae, o II 2 Tres, ia III 3 Quatuor IV [IIII] 4 Quinque V 5 Sex VI 6 Septem VII 7 Octo VIII 8 Novem IX 9 Decem X 10 Undecim XI 11 Duodecim XII 12 Tredecim XIII 13 Quatuordecim XIV 14 Quindecim XV 15 Se(sex)decim XVI 16 Septemdecim XVII 17 {97} Octodecim or XVIII 18 Duodeviginti Novemdecim or XIX 19 Undeviginti Viginti XX 20 Triginta XXX 30 Quadraginta XL 40 Quinquaginta L 50 Sexaginta LX 60 Septuaginta LXX 70 Octoginta LXXX 80 Nonaginta XC 90 Centum C 100 Ducenti-ae-a CC 200 Trecenti-ae-a CCC 300 Quadringenti-ae-a CCCC 400 Quingenti-ae-a IↃ or D 500 Sexcenti-ae-a DC 600 Septingenti-ae-a DCC 700 Octingenti-ae-a DCCC 800 Nongenti-ae-a DCCCC or CM 900 Mille M or CIↃ 1000 Duo millia or MM 2000 Bis mille Tria millia or MMM 3000 Ter mille Quatuor millia or MMMM 4000 Quater mille Quinque millia or IↃↃ or ̄V 5000 Quinquies mille Decem millia or CCIↃↃ or ̄X 10,000 Decies mille Quinquaginta millia or IↃↃↃ or ̄L 50,000 Quinquaquies mille Centum millia or CCCIↃↃↃ or ̄C 100,000 Centies mille Quingenta millia or IↃↃↃↃ or ̄D 500,000 Quingenties mille Decies centena millia CCCCIↃↃↃↃ or ̄M 1,000,000

{98}

If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4; IX, 9; XC, 90.

If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI, 11; CX, 110.

A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus ̄V signifies five thousand; ̄L, fifty thousand; ̄M, a thousand times a thousand, or a million.

I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter.

V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.

X, _ten_, because it represents two V’S.

L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.

C, _a hundred_, centum.

IↃ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIↃ.

M or CIↃ, _a thousand_, from _mille_. The latter figures joined at the top, ⅿ, formed the ancient M. {99}

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

Correctness is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse. Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:

«Canon I.» — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., _admittance_ is better than _admission_, as the latter word also means “confession”; _relative_ is to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a story.

«Canon II.» — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_.

«Canon III.» — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, _open_ [_up_], _meet_ [_together_], _follow_ [_after_], _examine_ [_into_], _trace_ [_out_], _bridge_ [_over_], _crave_ [_for_], etc.

«Canon IV.» — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., _most beautiful_ is better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_.

«Canon V.» — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., _begin_ is better than _commence_.

Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray.

The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word _vim_, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [_Colloq._] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use.

The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:

«Accept», see «Except»

«Admire», should not be used to express delight: e.g., _I should admire_ [be delighted] _to go to California_

«Admit», see «Confess»

ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also «Infinitive»)

«Affable», means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for _agreeable_

«Affect», should not be confused with _effect_: e.g., _She was deeply affected by the news_; or _The news had a serious effect upon her_; or _The effect of the news was serious_

«Aggravate», should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_. It means “to make worse”: e.g., _His cold was aggravated by the exposure_

«Ain’t», is a contraction of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, _I ain’t_, but it is absolutely wrong to say, _He ain’t_, etc.

«All right», should never be written _alright_

«Alternative», should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things

«And», should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., _I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks_. Omit the conjunction

«Any place», should be written _anywhere_

«Apparently», is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; _evidently_ of that which both seems and is real {102}

«Apt», means skilful and should not be used for _likely_. _He is apt to be here soon_ should be _He is likely to be here soon_; _He is an apt pupil_ is correct

ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., _The army and navy_ signifies a single organization. Insert _a_ before _navy_

«As», should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., _Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time_. The word _as_ stands here as a contraction of _inasmuch as_. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., _Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time_.

«As . . . as», see «So . . . as»

«At», is often incorrectly used for _in_: e.g., _They are living at_ [in] _Florence_

«At length», does not mean the same as _at last_. Say _At length he showed signs of relenting_, and _At last he relented_

«Aught», is frequently confused with _naught_. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”

«Avail», should be used with _of_ only with some form of _be_; otherwise _to_ is the proper word: e.g., _He called lustily, but of_ [to] _no avail_; or _He called lustily, but_ [_it was_] _of no avail_

«Aware», is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; _conscious_ in relation to sensations or things within ourselves

«Awful», should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say _I had an awfully good time_ is as ridiculous as it is meaningless

«Badly», should not be used for _very much_ or _a great deal_. The expression, _If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly_, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. _He looks badly_ means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” _He looks bad_ is correct

«Bank on», a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_ {103}

«Beg», should never be used without the word _leave_, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, _I beg to state_, _I beg to differ_. One should say, _I beg leave to state_, _I beg leave to differ_

«Bring», see «Take»

«But», is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., _The invitation included all but him_ is correct

«Can», denotes power, and should not be used for _may_, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: _He may do it if he can_

«Cannot but», should not be used interchangeably with _can but_, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., _I can but try_ means “All I can do is to try”; _I cannot but try_ means “I cannot help trying”

«Can’t seem», should not be used for _seem unable_: e.g., _I can’t seem_ [seem unable] _to find it_

CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_

«Childlike», means that belonging to the child; _childish_, means the weakness of the child

«Come», see «Go»

«Common», see «Mutual»

«Confess», should not be used in the sense of _admit_, in cases in which no idea of confession enters

«Conscious», see «Aware»

«Continual», meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with _continuous_ meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., _Continual nagging spoils the disposition_, and _The continuous flowing of a stream_

«Deadly», which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with _deathly_, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., _A deadly poison_, and _A deathly pallor_ {104}

«Decided», means “strong,” _decisive_ means “final.” _A decided opinion_ does not mean the same as _a decisive opinion_

«Definite», means “well-defined”; _definitive_ means “final”

«Demean», which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for _degrade_ or _debase_