Chapter IV: Part 4

----------------------+-------+----- By Postal Route to | Mls. | D’s ----------------------+-------+----- Adelaide, v. Frisco | 12845 | 34 Alexandria, v. Lon. | 6150 | 13 Amsterdam, v. Lon. | 3985 | 9 Antwerp, v. London | 4000 | 9 Athens, v. Lon. | 5655 | 12 Bahia, Brazil | 5870 | 21 Bangkok, S. v. Frisco | 12990 | 43 Batavia, J. v. Lon. | 12800 | 34 Berlin | 4385 | 9 Bombay, v. London | 9765 | 24 Bremen | 4235 | 8 Buenos Ayres | 8045 | 29 Calcutta, v. London | 11120 | 26 Cape Town, v. Lon. | 11245 | 27 Const’ople, v. Lon. | 5810 | 11 Florence, v. London | 4800 | 10 Glasgow | 3370 | 10 Greytown, v. N. O. | 2815 | 7 Halifax, N. S. | 645 | 2 Hamburg, direct | 4820 | 9 Havana | 1366 | 3 Hongkong, v. Fris. | 10590 | 25 Honolulu, v. Frisco | 5645 | 13 Liverpool | 3540 | 8 London | 3740 | 8 Madrid, v. London | 4925 | 9 Melbourne, v. Fris. | 12265 | 26 Mexico City (R.R.) | 3750 | 5 Panama | 2355 | 6 Paris | 4020 | 8 Rio de Janeiro | 6204 | 23 Rome, v. London | 5030 | 9 Rotterdam, v. Lon. | 3935 | 9 St. Ptrsburg, v. Lon. | 5370 | 10 Shanghai, v. Fris. | 9920 | 25 Stockholm, v. Lon. | 4975 | 10 Sydney, v. Frisco | 11570 | 21 Valparaiso, v. Pan. | 4808 | 21 Vienna | 4740 | 10 Yokohama, v. Fris. | 7348 | 20 ----------------------+-------+-----

{142}

APPENDIX

STANDARD TIME

By Standard Time is meant that the hour of each 15° of longitude becomes the local mean time for the zone or belt extending 7 1/2° on each side of the central meridian; though in practise the zone has to be adapted to local circumstances, and so cannot conform to the exact line or meridian, but is arranged to suit boundaries of States or Provinces as may be most convenient. By way of illustration, it may be noted that in the Province of Ontario, Canada, by Act of the Legislature, the hour of 75° W. is Standard Time for the Province as far as 87° W., and that the S.W. point, 83° W., extends westerly beyond the eastern part of the State of Michigan, where the time of 90° W. is used; so at Windsor, Ontario, it is noon while in Michigan — more to the east — it is 11 A.M. The Standard Time as used in the chief cities of Canada and the United States may be noted: at Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto, at Boston, New York, and Washington, the time of 75° W., five hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Winnipeg in Manitoba, and at Detroit, Chicago, and New Orleans, the time of 90°, {143} six hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Regina and Denver it is the time of 105°, seven hours earlier than Greenwich; and in British Columbia and at San Francisco the time of 120° W., eight hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; and when 180° is reached another day begins in Eastern Siberia, at the Fiji Islands, and a little to the east of New Zealand.

The same rule applies to places east of Greenwich, where, of course, noon is earlier than at Greenwich according to the longitude. Spain adopted Standard — that is, Greenwich — Time early in the century. When noon at Greenwich it is 2 P.M. in Egypt and South Africa; it is 5:30 P.M. in India, 82 1/2° E.; in Japan and Corea, 135° E., it is 9 P.M.; and in Eastern Australia, 150° E., it is 10 P.M.

The question is often asked, “Where does a day begin?” — that is, any special day, New Year’s Day or Easter Day — and the answer is that for all peoples, nations, and languages, using maps with longitude East and West from Greenwich, each day begins at the meridian of 180°, slightly east of New Zealand in the South, and intersecting Eastern Siberia in the North, and so the last day of the nineteenth century and the first day of the twentieth were on the Earth together, not running concurrently or side by side, north and south of the Equator, as has been {144} supposed, erroneously, but the latter following the former from 180° westerly to Greenwich, and on again to 180°, where it gave place to January 2.

Twelve O’clock Noon Greenwich Mean Time

AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES

H. M. Adelaide 9 14 P.M. Auckland (N.Z.) 11 39 P.M. Berlin 0 54 P.M. Berne 0 30 P.M. Bombay 4 51 P.M. Boston, U.S. 7 16 A.M. Brisbane, Qnsland 10 12 P.M. Brussels 0 17 P.M. Calcutta 5 53 P.M. Cape of Good Hope 1 14 P.M. Chicago 6 10 A.M. Constantinople 1 56 P.M. Dublin 11 35 A.M. Edinburgh 11 47 A.M. Florence 0 45 P.M. Glasgow 11 43 A.M. Hobart, Tasmania 9 49 P.M. Jerusalem 2 21 P.M. Lisbon 11 23 A.M. Madras 5 21 P.M. Madrid 11 45 A.M. Malta 0 58 P.M. Melbourne, Aus. 9 40 P.M. Moscow 2 30 P.M. Newfndland, S. Jns. 8 29 A.M. New York 7 4 A.M. Paris 0 9 P.M. Pekin 7 46 P.M. Penzance 11 37 A.M. Perth, W. Aus. 7 43 P.M. Philadelphia 6 59 A.M. Port Moresby 10 4 P.M. Prague 0 58 P.M. Quebec 7 15 A.M. Rome 0 50 P.M. Rotterdam 0 18 P.M. San Francisco, Port 3 52 A.M. St. Petersburg 2 1 P.M. Stockholm 1 12 P.M. Suez 2 10 P.M. Sydney 10 5 P.M. Toronto 6 42 A.M. Vancouver 3 38 A.M. Vienna 1 5 P.M.

{145}

FOREIGN COINS

WITH THEIR VALUE IN UNITED STATES MONEY AS PROCLAIMED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY

1 OCTOBER, 1910

A = Standard B = Monetary Unit C = Val. in terms of U.S. gold dollar

------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------
Country | A | B | C | Coins
------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------
Argentine Republic|Gold |Peso |$0.965 | Gold — argentine ($4.824) and
| | | | 1/2 argentine. Silver — peso
| | | | and divisions
Austria-Hungary |Gold |Crown | .203 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns.
| | | | Silver — 1 and 5 crowns
Belgium |Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 10 and 20 francs.
| | | | Silver — 5 francs
Bolivia |Silver|Boliviano| .389 | Silver boliviano and divisions
Brazil |Gold |Milreis | .546 | Gold — 5, 10, 20 milreis.
| | | | Silver — 1/2, 1, 2 milreis
British Honduras |Gold |Dollar | 1.000 |
Canada | | | |
(except Nfd.) |Gold |Dollar | 1.000 |
| | | |
Cent. Amer. | | | |
States—   | | | |
Costa Rica |Gold |Colon | .465 | Gold — 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons
| | | | ($9.307). Silver — 5, 10, 25,
| | | | and 50 centimos
Guatemala, | | | |
Honduras, | | | |
Nicaragua, & | | | |
Salvador |Silver|Peso | .391 | Silver — peso and divisions
Chili |Gold |Peso | .365 | Gold — escudo ($1.825),
| | | | doubloon($3.650), and condor
| | | | ($7.300).
| | | | Silver — peso and divisions
| |[29]Tael:| |
| | Canton | .612 |
China |Silver| Haikwan | .652 |
| | Hongkong| .421 |
| | | |
{146} | | | |
| | | |
China |Silver|Dollar: | |
| | British|$0.421 |
| | Mexican| .424 |
Colombia | Gold |Dollar | 1.000 | Gold — condor ($9.647);
| | | | d’ble-condor. Silver — peso
Denmark | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Ecuador | Gold |Sucre | .487 | Gold — 10 sucres ($4.8665).
| | | | Silver — sucre and div.
Egypt | Gold |Pound | 4.943 | Gold — pound (100 piasters),
| | (100 pi-| | 5, 10, 20, 50 piasters
| | asters) | | Silver — 1, 2, 5, 10, 20
| | | | piasters
Finland | Gold |Mark | .193 | Gold — 20 marks ($3.859), 10
| | | | marks ($1.93)
France | Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
| | | | francs. Silver — 5 francs
German Empire | Gold |Mark | .238 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 marks
Great Britain | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
| | Sterling| | sterling), 1/2 sovereign
Greece | Gold |Drachma | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
| | | | drachmas. Sil. — 5 drachmas
Haiti | Gold |Gourde | .965 | Gold — 1, 2, 5, 10 gourdes.
| | | | Silver — gourde and div.
India (British) | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
| | Sterl- | | sterling). Silver — rupee
| | ing[30] | | and divisions
Italy | Gold |Lira | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
| | | | lire. Silver — 5 lire
Japan | Gold |Yen | .498 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 yen.
| | | | Silver — 10, 20, and 50 yen
Liberia | Gold |Dollar |1.000 |
Mexico | Gold |Peso[31] | .498 | Gold — 5, 10 pesos. Silver —
| | | | dollar (or peso) and div.
Netherlands | Gold |Florin | .402 | Gold — 10 florins. Silver —
| | | | 2 1/2. 1 florin and
| | | | divisions
Newfoundland | Gold |Dollar |1.014 | Gold — 2 dollars ($2.028)
| | | |
{147} | | | |
| | | |
Norway | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Panama | Gold |Balboa |1.000 | Gold — 1, 2 1/2, 5, 10, 20
| | | | balboas. Silver — peso and
| | | | div.
Persia |Silver|Kran | .072 | Gold — 1/2, 1 and 2 tomans
| | | | ($3.409). Silver — 1/4, 1/2,
| | | | 1, 2, and 5 krans
Peru | Gold |Libra |4.866 1/2 | Gold — 1/2 and 1 libra.
| | | | Silver — sol and divisions
Philippine Islands| Gold |Peso | .500 | Silver peso — 10, 20 and 50
| | | | centavos
Portugal | Gold |Milreis |1.080 | Gold — 1, 2, 5 and 10 milreis
Russia | Gold |Ruble | .515 | Gold — 5, 7 1/2, 10, and 15
| | | | rubles. Silver — 5, 10, 15,
| | | | 20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks
Spain | Gold |Peseta | .193 | Gold — 25 pesetas. Silver — 5
| | | | pesetas
Straits | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
Settlements | | Sterl- | | sterling). Sil. — dol. and
| | ing[32] | | div.
Sweden | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Switzerland | Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
| | | | francs. Silver — 5 francs
Turkey | Gold |Piaster | .044 | Gold — 25, 50, 100, 250, and
| | | | 500 piasters
Uruguay | Gold |Peso |1.034 | Gold — peso. Silver — peso and
| | | | divisions
Venezuela | Gold |Bolivar | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
| | | | bolivars. Silver — 5
| | | | bolivars
------------------+------+---------+----------+-------------------------------

[29] Amoy, .641; Cheefoo, .613; Chin Kiang, .626; Fuchau, .593; Hankau, .599; Kiaochu, .621; Nanking, .634; Newchang, .601; Ningpo, .616; Peking, .625; Shanghai, .585; Swatow, .592; Takau, .645; Tientsin, .621.

[30] The sovereign is the standard coin of India, but the rupee ($0.3244 1/2) is the current coin, valued at 15 to the sovereign.

[31] Seventy-five centigrams fine gold.

[32] The current coin of the Straits Settlements is the silver dollar issue on government account and which has been given a tentative value of $0.567758 1/3.

NOTE. — The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure silver contents at the average market price of silver for the three months preceding the date of this table. (Courtesy _The World Almanac_.)

{148}

COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS

Réaumur Centigrade Fahrenheit
80 100 212 Water boils at sea-level
76 95 203
72 90 194
68 85 185
63.1 78.9 174 Alcohol boils
60 75 167
56 70 158
52 65 149 White of egg coagulates
48 60 140
44 55 131
42.2 52.8 127
40 50 122
36 45 113 Tallow melts
33.8 42.2 108
32 40 104
29.3 36.7 98 Blood heat
28 35 95
25.8 32.2 90
24 30 86
21.3 26.7 80
20 25 77
16 20 68 Temperate
12.4 15.3 60
10.2 12.8 55
8 10 50
5.8 7.2 45
4 5 41
1.3 1.7 35
0 0 32 Water freezes
0.9 - 1.1 30
4 - 9 23
5.3 - 6.7 20
8 -10 14
9.8 -12.2 10
12 -15 5
14.2 -17.8 0 Zero Fahr. {149}
16 -20 - 4
20 -25 -13
24 -30 -22
28 -35 -31
32 -40 -40 Mercury freezes

_To change from centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. To change from Réaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32._

(Courtesy _The World Almanac_)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

THE METRIC SYSTEM

Multiples which are used equally with all the principal units
M (myria = 10000)
K (kilo = 1000)
H (hekto = 100)
D (deka = 10)
(NOTE. These are Greek numerals)

Divisions which are used equally with all the principle units
d (deci = .1)
c (centi = .01)
m (milli = .001)
(NOTE. These are Latin numerals)

+-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+ | Kinds of | Principal Units | Definitions | | Quantities | | | | Measured | | | +-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+ Length m (meter)

Area sq. m (square meter)

a (Ar) 1 sq. Dm.

Volume cu m (cubic meter)

s (ster) 1 cu. m.

l (liter) 1 cu. d m

Weight g (gram) Weight of 1 cu. cm. of
pure water at 4° centigrade

NOTE. 1000 kg. is called t. (a metric ton.)

{150}

LINEAR MEASURE

12 in. = 1 foot 3 ft. = 1 yd. 5 1/2 yds. = 1 rod 320 rds. = 1 mile 5280 ft. = 1 mile 3 miles = 1 league

The hand (4 in.) is used to measure the height of horses. The nautical mile is 6086.44 ft. 1 knot is 1.1528 statute miles. 1 degree is 67.168 statute miles.

SQUARE MEASURE

144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft. 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd. 30 1/4 sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod 160 sq. rods = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 sq. mile

The side of a square having an area of an acre is approximately 208 3/4 feet.

DRY MEASURE

2 pints = 1 quart 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel

LIQUID MEASURE

4 gills = 1 pt. 2 pts. = 1 qt. 4 qts. = 1 gall. 31 1/2 gall. = 1 barrel 2 barrels = 1 hogshead

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT

20 grains = 1 scruple 3 scruples = 1 dram 8 drams = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 pound

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

16 drams = 1 ounce 16 ounces = 1 pound 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight 20 hundredweights = 1 ton Long ton = 2240 pounds, used mostly in Great Britain.

TROY WEIGHT

24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 pound 1 carat in diamond, measure = 3.2 Troy grains.

{151}

PAPER MEASURE

24 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 ream 2 reams = 1 bundle 5 bundles = 1 bale

TIME MEASURE

60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour 24 hours = 1 day 7 days = 1 week 28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month (30 days = 1 month in computing interest) 365 days = 1 year 366 days = 1 leap year

CIRCULAR MEASURE

60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 degree 30 degrees = 1 sign 90 degrees = 1 quadrant 4 quadrants = 12 signs, or 360 degrees = 1 circle

CLOTH MEASURE

2 1/4 inches = 1 nail 4 nails = 1 quarter 4 quarters = 1 yard

MARINERS’ MEASURE

6 feet = 1 fathom 120 fathoms = 1 cab. le’th. 7 1/2 cable lengths = 1 mile 5280 feet = 1 stat. mile 6085 feet = 1 naut. mile

MISCELLANEOUS

3 inches = 1 palm 4 inches = 1 hand 6 inches = 1 span 18 inches = 1 cubit 21.8 in. = 1 Bible cubit 2 1/2 ft. = 1 military pace

SURVEYORS’ MEASURE

7.92 inches = 1 link 25 links = 1 rod 4 rods = 1 chain 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 sq. mile 36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) = 1 township

{152}

CUBIC MEASURE

1728 cubic in. = 1 cub. ft. 27 cubic ft. = 1 cubic yd. 128 c. ft. = 1 cord (wood) 40 cub. ft. = 1 ton (shpg.) 2150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel 268.8 cubic inches = 1 standard gallon 1 cubic foot = about four-fifths of a bushel

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

_Linear Measure_

1 centimeter = 0.3937 in. 1 in. = 2.54 centimeters 1 decimeter = 3.937 in. = 0.328 feet 1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters 1 meter = 39.37 in. = 1.0936 yards 1 yard = 0.9144 meter 1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods 1 rod = 0.5029 dekameter 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers

_Square Measure_

1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in. 1 sq. inch = 6452 square centimeters 1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft. 1 sq. foot = 9.2903 square decimeters 1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd. 1 sq. yd. = 0.8361 sq. m’r. 1 are = 3.954 sq. rd. 1 sq. rd. = 0.2529 are 1 hektar = 2.47 acres 1 acre = 0.4047 hektar 1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. m. 1 sq. m. = 2.59 sq. kilometers

_Measure of Volume_

1 cu. centimeter = 0.061 cu. in. 1 cu. in. = 16.39 cu. centimeters 1 cu. decimeter = 0.0353 cu. ft. 1 cu. ft. = 28.317 cu. decimeters 1 cu. mr. = 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cu. yd. = 0.7646 cu. mr. 1 cu. mr. = 0.2759 cd. 1 stere = 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cord = 3.624 steres 1 stere = 0.2759 cd. 1 liter = 0.908 qt. dry 1 qt. dry = 1.101 liters 1 liter = 1.0567 qt. liq. 1 qt. liq. = 0.9463 liter 1 dekaliter = 2.6417 gal. 1 gal. = 0.3785 dekaliter 1 dekaliter = .135 pks. 1 peck = 0.881 dekaliter 1 hektoliter = 2.8375 bush. 1 bus. = 0.3524 hektoliter

{153}

_Weights_

1 gram. = 0.03527 ounce 1 ounce = 28.85 grams. 1 kilogram = 2.2046 lbs. 1 lb. = 0.4536 kilogram 1 metric ton = 1.1023 English ton 1 English ton = 0.9072 metric ton

British Weights and Measures

The British Weights and Measures Act of 1878, which superseded all previous laws upon the subject, enacts the measures which may legally be used in the United Kingdom. These are based upon the Standard Yard and the Standard Pound.

Further Acts of Parliament were passed in 1889 and 1904 dealing with the question of verification of weights and measures, and regulations were issued by the Board of Trade in 1907 respecting the inspection and stamping of weights and measures.

The Yard and the Pound are the only two independent standards for weights and measures, as the Gallon, the standard of capacity, both for dry and liquid measure, is not independent, but is based upon the Pound. The Gallon is defined in the Act of 1878 as the volume of ten Imperial Standard Pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit and the barometer at 30 inches.

The multiples and subdivisions of the Standard Yard, Pound, and Gallon, as laid {154} down in the Act of 1878, are as follows; the legal abbreviations are given in brackets:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

12 inches (_in._) = 1 foot (_ft._)
3 feet = 1 YARD (_yd._)
5 1/2 yards = 1 rod, pole, or perch
4 poles = 1 chain or 100 links
10 chains = 1 furlong
8 furlongs = 1 mile

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

7000 grains (_gr._) = 1 POUND (_lb._)

Also

16 drams (_dr._) = 1 ounce (_oz._) 16 ounces = 1 POUND (_lb._) 14 pounds = 1 stone 8 stone = 1 hundredweight (_cwt._) 20 hundredweights = 1 ton

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY

4 gills = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 GALLON
2 gallons = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
8 bushels = 1 quarter
36 bushels = 1 chaldron

4. MEASURES OF LAND

40 square perches = 1 rood
4 roods = 1 acre

For certain special purposes, the following are also authorized by the Act of 1878 or by Order in Council under the Act:

1. For weighing gold and silver and precious stones: {155}

The Troy ounce, equal in weight to 480 grains. In dealing with quantities less than an ounce, the ounce is divided decimally, _not_ into grains. Larger quantities than an ounce are stated in ounces. There is _no_ Troy pound.

2. For the use of apothecaries and for selling drugs retail:

(_a_) MEASURES OF WEIGHT

20 grains = 1 scruple (℈)
3 scruples = 1 drachm (ʒ)
8 drachms = 1 Apothecaries’ ounce (_oz. Apoth._)

(_b_) MEASURES OF CAPACITY

60 minims (_min._) = 1 fluid drachm (_fl. dr._)
8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce (_fl. oz._)

Of the Apothecaries’ measure of weight, the grain is the same as the Imperial grain; and the Apothecaries’ ounce contains 480 grains, like the Troy ounce. But, of the measures of capacity, the Apothecaries’ _drachm_ is not the same as the Imperial _dram_, and the two words are spelt differently. A fluid ounce of distilled water at a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit is equal in weight to the Imperial ounce (437.5 grains), and the _fluid drachm_ (54.6875 grains) is equal in weight to two Imperial _drams_.

ELECTRICAL MEASURES

It is customary to express electrical measures in terms of the centimeter, the gramme, and the second, and the value of the units {156} has been fixed by international agreement. The principal units, as described in the Order in Council of January 10, 1910, are as follows:

The OHM, the unit of resistance, is the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters.

The AMPERE, the unit of current, is the unvarying electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second.

The VOLT, the unit of pressure, is the pressure which, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere.

The WATT, the unit of power, is 1/746 of one horse-power, the horse-power being 33,000 lb. raised one foot in one minute. The Board of Trade unit is 1000 Watt-hours.

In carbon lamps of 16-candle power (nominal) about four watts are required per candle power to give good economical results for domestic purposes. One Board of Trade unit will keep a 16-candle carbon lamp alight for about 16 hours; metallic filament lamps require considerably less. {157}

MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES

_Builders’ Measurements_

Stock or kiln bricks 8 3/4 inches × 4 1/4 × 2 3/4 Welsh fire-bricks 9 inches × 4 1/2 × 2 3/4 Paving bricks 9 inches × 4 1/2 × 1 3/4 Square tiles 9 3/4 inches × 9 3/4 × 1 Square tiles 6 inches × 6 × 1 Dutch clinker bricks 9 1/4 inches × 3 × 1 1/2

A Rod of Brickwork 16 1/2 feet × 16 1/2 feet × 1 1/2 brick thick = 306 cubic feet, or 11 1/3 cubic yards, and contains about 4500 bricks with about 75 cubic feet of mortar.

Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lb. each; a load of 500 weighs about 1 ton 11 cwt. 1 qr.

A Piece of Wall Paper is 12 yd. long × 21 in. wide (English), and 9 yd. × 18 in. (French).

_Timber and Wood_

40 cubic feet rough, 50 cubic feet squared = 1 load 50 cubic feet of planks = 1 load 100 superficial feet = 1 square of flooring 120 Deals = 100

Width of Battens, 7 inches; Deals, 9 inches; Planks are 2 to 4 inches thick, and 10 or 11 inches wide. A Cord of Wood is 2 1/2 tons, or 128 cubic feet.

_Corn_

Wheat and other cereals are commonly sold by weight, the bushel being thus reckoned:

Wheat, English, 60 lb. Foreign, 62 lb. Barley, English, 50 lb. French, 52 1/2 lb. Mediterranean, 50 lb. {158} Oats, English, 39 lb. Foreign, 38 and 40 lb. Rye and Maize, 60 lb. Buckwheat, 52 lb.

_Hay and Straw_

Truss of Straw, 36 lb. Truss of Old Hay, 56 lb. Truss of New Hay (to September 1), 60 lb. Load, 36 Trusses — Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb.; Old Hay, 18 cwt.; New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb.

_Yard Measures_

_Cotton and Spun Silk Count._ — Thread = 1 1/2 yards; Lea, or Skein, _skn._ = 120 yards; Hank, _hk_ = 7 Skeins, or Leas = 840 yards; Spindle, _spdl._ = 18 Hanks; counts = the number of Hanks in 1 lb.; Bundle Hanks, either of 5 lb. or 10 lb.; Reels of Cotton vary from 30 to 1760 yards; they must be marked correctly. Bundles of Cotton are chiefly made up for export.

_Worsted Count._ — Wrap, 80 yards; Hank = 560 yards = 7 Wraps. Counts or Numbers are the number of hanks in a lb.

_Linen Count._ — The Hank or Lea is 300 yards, and the number of these in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. A Spindle is 48 hanks; a Bundle is 200 hanks.

_West of England Count._ — The Hank is 320 yards, and the number of hanks in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. {159}

_Size of Barrel_ Gals. Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9 Anker (10 gallons) 10 Kilderkin, Rundlet, or 1/2 Barrel 18 Barrel 36 Tierce (42 gallons) 42 Hogshead of Ale (1 1/2 barrels) 54 Puncheon 72 Butt of Ale 108

In the British Dependencies

The Imperial weights and measures are the legal standards in the British Dominions and in India. In some Colonies the Metric system may also be used. In certain Colonies and in India, the old local measures are still employed to a considerable extent. Among these are the following:

INDIAN WEIGHTS (_Bengal_)

Tola, unit of postage = 180 grains Chittak = 5 Tolas; Seer (16 Chittaks) = 2 9/35 lb. Imperial or Indian Maund = 82 2/7 lb. = 40 seer

_Madras_

Viss = 3.09 lbs., Maund = 25 lb., Candy = 500 lb.

SOUTH AFRICAN LAND MEASURES

Cape Morgen = 2.11654 English Acres Cape Feet = 1.033 English Feet Cape Rood = 12.396 English Feet

{160}

European Countries

The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted in the following countries:

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

In _Russia_ the standard of length is the Sachine, which is equal to seven British feet; the standard of weight is the Pound, equal to nine-tenths of the British pound. The other measures are:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

16 vershok = 1 archine
3 archine = 1 sachine
500 sachine = 1 verst

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

3 zolotnik = 1 loth 32 loth = 1 pound 40 pounds = 1 pood 10 poods = 1 berkovatz

In _Turkey_ the weights and measures differ considerably in different parts of the Empire, but the following are those used at Constantinople and the neighborhood:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

2 jeras = 1 rup 8 rups = 1 pek = 26.77 British inches

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

16 kirats = 1 dram 400 drams = 1 oke = 2.828 British pounds 44 okes = 1 kantar

{161}

The usual measure of capacity in Turkey is the Kileh, which is slightly larger than the British bushel.

TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP

«Time.» — Time is kept by means of “Bells,” although there is but one bell on the ship; and to strike the clapper properly against the bell requires some skill.

First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second’s interval apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus:

Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; B. ss.; B. s.; B. ss.; B.

«Watch.» — For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly, the crew is mustered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side, looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is thus divided:

Afternoon Watch noon to 4 P.M. First Dog Watch 4 P.M. to 6 P.M. Second Dog Watch 6 P.M. to 8 P.M. First Watch 8 P.M. to midnight Middle Watch 12 A.M. to 4 A.M. Morning Watch 4 A.M. to 8 A.M. Forenoon Watch 8 A.M. to noon

This makes seven _Watches_, which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the _Watch_ which is on duty in the forenoon one {162} day has the afternoon the next day, and the men who have only four hours’ rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for having _Dog Watches_, which are made by dividing the hours between 4 P.M. and 8 P.M. into two _Watches_.

PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES

--------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
WEIGHT | Local | 1st zone| 2d zone | 3d zone | 4th zone
OF | Rate | up to 50| 50 to 150| 150 to 300| 300 to 600
PARCEL | | miles | miles | miles | miles
--------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
1 lb. | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.08
2 lbs. | 0.06 | .08 | .10 | .12 | .14
3 lbs. | 0.07 | .11 | .14 | .17 | .20
4 lbs. | .08 | .14 | .18 | .22 | .26
5 lbs. | .09 | .17 | .22 | .27 | .32
6 lbs. | .10 | .20 | .26 | .32 | .38
7 lbs. | .11 | .23 | .30 | .37 | .44
8 lbs. | .12 | .26 | .34 | .42 | .50
9 lbs. | .13 | .29 | .38 | .47 | .56
10 lbs. | .14 | .32 | .42 | .52 | .62
11 lbs. | .15 | .35 | .46 | .57 | .68
--------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------

--------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
WEIGHT | 5th zone | 6th zone | 7th zone | 8th zone
OF | 600 to 1000| 1000 to 1400| 1400 to 1800| all over
PARCEL | miles | miles | miles | 1800 miles
--------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
1 lb. | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.12
2 lbs. | .16 | .19 | .21 | .24
3 lbs. | .23 | .28 | .31 | .36
4 lbs. | .30 | .37 | .41 | .48
5 lbs. | .37 | .46 | .51 | .60
6 lbs. | .44 | .55 | .61 | .72
7 lbs. | .51 | .64 | .71 | .84
8 lbs. | .58 | .73 | .81 | .96
9 lbs. | .65 | .82 | .91 | 1.08
10 lbs. | .72 | .91 | 1.01 | 1.20
11 lbs. | .79 | 1.00 | 1.11 | 1.32
--------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------

{163}

INDEX

“A” and “an,” spacing of, 60.

“a” (negative prefix), compounds of, 50.

Abbreviations,
use of period with, 12;
of firms and corporations; capitalization of, 23;
of degrees, capitalization of, 25;
of titles and States, spacing of, 59–60;
of italicized words in literary and legal references, 64;
of dates and usages thereto, 65;
of proper names, 66;
of Christian names, 66–68;
of titles, 68–75;
of commercial terms, 76–77;
of geographical terms, 77–81;
miscellaneous, 81–89;
scriptural, 90;
of monetary signs, 90–91;
of mathematical signs, 91–92;
of medical signs, 92;
not used in salutation of letters, 117.

_-able_ and _-ible_,
spelling of words terminating in, 38–39;
in division of words, 53.

Abstract ideas: capitalization of personified, 23.

Accents:
list of symbols, 2;
list of accented words, 36–37;
retention of, in foreign words used in English, 36–37.

“Accept,” correct use of, 101.

Acts, juridical, capitalization of, 27.

A.D. (_anno Domini_):
set in small caps, 30;
spacing of, 59.

“Addenda,” plural of _addendum_, 109.

Address (of letters) the: business, formal, and informal, 116.

Adjectival nouns, capitalization of, 24.

Adjectives:
use of comma with, 4, 5, 8;
capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26;
capitalization, with proper names, 26;
compound, 46;
ending in _-ical_, how to divide, 54.

_ad loc._, italicized, 64.

“Administration,” capitalization of, 25.

“Admire,” correct use of, 101.

“Admit,” correct use of, 101.

“Admittance,” correct use of, 99.

Adverbs:
use of comma with, 4, 5;
ending in “-ly” not to be hyphenated with adjectives and
participles, 46;
compound, treatment of, 51;
position of, 101.

_æ_, rules for use of, 33.

“Affable,” correct use of, 101.

“Affect,” correct use of, 101.

Ages, to be spelled out, 32.

“Aggravate,” correct use of, 101.

“Ain’t,” correct use of, 101.

Alford, Dean: on use of the comma, 4.

Algebraic, unknown quantities italicized, 64.

Alignment, of quotation marks, 16.

Alliances, political, capitalization of names of, 27.

“All right,” correct use of, 101.

“Alternative,” correct use of, 101.

A.M. (_ante meridiem_):
set in small capitals, 30;
spacing of, 59.

Ampere. _See_ Electrical measures.

Ampersand (&), the use of, 66.

Analogy of language, influence in diction, 99.

“And,”
correct use of, 101;
when to use comma before, 5.

“Ante,” compounds with, 50.

“Anti,” compounds with, 50.

Antithetical clauses. _See_ Clauses.

“Any place,” use of, 101.

Apocrypha, list of abbreviations for, 90.

Apostrophe:
rules for use of, 18–19;
in designating the possessive case, 18;
in forming plurals of numerals, 19;
in forming plurals of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a
sibilant, 19;
in indicating omission of letters or figures, 19;
in indicating omission of letters in contracted words, 19;
omission of, in words contracted in poetry, 19.

Apothecaries’ weight, table of, 150.

“Apparently,” correct use of, 101.

“Apt,” correct use of, 102.

Art, titles of works of, to be quoted, 17.

Articles:
definite, not to be treated as part of title of magazines and
newspapers, 30;
correct use of, 102.

“As,” correct use of, 102.

Astronomical terms:
capitalization of, 23;
names of stars and constellations, italicized, 64.

“At,” correct use of, 102.

“At length,” correct use of, 102.

“Aught,” correct use of, 102.

“Avail,” correct use of, 102.

Avoirdupois weight, table of, 150.

“Aware,” correct use of, 102.

“Awful,” correct use of, 102.

“Badly,” correct use of, 102.

“Bank on,” use of, 102.

Barrels, measures of, in gallons, 159.

B.C. (_before Christ_):
set in small caps, 30;
spacing of, 59.

“Beg,” correct use of, 103.

Bells, use of on board ship, 161.

“Bi-,” compounds with, 50.

Bible:
capitalization of names of books, divisions and versions of, 20;
abbreviations for books of, 90.

Biblical:
parables, capitalization of, 20;
general terms, capitalization of, 21;
capitalization of names and terms of, 20–21;
books, abbreviations for, 90.

Blocked indention:
in general, 56;
of address of letters, 116.

Books:
capitalization of titles, 26;
italicizing of titles, 62;
biblical abbreviations of, 90.

Botanical terms:
capitalization of, 23;
names of genera and species, italicized, 64.

Box-heads, omission of period after, 12.

Brackets, rules for use of, 18.

Break, or sudden change in sentence, indicated by dash, 13.

Briefness of form preferred, 99.

“Bring,” use of, 103.

British Dependencies, weights and measures of, 159.

British weights and measures, 153.

“Brother,” compounds with, 47.

Builders’ measures, table of, 157.

Buildings, capitalization of names of, 23.

Business letter. _See_ Letter.

“But,” correct use of, 103.

“By,” compounds with, 48.

C, soft, do not divide on, 53.

“Cabinet,” capitalization of, 25.

Campbell, Dr. Thomas, canons of, 99–100.

“Can,” distinguished from _may_, 103.

Canada, postal rates to, 135.

“Cannot but,” correct use of, 103.

“Can’t seem,” correct use of, 103.

Capitalization:
of religious terms, 20–22;
of proper names, 22–24;
of titles, 24–26;
of institutional terms, 26–28;
of references, 28;
of ordinals, 29;
in general, 29–30;
of abbreviation of academic degrees, 25;
of abstract ideas personified, 23;
of acts juridical, 27;
of adjectives derived from proper nouns, 22;
of adjectives and nouns designating definite geographical regions, 22;
of astronomical terms, 23;
of political alliances, 27;
of books of the Bible, 20;
of titles of books, 26;
of botanical terms, 23;
of buildings, 23;
of “church,” 20;
of civic titles, 25;
of word following a colon, 26;
of compound titles, 21;
of hyphenated compounds, 29;
of sessions of Congress, 29;
of conventions, 25;
of corporations — names and abbreviations, 23;
of names of dynasties, 29;
of ecclesiastical appellations, 26;
of epithets used as proper names, 22;
of titles of essays, 26;
of “father,” 22;
of “Fathers” — early church, 22;
of foreign titles, as prefixes, 25–26;
of geographical terms, 22–23;
of geological terms, 23;
of “gospel,” 20–21;
of “government,” 25;
of historical epochs, 22;
of holidays, 26–27;
of judiciary bodies, 28;
of names of laws, 27;
of names of legislative bodies, 28;
of letters (correspondence), 29;
of units of measurement, 29–30;
of medical terms, 23;
of military terms, 25;
of monastic orders, 20;
of “mother,” 24;
of months of year, 23;
of names for the Evil One, 21;
names of political parties, 27;
names of races, tribes, etc., 27;
names of regiments, 29;
of names of societies, 25;
of popular names for the solar system, 23;
of streets, parks, etc., 23;
of titles of parables (biblical), 20;
of titles of periodicals, 30;
of “Pilgrim Fathers,” 22;
of poetry, 29;
of political alliances, 27;
of political divisions, 28;
of pronouns referring to the Deity, 21;
of quotations, 29–30;
of “revolutionary,” 22;
of scientific terms, 23;
of social organizations, 25;
of side-heads, 29;
of “State,” 24–25;
of words on title-pages, 30;
of names of treaties, 27;
of “van” and “von” as prefixes, 25–26;
of words with special meanings, 29;
of zoölogical terms, 23;
rules for, 20–30.

Capitalized words, list of:
religious, 21;
proper, 24.

Capitals:
original use of, 20;
rules for use of, 20–30;
and small capitals, rules for use of, 28–30;
how indicated in MS., 30.

Cases: confusion of, 103.

Caxton: his influence on punctuation, 9.

Centered head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

Centigrade. _See_ Thermometers.

Centuries, numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

cf., to be set in roman, 64.

“Cherubim,” plural of _cherub_, 109.

“Childlike,” correct use of, 103.

Christ, pronouns referring to, how capitalized, 21.

Christian names, abbreviation of, 66–68.

“Church,” when capitalized, 20.

_Circa_ (_ca._), italicized, 64.

Circular measure, table of, 151.

Circulars, postal rates and regulations for, 130.

Citation of legal causes:
names of, italicized, 64;
of author’s own words, quotation marks used, 16;
of different works by same author or by different authors without
intervening original matter, to be quoted, 16.

Civil titles, capitalization of, 25.

Classes of mail, rates, etc., 129–132.

Clauses, use of comma with:
inverted, 5;
independent, 6;
relative, 6;
dependent, 6;
parenthetical, 5;
co-ordinate, 6;
antithetical, 7;
Use of dash before concluding clause, 13.

Cloth measure, table of, 151.

“Co-,” compounds with, 47–48.

Coins, foreign: list of, showing comparative values, 145–147.

“College,” capitalization of, 27.

Colon:
definition and use of, 10–11;
capitalization, following use of, 26, 29, 30;
use of in formal salutatory phrases beginning letters, 11, 117;
in titles of literary references, 11;
of names of publishers, 11;
first word following, in quotation, capitalized, 11;
use of, with quotation-marks, 11;
before formal quotations, 11;
separating chapter and verse in scriptural references, 11;
in separating divisions of time, 11;
use of hair-space before, 59;
separating city of publication and publisher’s name, 11.

“Colonel,” when spelled in full, and when abbreviated, 68–69.

“Color,” hyphenization of compounds of, 46.

“Come,” correct use of, 103.

Comma:
definition and use of, 4;
when omitted, 7–8;
omitted between two adjectives, 4;
use of, with adverbs, 4, 5;
with adjectives, 4, 5;
before “but,” 6.
With clauses:
antithetical, 7;
co-ordinate, 6, 7;
dependent, 6;
parenthetical, 5;
and relative, 6.
Use of:
with conjunctions, 4–7;
separating degrees from names of persons, 7;
indicating ellipses, 7;
separating numbers, 7;
with quotation-marks, 4;
with phrases, inverted and in opposition, 5–6;
before “of” in connection with residence, 7;
in salutatory phrase, 7, 117;
in inverted sentences, 5;
separating titles from names, 6;
separating vocative words, 7;
substitution of dashes for, 14;
use of with exclamation point, 15;
rules for use of, 4–8;
omitted with pronouns used with nouns for emphasis, 8.

Comments, notes of, inclosed in brackets, 18.

Commercial terms, abbreviation of, 76–77.

“Common,” correct use of, 103.

“Company”:
capitalization of, 23;
abbreviation of, 66;
use of (&) with, 66.

Compass:
capitalization of points of, 22, 23, 24;
hyphenization of points of, 49.

Complimentary close, of letters, 121.

Compound:
adjectives, 46;
adverbs, 51.

{168}

Compound titles, spelling, abbreviation, and capitalization of, 68–96.

Compound words:
general theory of and rules for, 45–51;
list of, 49;
division of, to be avoided, 54.

Compounds, hyphenated: capitalization of, 29.

Compounds, with:
“a-” (negative prefix), 50;
“ante,” 50;
“anti,” 50;
“bi,” 50;
“brother,” 47;
“by,” 48;
“co,” 47–48;
“daughter,” 47;
“demi,” 50;
“deutero,” 51;
“elect,” 47;
“electro,” 51;
“ex,” 47;
“extra,” 48;
“eye,” 51;
“father,” 47;
“fellow,” 47;
“foster,” 47;
“general,” 47;
“god,” 47;
“half,” 47;
“holder,” 51;
“in,” 50;
“infra,” 48;
“inter,” 50;
“intra,” 50;
(negative prefix), 50;
“life,” 47;
“like,” 49;
“man,” 49;
“master,” 47;
“mid,” 46;
“monger,” 51;
“mother,” 47;
“non-,” 50;
“over,” 50;
“parent,” 47;
“post,” 50;
“pre,” 47–48;
“pseudo,” 51;
“quarter,” 47;
“quasi,” 48;
“re,” 47–48;
“school,” 51;
“self,” 47;
“semi,” 48, 50;
“sister,” 47;
“sub,” 50;
“sulpho,” 51;
“super,” 50;
“supra,” 48;
“thermo,” 51;
“to,” 50;
“tree,” 49;
“tri,” 50;
“ultra,” 48;
“un” (negative prefix), 50;
“under,” 50;
“vice,” 46;
“woman,” 49;
“world,” 47.

Concealed mail matter, law concerning, 133.

“Confess,” use of, 103.

Congress:
sessions of, capitalization, 29;
numbers of, spelled out, 32.

Conjunctions:
use of comma with, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8;
capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26.

“Conscious,” correct use of, 103.

Consonants, construction of, rules for division of words, 52–53.

Constellations, names of, italicized, 64.

“Constitution,” capitalization of, 25.

“Continual,” correct use of, 103.

Contraction of word, use of apostrophe, 19.

Conventions, capitalization of names of, 25.

Co-ordinate clauses. _See_ Clauses.

Corporations, capitalization of names, of abbreviations, and of
“Co.,” 23.

Corrections, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

Correctness, a requisite of discourse, 99.

Credits, italicizing of, 62.

Criticisms, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

Cuba, postal rates to, 135.

Cubic measure, table of, 152.

Cut-in side notes, omission of period after, 12.

Dashes:
use of, with changed construction, dates, abrupt terminations,
rhetorical emphasis, verse and page references, short, snappy
sentences, omitted letters, concluding clauses, 13;
for separating subject-matter from its authority, 13;
to precede addition to completed sentence, 14;
substitution of, for commas or parenthesis, 14;
with colon, to mark long quotation, 14;
substitution of, for quotation-marks, 14;
misuse of, 12;
rules for, 13–14;
use in France, 14;
use of hair-space with, 59;
examples of, 60;
use of in salutatory phrases of letters, 117.

“Data,” plural of _datum_, 109.

Date-lines, omission of period after, 12.

Dates:
use of dash to connect, 13;
abbreviation of, 65–66;
_st_, _d_, _rd_, and _th_, to be omitted, 65;
of letters, where placed, when capitalized and italicized, 30;
_ult._, _inst._, and _prox._, not used, 65;
the Dewey, 66;
of letters, 115.

“Daughter,” compounds with, 47.

Days of week:
capitalization of, 23;
abbreviation of, 65–66.

“Deadly,” correct use of, 103.

Decades, specific references to, spelled out, 32.

“Decided,” correct use of, 104.

“Definite,” correct use of, 104.

Degrees:
capitalization and abbreviations of, 25;
use of comma separating, from name of person, 6.

“Demean,” correct use of, 104.

“Demi,” compounds with, 50.

Dependent clauses, use of comma, 6.

Derivation, influence of, in division, 52, 53.

“Deutero,” compounds with, 51.

Devil. _See_ Evil One.

Dewey abbreviations of dates, the, 66.

Diction,
correct and faulty, 99–113;
Dr. Campbell’s canons, 99;
use of standard authors, 100;
list of words and phrases, 101–113.

Dictionary, the function of, 100.

“Different,” correct use of, 104.

Diphthongs, general rules for, 33.

Directions, use of brackets in indicating, 18.

“Directly,” use of, 104.

Disbelief, in statement, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15.

“Discover,” correct use of, 104.

Display composition, use of period after, 12.

Division of words:
rules for, 52–54;
avoid unnecessary, 52;
on two letters to be avoided, 53.

Divisional mark, avoid separating from matter it pertains to, 54.

Dollars ($),
no space between symbol and following figures, 60;
table of monetary signs, 90–91.

Domestic postal rates, 134.

“Donne,” plural of _donna_, 109.

“Don’t,” correct use of, 104.

Drop-folios, enclosed by brackets, 18.

Dry measure, table of, 150.

Dynasties:
capitalization of names, 29;
numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

“Each other,” correct use of, 104.

Ecclesiastical appellations, capitalization of, 26.

“Effect,” correct use of, 104.

e.g., set in roman, 64.

“Egoists,” correct use of, 104.

“Either,” correct use of, 104.

“Elect,” compounds with, 47.

Electrical measures, 155–156.

“Electro,” compounds with, 51.

Ellipses:
comma indicating, 7;
period indicating, 12;
to be treated as part of quotation, 17.

Emphasis, rhetorical:
use of dash to secure, 13;
of exclamation-point, 15;
of paragraph, 57–58;
of italics, 62.

En échelon indention:
described, 56;
use of in addressing letters, 116;

“Enormity,” correct use of, 104.

“Enthuse,” (verb) correct use of, 104.

Enumerations, use of parentheses in connection with letters or figures
used to express subdivisions in, 18.

Envelopes, rules for addressing, 123–124.

Epithets:
capitalized when used as proper names, 22;
hyphenization of compound personal, 49.

Essays, capitalization of titles, 26.

etc., quotation-marks to include, 17.

Euphony, authority of, 100.

European countries, weights and measures of, 159–160.

“Every place,” written _everywhere_, 104.

Evil One, the capitalization of names for, 21.

“ex-,” prefixed to titles, 47.

“Excellent,” never qualified, 104.

“Except” (verb), correct use of, 104.

“Exceptional,” correct use of, 105.

Exclamation-point:
proper use of, 14–15;
with quotation-marks, 14–15;
origin, 15;
expressing strong emotion, 15;
sarcasm or doubt, 15;
use of, with comma, 15;
as distinguished from vocative, 15;
use of hair-space preceding, 59.

“Expect,” correct use of, 105.

Expositions, capitalization of names of, 25.

“Extra,” compounds with, 48.

“Eye,” compounds with, 51.

Fahrenheit. _See_ Thermometers.

“Falseness,” correct use of, 105.

Family names, capitalization of, 24.

“Fathers”:
capitalization of, 24;
use of compounds with, 47.

“Federal,” capitalization of, 25.

“Fellow,” compounds of, 47.

Figures:
rules for use of, 31–33;
use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;
used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be placed in
parentheses, 18;
percentage, figures always to be used, 31;
use of, in statistics, 32;
spacing of, 59;
spacing between, and $, £, 60.

“Fix,” correct use of, 105.

Foreign languages:
capitalization of titles, as _von_, _le_, _da_, etc., 25–26;
spelling of words ending in _re_ (French), 36;
words and phrases, when italicized, 62–63;
list of italicized and not italicized words, 63;
use of accents, 36–37.

Foreign titles, capitalization of, 25–26.

Foreign words, plurals of. _See_ Plurals.

Formal letter. _See_ Letter.

“Former,” correct use of, 105.

Forwarding of mail matter, 132.

“Foster,” compounds with, 47.

Fractions, use of hyphens in spelling, 48.

France, use of dash in, 14.

French endings in _re_, not to be used, 36.

G, soft, do not divide on, 53.

“General,” compounds with, 47.

“Gentleman,” correct use of, 105.

“Gentleman friend,” to be avoided, 105.

Geographical terms:
capitalization of, 22;
abbreviations of, 77–81.

Geological terms:
capitalization of, 23;
italicized, 64.

Geometric symbols, as unknown quantities, italics, 64.

“Go,” correct use of, 105.

God:
pronouns referring to, capitalization of, 21;
compounds with, 47.

“Gospel,” when capitalized, 20–21.

“Got,” correct use of, 105.

“Gotten”:
obsolete, 105;
improper use of, 105.

“Government,” capitalization of, 25.

Governmental terms, capitalization of, 25.

Grain and Hay, measures of, 157–158.

“Guess,” correct use of, 105.

Hair-space, use of, 59–61.

“Half,” compounds with, 47.

Half-diamond indention, 56.

“Hanged,” distinguished from _hung_, 105.

Hanging indention, described, 56.

“Hardly,” never preceded by _not_, 105.

“He,” correct use of, 105.

Headings:
capitalization of certain words, 30;
of letters (correspondence), 115.

Head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

“Healthful,” correct use of, 105.

“Her,” correct use of, 106.

“Him,” correct use of, 106.

Historical epochs, capitalization of appellation for, 24.

“Hoi polloi,” never preceded by _the_, 106.

“Holder,” compounds with, 51.

Holidays, capitalization of names of, 26–27.

“Holy,” capitalization of, 21.

“Honorable,” correct use of, 106.

Honorary titles, capitalization of, 25.

“Hung,” distinguished from _hanged_, 106.

Hyphenated compounds:
capitalization of, 29;
avoid division of, 54.

Hyphenization, rules for, 45–51.

Hyphens:
list of hyphenated words, 49;
rules for use of, 45–51;
purpose of, 19;
use of hair-space with, 59.
_See_ Compounds.

“I”:
capitalization of word, 29.
_See_ under _Me_.

_Ibid._, italicized, 64.

_-ible_ and _-able_. _See_ _-able_.

_-ical_, in divisions, 54.

_Idem_, italicized, 64.

i.e., set in roman, 64.

“If,” correct use of, 106.

Illustrations, legends beneath, omission of period, 12.

“In,” correct use of, 106.

“In-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50.

Indention:
rules for, 55–56;
prose, each paragraph indented, 55;
numbered paragraphs, treatment of, 55;
of poetry, reverse indention, 55;
of quotations, 55;
different forms of, viz.: En échelon, Hanging, Half-diamond, Lozenge,
Blocked, and Irregular, 55–56;
use of in addressing letters, 116.

Independent sentences, first word capitalized after colon, 29.

Infinitive, the, never separated from _to_, 106.

Informal letter. _See_ Letter.

“Infra,”
compounds with, 48;
italicization of, 64.

_-ing_: verbal nouns (ending in) distinguished from participles, 106.

Initials, not to be divided, 54.

“Inside of,” distinguished from _within_, 106.

_Inst._, not used, 65.

Institutional terms, capitalization of, 26–28.

“Inter,” compounds with, 50.

International money orders, fees for, 137.

Interrogation-point:
origin of, 15;
use of, with quotations, 16;
after direct questions, 16;
to express doubt, 16;
omission in indirect questions, 16;
use of hair-space preceding, 59.

“Intra,” compounds with, 50.

“Invent,” distinguished from _discover_, 106.

Ironical word or phrase, use of quotation marks for, 17.

Irregular indention, described, 55.

_-ise_ and _-ize_, spelling of words terminating in, 37–38.

Italicizing:
of abbreviations in literary and legal references, 64;
of _ad loc._, 64;
of algebraic unknown quantities, 64;
of astronomical names, 64;
of titles of books, 62;
of names of botanical genera and species, 64;
of names in citations of legal causes, 64;
of _circa_ (_ca._), 64;
of names of constellations, 64;
of credits, at end of article, 62;
for purpose of emphasis, 62;
of names of geological subjects, 64;
of geometric unknown quantities, 64;
of _ibid._, 64;
of _idem_, 64;
of _infra_, 64;
of _loc. cit._, 64;
of literary references, 64;
of names of scientific genera and species, 64;
of stars, 64;
of titles of newspapers and periodicals, 64;
of _op. cit._, 64;
of _passim_, 64;
of poetry, 62;
in prefaces, 62;
of word “Resolved,” 64;
in running heads, 62;
of abbreviations of “shillings,” “pence,” 64;
of names of ships, 62;
of side-heads, 62;
of signatures, 62;
of _supra_, 64;
of _s.v._, 64;
of _vide_, 64;
of zoölogical genera, 64;
rules for, 62–64;
lists of foreign words, italicized and not, 62–64;
of dates in letters, 30.

Italics:
origin of, 62;
rules for, 62–64;
list of foreign words and phrases not italicized, 63;
list of italicized words, 63;
how to indicate in MS., 64;
italic punctuation marks, following, 64.

J, do not divide on, 53.

Journals. _See_ Periodicals.

Judiciary bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

Juridical acts, treaties, etc., capitalization of names of, 27.

Kerned letters, spacing of, 60.

“Kind,” correct use of, 106.

“Kind of,” not followed by _a_ or _an_, 106.

“Lady.” _See_ under _Gentleman_.

“Lady friend.” _See_ under _Gentleman friend_.

Language, must convey writer’s meaning, 99.

“Last,” distinguished from _latest_, 107.

“Latter,” correct use of, 107.

Laws, capitalization of names of, 27.

“Lay,” distinguished from _lie_, 107.

Legal references, words, phrases, and abbreviations italicized, 64.

Legends, omission of period after, 12.

Legislative bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

“Less,” distinguished from _fewer_, 107.

Letter, Business:
heading, 115;
address, 116;
salutation, 116;
text of, 118;
complimentary close, 121;
signature, 122;
envelope, 123;
correct example of, 126.

Letter, Formal:
heading, 115;
address, 116;
salutation, 117–118;
text of, 120;
complimentary close, 122;
signature, 122;
envelope, 123;
correct examples of, 126–128.

Letter, Informal:
heading, 115;
address, 116;
salutation, 117;
text of, 120;
complimentary close, 121–122;
signature, 122;
envelope, 123;
correct examples of, 126–128.

Letter writing:
introductory remarks on, 114;
rules for, 115–125;
examples of correct, 126–128;
the signature, 122–123;
envelope, 123–124;
postal cards, 125;
in general, 125;
business, formal, informal, treatment of, 115–122.

Letters (correspondence):
capitalization, punctuation, etc., rules for, 11, 12, 29;
dates, where placed and when capitalized, 30;
postal regulations, 129–141.

Letters:
use of dash to indicate omission of, 13;
use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;
used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be set in parentheses, 18;
spacing of superior and inferior, 59.

“Liable,” distinguished from _likely_, 107.

“Life,” compounds with, 47.

“Like,” compounds with, 49.

“Likely,” correct use of, 107.

Linear measure, table of, 150.

Liquid measure, table of, 150.

Literary references: minor subdivisions, not capitalized, 28.