Chapter IV: Production and Commerce (2)

Hitherto no Indian tobacco has realized any valuation approaching that of American. The average price of the American “shipping tobacco” is 5–6_d._ a lb., higher classes of bright leaf from Virginia realize as much as 7–13_d._ a lb., while the price of Indian tobacco has generally been 1–2_d._ a lb. But the 15,000 lb. of Poosah leaf from the 1877 crop reached England when American shipping leaf was at 4–5_d._ a lb., or 25 per cent. below the normal rate. The consignment was, moreover, packed in rather damp order, and contained a quantity of moisture which caused it to be assessed under the highest rate of the new tariff, which imposes 3_s._ 10_d._ duty when the moisture is over 10 per cent., against 3_s._ 6_d._ under 10 per cent. This made a difference in the value, estimated at 1_d._ a lb. The price obtained was 3¾_d._, which would have been 4¾_d._ had the tobacco been drier, and the sale has been followed by orders of large shipments.

The high prices, too, realized for the best samples of the 1876 and 1877 crops, indicate that Indian leaf can be turned out equal to the best shipping tobacco from America. A tierce of strips from the 1876–77 crop from Ghazipore sold for 7_d._ a lb., and the greater part of the rest for 5_d._ or more, while a portion of the Poosah leaf of 1877–78 was valued at 5_d._ when the market was 25 per cent. below normal rates. These facts seem to guarantee future success, since the quantity of the higher classes can be largely increased, and a greater portion of the crop be brought to the same higher level. The chief point to be ascertained was whether a sufficiently high level could be attained at all. It has been attained. The cured leaf of 1878 is very much superior to any hitherto turned out, especially that from Ghazipore. A new market is not unlikely to open in France. The French Government have already asked for a consignment for trial of 1000–1500 lb.

The reason why the manufacture of smoking-tobacco for Indian consumption has occupied so large a share in the operations is, that the Indian market, though small, pays far more handsome profits than the English market.

The price paid for reasonably good American manufactured tobacco in India ranges from one to three _rupees_ a lb. Ghazipore and Poosah tobacco is sold at half that price, at a much higher profit than can be obtained by sending cured leaf to England.

While Indian cured leaf can find a sale in the English market at prices which will enable it to compete there with American cured leaf, Indian manufactured leaf is proved to compete successfully with American manufactured leaf in India itself, with a fair prospect of success in a similar competition in the colonies. It may be stated in general terms that 4_d._ a lb. for cured leaf in England, and 6–10 _annas_ for manufactured leaf in India, will secure sufficient or even handsome profits. The opening for profits will perhaps be better understood if it is explained that 1_d._ a lb. represents an asset of about 5_l._ an acre. The one great advantage which India has over America is cheap labour. It is now proved that the leaf is, for all practical purposes, as good as the American leaf, and there is hardly any doubt that America cannot afford to send home leaf at the price at which India can sell.

The exports of tobacco from British India during the years 1874–5 to 1878–9 have been as follows:—

──────────────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬────────── │ 1875. │ 1876. │ 1877. │ 1878. │ 1879. ──────────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────── Unmanufac- } lb.│33,411,504│22,861,711│10,508,720│10,594,604│13,279,158 tured │ │ │ │ │ Manufactured { lb.│ 425,040│ 384,909│ 395,169│ 507,629│ 444,502 No.│ 2,999,940│ ..│ ..│ ..│ .. ──────────────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────

The following letter from the manager of the Poosah tobacco farms, Tirhoot, describes the system of growing and curing now adopted in India.

“Preparation of Soil.—Tobacco land should be well-drained upland which has lain fallow some time or that has had some light crop in it; this land should be well manured with well-rotted manure. We plough our lands twice monthly. Just before the time for transplanting the soil is ploughed up and well pulverized by a henger or beam of wood drawn by bullocks over the upturned soil so as to bend it and to break up any lumps of earth. The soil should be sufficiently dry for this purpose so as not to cake and harden.

“Seed-beds.—These should be made up in a suitable situation, that is, protected from the afternoon sun, having some building or grove of trees on the west side. The seed-beds should be raised some six inches off the ground and have trenches dug all round so as to carry off any superfluous moisture, the beds should be well worked with a kodalie and good, rotted manure well worked in. After pulverizing the soil and levelling it, pick off any stones or other rubbish and it will be ready for sowing the seed. The size of the bed should be about 4 feet by 15 feet; this is more convenient than square beds, as it enables the plants to be attended to without risk of destroying them by trampling on them.

“Sowing the Seed.—The seed is sown broadcast with the hand, mixed with some sand or ashes so as to sow evenly; care should be taken not to sow too thickly. About one chittak of seed ought to be found sufficient for one of these beds which would furnish enough plants for one beegah of land. After having sown and if there is a hot sun, it would be advisable to cover the beds with light mats. This seed should germinate in seven or ten days at least. American seed does; Sumatra takes much longer. The plants may require watering, which should be done with a watering-can with a rose, when the plants are well up and large. Only water seed-beds in the evening. As soon as the seedlings have leaves of the size of a penny, they are capable of bearing transplanting. Before taking up the seedling to transplant, water the beds well an hour beforehand; this is done to loosen the earth about the roots so that the plants may be taken up without injury. To take up the seedlings they should be seized by the under side of the two largest leaves by the finger and thumb, having one leaf on each side, not by the stem, then pull up gently, taking care not to break the leaves. They may then be placed in an open basket. When the basket is full it should be covered with a cloth if the sun is hot, and the seedlings slightly sprinkled with water and then carried off to transplant. The seedlings are planted out in rows 3 feet by 2 feet apart, for which purpose a knotted cord is used, the knots being 3 feet apart. This cord is drawn by two men—one at each end. Across the field or portion of the field at a distance of 2 feet from the outer edge, the cord is drawn out and then trampled upon by coolies. The knots leave an impression in the soil where the seedlings have to be planted. The cord is then raised and put down again at another distance of 2 feet from the first, and so on till sufficient land has been marked off. This work can be done during the day, and the transplanting in the evening.

“Transplanting.—Transplanting should be done in the evening if there is any sun; in cloudy weather it can be done all the day long. Rainy weather is most suitable as it dispenses with watering and the plants settle better. A boy takes a basket of seedlings and walks up the row, dropping a plant here and there where the marks have been made; he is followed by a man who makes a hole with a _kurpie_, into which he places a seedling, and then presses the soil around the roots firmly with his fingers, and then goes on with the rest. As transplanting can hardly be done here without watering, a boy carrying a can without a rose follows the man who is transplanting, and waters each plant he comes across; but, as I mentioned above, if the transplanting could be done in rainy weather, the watering would be unnecessary. When growing the young plants require some attention. After the plants have been planted a week or so, weather permitting, it is advisable to loosen and open the soil around them with a kurpie, and also to eradicate weeds which may appear. Later on a kodalie may be used to work the earth between the rows. As soon as the plants have made growth and begin to throw out flower or seed-heads, which will take place in about eight weeks or so, they should be topped, viz. the flower heads should be broken off before they flower in this way. The stem on which the head was found should be seized about two to three feet from the ground and snapped clean off by the hand or fingers. This topping will cause the plant to throw out heavy leaves. The higher up the stem is broken off, so will the leaves of the plant become thinner and smaller. We generally leave about ten to twelve leaves to each plant. After topping, numerous suckers and offshoots will spring up; these should be promptly broken off as soon as they appear, as they take a lot of nourishment from the plant. The plant ripens in about three months. We cut here in January, and none but ripe plants should be cut.

“How to Cut Ripe Plants.—A tobacco plant is known to be ripe if the leaf cracks when taken between finger and thumb and pressed, and also when the leaves present a swollen appearance and have a heavy look. The stem when cut is full of sap, very thin rind on edge, the leaves are carved over and look mottled, the ribs of the plant get brittle, and are easily broken off; when fully ripe, the plant is cut at one stroke close to the ground. The best instrument to cut the plant with is a kurpie. When cut, the plant is allowed to hang over on its side and wilt or droop in the sun. This wilting takes from one to two hours according to the strength of the sun. When sufficiently wilted (which is known when the plants look drooping and the ribs can be bent slightly without breaking) the plants are placed in a cart and taken to the curing-house. Plants should not be cut in rainy or cloudy weather, as it is obvious the sun would not be hot enough to wilt were the weather cloudy, and the rain washes off the gum and thereby decreases the weight of the plant. Plants should not be cut after the rain unless the gum has returned to the leaves, which is known by their sticky, gummy feeling.”

The results of many analyses of the tobacco of South India show that the ashes of these tobaccos seldom contain more than 5 or 6 per cent. of potash carbonate, while the ashes of American tobacco contain from 20 to 40 per cent., proving the poverty of Indian tobacco soils in this important plant-food—a plant-food, however, easily obtainable in the shape of saltpetre, and at a moderate cost. But, though saltpetre is largely exported from the tobacco-growing districts, it is never employed as a manure for tobacco.

_Italy._—Tobacco is cultivated in Italy in the provinces of Ancona, Benevento, Terra di Lavoro, Principato Citeriore, Terra d’Otranto, Umbria, Vicenza, and Sardinia. The area and produce in the following years were:—in 1870, 9544 acres, 67,192 cwt.; 1872, 12,256 acres, 82,349 cwt.; 1874, 8202 acres, 90,300 cwt. The exports from Naples in 1879 were 2006 _kilo._, value 401_l._

The British Consul at Cagliari reports that the cultivation of tobacco is only carried on in the district of Sassari, and in the plains of Sassari, Portotorres, Nurra, Sorso, and Sennori. No positive data on this branch of industry can be had, it having been exclusively carried on till 1883 by a private company, called the Regía Cointeressata. Without fear of being wrong, it may be calculated that the tobacco cultivators reach the number of 100, who employ during the period of five months from 600 to 700 labourers; the plantation varies from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 plants, producing a harvest from 2000 to 2500 _quintals_ of tobacco leaves, at a value of about 125,000 _lire_.

_Japan._—Japanese tobacco is well known in the London market, but it is often in a soft condition, and then scarcely saleable. More care is needed in drying it before packing.

_Java._—Tobacco, termed by the natives _tombáku_, or _sáta_, is an article of very general cultivation in Java, but is only extensively raised for exportation in the central districts of Kedu and Banyumas. As it requires a soil of the richest mould, but at the same time not subject to inundations, these districts hold out peculiar advantages to the tobacco-planter, not to be found on the low lands. For internal consumption, small quantities are raised in convenient spots everywhere. In Kedu, tobacco forms, after rice, by far the most important article of cultivation, and, in consequence of the fitness of the soil, the plant grows to the height of 8–10 feet, on lands not previously dressed or manured, with a luxuriance seldom witnessed in India. Cultivated here alternately with rice, only one crop of either is obtained within the year; but after the harvest of the rice, or the gathering of the tobacco leaves, the land is allowed to remain fallow, till the season again arrives for preparing it to receive the other. The young plant is not raised within the district, but procured from the high lands in the vicinity, principally from the district of Kalibéber, on the slope of the mountain Diéng or Práhu, where it is raised and sold by the hundred to the cultivators of the adjoining districts. The transplantation takes place in June, and the plant is at its full growth in October. The exports in the year 1877–8 were 212,500 _piculs_ to Holland, and 213 to Singapore; in 1878–9, they were 248,566 _piculs_ to Holland, and 872 to Singapore. The value of the export to Holland in 1879 was stated at 1,250,000_l._ The exports in 1884 were 140,351 _piculs_ to Holland, and 2490 to Great Britain.

_New Zealand._—This colony has not yet figured as a tobacco grower, but the duty on locally produced tobacco is only 1_s._ a lb., and this is expected to stimulate the home industry.

_Nicaragua._—It appears that the total exports of tobacco were 13,787 lb., value 4830 dollars, in 1883, but only 300 lb., value 240 dollars, in 1884. At present it is a Government monopoly.

_Paraguay._—Consul Baker, of Buenos Ayres, states that one of the most valuable crops of Paraguay is tobacco; in 1829, its production amounted to only 2,675,000 lb., while in 1860, the crop amounted to 15,000,000 lb.; but the war with the allies almost ruined this source of wealth. It has, however, somewhat recovered its importance, the exports alone last year amounting to 8,975,000 lb. A large proportion of the crop is annually worked up into cigars, a branch of industry which is almost entirely in the hands of the women. The tobacco planted in Paraguay originally came from Havana, with the exception of a particular kind which is called in Paraguay, blue tobacco, _peti-hoby_, the origin of which is unknown. The favourite leaf is a yellow tobacco, _peti-para_, grown chiefly in Villa Rica, which possesses about 6 per cent. of nicotine.

_Persia._—The whole of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, i. e. Mingrelia, Lazistan, Abkhasia, and Circassia, is admirably suited for tobacco cultivation. The country between Poti and Súkhúm Kalé contains admirable sites for tobacco plantations, labour for which can be got from Trebizond. A great demand for tobacco of good quality exists in the country, and a practical planter should do well. A quantity of coarse, badly-cured tobacco, of no commercial value, is produced in Imeritia and Georgia. Great success has attended the culture in Ghilan. The first seed introduced was from Samsoun; since then Yenija seed has been tried, and some parcels attained the standard of the best Turkish tobacco. It can be produced at about 20_s._ a _pood_ (of 36 lb.), giving a profit of 22_s._ a cwt. Hitherto the cultivation has been confined to the plains, where both soil and atmosphere are damp, but it might be worth trying the hill-skirts. About 2000 cwt. were produced in 1878. The exports of tobacco, the produce of Ghilan, from Resht to Russia, were valued at 4615_l._ in 1878, and 6154_l._ in 1879. The values (in rupees) of the exports in 1879 were 13,000 from Bushire, 73,500 from Lingah, and 35,000 from Bahrein.

At the time when I wrote the article on tobacco in Spons’ Encyclopædia, the true source and history of an article called “tumbeki” was still in doubt. From researches made at the instigation of my friend E. Morell Holmes, F.L.S., the Curator of the Pharmaceutical Society’s Museum, it is now clear that it is a Persian tobacco, and as such calls for mention here. The following paragraph reproduces what I said on the subject in Spons’ Encyclopædia.

“Tumbeki.—This word, under a multitude of forms, is the common name in several Eastern languages (Bengali, Hindustani, Telugu, Sunda, Javanese, Malayan, Persian, Guzerati, Deccan) for ordinary tobacco. But in Asia Minor, it is applied to a narcotic leaf which is spoken of as distinct from tobacco, and is separately classified in the Consular Returns. Botanical authorities are at variance as to the plant which affords it, some attributing it to a _Lobelia_, while others consider it a kind of tobacco. The latter appears to be the more correct supposition. The flower resembles the tobacco in being trumpet-shaped; the leaf is broader, larger, and rounder than that of the tobacco raised in Turkey, and is also wrinkled like the inner leaf of the cabbage. The plant is raised from seed in nurseries, and when it has 4 or 5 leaves, is planted out in April in the prepared field, and watered sparingly. It is ‘set’ in a day or two, and is then hoed occasionally to free it from weeds. After inflorescence, and when the plant is sufficiently ‘cooked,’ it is cut down, or pulled up bodily, and re-set in the ground till the leaves are wilted. These leaves are dried, and, after exposure to the dew, are pressed heavily, when they undergo a kind of fermentation which develops the aroma. It is exceedingly narcotic: so much so, that it is usually steeped in water before use, and placed in the pipe (a _narghilé_ or water-pipe) while still wet. The exports of this article (the produce of Persia) from the port of Trebizonde are considerable:—In 1877, they were 13,342 bales (of 1¾ cwt.), value 106,736_l._, to Turkey; in 1878, 11,571 bales, 92,568_l._, to Turkey; in 1879, 9659 bales, 77,272_l._, to Turkey, and 866 bales, 6928_l._, to Greece. Aleppo, in 1878, sent 4 tons, value 320_l._, to Turkey, and 11 tons, 880_l._, to Egypt. The exports of the article, the produce of the interior of Persia, from Resht to Russia, were valued at 5000_l._ in 1877, and 3846_l._ in 1878.”

It will be interesting to compare this with Holmes’ paper read before the Pharmaceutical Society on February 10, 1886:—

“Tumbeki is the name under which an article of regular commerce between Persia and Turkey is mentioned in the consular reports, especially in that for Trebizonde.

“Two or three years ago an inquiry was made at this institution concerning the nature and botanical source of umbeki, and the only information I was then able to give was that in the ‘Treasury of Botany’ tumbeky is stated to be the narcotic leaf of a species of lobelia.

“From its frequent occurrence in the Blue Books in the same list with tobacco, and from the large quantities mentioned as an export from Trebizonde, my correspondent suggested that it was probably something used for smoking like tobacco. In the hope that tumbeki might prove to be some drug possessing important narcotic or possible medicinal properties, I wrote to Mr. A. Biliotti, Consul at Trebizonde, for information. In reply, he forwarded samples of tumbeki of different growths and qualities. This proved on examination to be unquestionably some kind of tobacco, and being puzzled to know why it figured in the Blue Books as a distinct article, I asked Mr. Thomas Christy, F.L.S., to make inquiries for me in Persia. He received the following note through Mr. Zanni, the well-known chemist at Constantinople, from whom I received the following information:—

“‘There are three qualities of the teymbeki, all derived from the _Nicotiana persica_.

“‘1. Shiraz teymbeki, valued at twenty gold piastres per oke.[A]

“‘2. Kechan teymbeki, valued at ten gold piastres.

“‘3. Teheran teymbeki, equal in value to No. 2.

“‘The Shiraz is the best quality, the leaves are four decimetres long and half a decimetre wide. The leaves of the two other qualities are not so large. The quantity of alkaloid in the leaves of teymbeki is more than in the leaves of _Nicotiana Tabacum_; it is much used in Constantinople, but more so in Egypt, Syria, and particularly in Persia. Teymbeki is smoked in a special apparatus known as the narghileh.[B] The apparatus is found in every coffee-house and even in a great number of private houses. It resembles somewhat the wash bottle used in laboratories for washing filters with distilled water, but is often made of metal. The teymbeki is placed in a small reservoir on the top of the flask and burns in contact with a piece of incandescent charcoal. The vapour is drawn through the tube, which passes to the bottom of the water and collects above it, whence it is inhaled through the longer tube.[C] It is in fact a water-pipe.’

“Having ascertained then that tumbeki was a species of tobacco, I sought for further confirmation of the statement that it is the produce of _N. persica_, and wrote on the subject to Professor Hausknecht, who is well known as one of the best authorities on the botany of Persia. He kindly replied as follows:—

“‘Tumbeki is the produce of _Nicotiana rustica_, and is almost exclusively used for the water-pipes called kalian or narghileh. The plant is cultivated throughout the whole of Persia, especially in Ispahan and Shiraz, whence the best kind comes.’

“But the statement of M. Zanni that tumbeki contains more alkaloid than tobacco, and that of Professor Hausknecht that tumbeki is the produce of _N. rustica_, seemed to conflict with the statements in books that _N. rustica_ is less active than _N. Tabacum_.

“In the ‘Commercial Report,’ No. 25, 1883, p. 1056, under ‘Smyrna,’ Consul Dennis confirms M. Zanni’s statement concerning tumbeki. He says:—‘It is much stronger than ordinary tobacco, and cannot be smoked in the usual way, therefore it is exclusively used for the narghili.’ He also adds that a large quantity is consumed in the district of Smyrna, but much is also re-exported to Egypt and other parts of Turkey. It is imported from Persia, both through Trebizonde and Bushire on the Persian Gulf.

“Mr. J. B. Fraser, in his work on Persia (1826), remarks, ‘The tobacco smoked in the kalian is called tumbaku in distinction to tootoon, or that smoked in pipes or cigarettes. It is sold in the leaf, which is packed dry in layers, and is preserved in bags sewn up in raw hide. It improves by age, but is quite unsmokable the first year. The best comes from Jaroum, south of Shiraz.’

“In an interesting article in ‘Harper’s Magazine’ (January 1886, p. 224) on the ‘Domestic and Court Customs of Persia,’ the writer remarks concerning tumbeki:—‘The kaliân or water pipe differs from the Turkish narghileh by having a short straight stem. In it is smoked the tobacco called tumbakee—a species grown only in Persia. That of Shiraz is very delicate in flavour and is the best. The tumbakee must be first soaked in water and squeezed like a sponge or it will cause vertigo. A live coal, made from the root of the vine, is placed on the tobacco, and the smoke is drawn through the water with a gentle inhaling, depositing the oil in its passage through the water.’

“In De Candolle’s ‘Prodromus,’ vol. xii., pt. 1, p. 567, it is stated under _Nicotiana persica_, that it yields the celebrated tobacco of Shiraz. This species closely resembles _N. Tabacum_ in the form of its leaves, which are, however, rather acute than acuminate; but the flowers are different both in shape and colour. In _N. Tabacum_ the stem leaves are sessile, and the corolla is funnel-shaped or inflated below the limb, and is of a pinkish-red colour; in _N. persica_, the tube of the corolla is club-shaped and the limb more spreading; the colour is white inside and greenish outside. When in blossom, therefore, the two plants are easily distinguished. _N. rustica_, on the other hand, has _stalked_ cordate leaves and a short yellowish corolla, with the tube and limb both short.

“The leaves of tumbeki which I have received from Trebizonde and Constantinople both correspond with _N. persica_ in character, but not with _N. rustica_, since they have no trace of a petiole. So far as it is possible to ascertain therefore, in the absence of flowers, the weight of evidence is in favour of tumbeki being the produce of _N. persica_. In order to ascertain the correctness of the statement that tumbeki is stronger than tobacco, I handed some specimen to Messrs. E. J. Eastes and W. H. Ince for chemical examination, which they kindly undertook at my request.”

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Footnote A:

The oke equals ten kilogrames; a piastre, 2½_d._

Footnote B:

So called from its resemblance in shape to a _narghil_ or coconut.

Footnote C:

A full and interesting account of the forms and uses of the varieties
of the kalian and narghileh is given in the ‘Land of the Lion and the
Sun,’ p. 29.

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Following is the report of these gentlemen on the chemistry of the subject:—

“Four samples of tumbeki were brought under our notice by Mr. Holmes, Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, being of interest on account of their reported greater strength in nicotine as compared with tobacco. The following are the results of our investigations. We may state that so far as we have been able to ascertain no previous researches have been undertaken on the subject.

“Preliminary Examination.—The presence of an alkaloid was demonstrated on the addition of the usual reagents to the acid infusion.

“Isolation of Alkaloid for Physical Examination.—The powdered tumbeki was placed in a retort with milk of lime and steam passed through it till the distillate was no longer alkaline. Alkaloid in abundance was found in the distillate, which had a distinct odour of nicotine. The distillate was then extracted with ether, and the ether slowly driven off. The residue obtained was a light straw coloured oily liquid of powerful odour, giving off irritating fumes when heated.

“Estimation of Nicotine.—In the estimation of nicotine much difficulty was experienced, owing to imperfect knowledge of the alkaloid, and to the imperfect methods recommended in various papers on the subject. The only method we found reliable was by using a standard solution of Mayer’s reagent, obtained by mixing 13·546 grams of mercuric chloride in solution with 49·8 grams of potassic iodide, in solution, and adding water to make 1 litre.[D] One c.c. of this solution represents ·003945 grams of nicotine, the precipitate having the formula C₁₀H₁₆N₂I₂.HgI₂.

“The method we adopted of working with this solution was as follows:—One or more grams of dried and powdered tumbeki were treated with diluted sulphuric acid (2·5 per cent.) for several hours on a water-bath, filtered, and the leaves washed with hot 1 per cent. acid till the filtrate was colourless.

“The filtrate was then either evaporated to a low bulk and extracted with alcohol, to get rid of albuminous matters which interfered with the reaction, or neutralized with sodic hydrate and the alkaloid extracted with chloroform, the chloroformic solution being shaken with diluted sulphuric acid as in the ordinary methods of alkaloid extraction.

“The objection to the first method is that the alcohol has to be driven off before the Mayer’s reagent can be added, which is troublesome and lengthens the process.

“The solution of the alkaloid in excess of sulphuric acid having been obtained, Mayer’s reagent was carefully added till no more precipitation was observed, the end of the reaction being ascertained when on filtering some of the nicotine solution into a watch-glass and adding a drop of the reagent, no precipitate was formed. With careful manipulation concordant results were obtained.

“Other methods tried were as follows:

“Volumetric method.—Ten or more grams of powdered tumbeki were distilled with a solution of sodic or potassic hydrate, the distillate being passed into a known volume of decinormal standard solution of sulphuric acid, and the amount of acid neutralized by the nicotine was determined by a standard decinormal solution of soda and the nicotine calculated.

“By this method the results obtained were invariably too high owing to an appreciable quantity of ammonium salts contained in the leaves. Dr. Kissling[E] has also noticed the high percentages obtained by this method of estimating nicotine.

“Kosutány treats the leaves with milk of lime till all the ammonia is driven off, and then extracts with water; shakes the aqueous solution with petroleum ether and proceeds as before.

“This method was not found to give good results, for though the ammonium salts do not interfere with the reaction, yet the petroleum ether does not extract the whole of the alkaloid, and thus a low percentage is obtained.

“Extraction by Ammoniacal Ether.—This consists in extracting the powdered leaves in an upright extractor, by an ethereal solution of ammonia, and either driving off the ether and weighing the residue as nicotine; or volumetrically estimating the residue by decinormal solution of sulphuric acid, or precipitating the alkaloid by platinum perchloride. In either case, whichever way the residue is estimated, the results are too high, owing to the difficulty of entirely getting rid of the ammonia.

“The following are the percentages of nicotine in the tumbeki:—

‘_Ispahan._’—I. By Mayer’s Reagent.
A. (midrib) 8·156 per cent.
B. (leaf) 5·508 ” ”
C. (leaf and midrib) 5·589 ” ”
D. (leaf) 5·3865 ” ”
——————
5·4945 per cent. average.

II. By Volumetric Method.
By working on 10 grams = 7·2 per cent.
By working on 50 grams = 7·228 ” ”

‘_Hidjaz._’—I. By Mayer’s Reagent.
A. (leaf and midrib) 2·025 per cent.
B. (leaf and midrib) 2·268 ” ”
C. (leaf and midrib) 2·028 ” ”
D. (leaf and midrib) 1·863 ” ”
—————
2·046 per cent. average.
II. By Volumetric Process.
A. 2·37 per cent.

III. By Ethereal Solution of Ammonia.
3·6 per cent.

‘_Kechan._’—By Mayer’s Solution.
A. (leaf and midrib) 2·835 per cent.
B. (leaf and midrib) 3·0375 ” ”
C. (leaf and midrib) 2·85525 ” ”
——————
2·90925 per cent. average.

‘_Shiraz._’—By Mayer’s Solution.
A. (leaf and midrib) 5·8725 per cent.
B. (leaf and midrib) 5·7975 ” ”
——————
5·835 per cent. average.

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Footnote D:

Dragendorff, ‘Chemische Werthbestimmung starkwirkender Droguen,’ § 63,
p. 52 _et seq._

Footnote E:

The ‘Analyst,’ January 1886, p. 16; ‘Chem. Zeit.,’ ix., 1886.

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“Estimation of Saccharoid Matter; calculated as cane sugar.—The fermentation process was the one adopted, not that we consider it by any means a good one, but because it was the only one practicable. Fehling’s solution was inadmissible, owing to the precipitation of colouring and other matters, and the polariscope gave no indication. The objections to the fermentation process are due to the small amount of alcohol produced in the relatively large bulk of liquid. This renders the solution liable to acetification, and the ultimate distillate obtained is very weak in spirit, making it extremely difficult to obtain the correct specific gravity; the specific gravities obtained were always between ·998 and unity.

“We worked as follows:—200 grains of dried tumbeki were exhausted by repeated infusion in boiling water. The filtered liquid when cool was mixed with 100 grains of German yeast and allowed to stand three days in a warm place to ferment.

“About one-third was then distilled, the distillate being redistilled and three successive fractions of 500 fluid grains collected, the alcohol in each being estimated; the third portion contained little if any spirit.

“It being stated that basic acetate of lead removes saccharoid matter from the kindred plant tobacco; we tried its action on the infusion of tumbeki.

“At the onset it was found impossible to thoroughly wash the bulky precipitate caused by the lead; so, to ensure a definite result, sufficient basic acetate of lead was added to the infusion of 200 grains of tumbeki and the whole made up to 30 fluid ounces with distilled water and well mixed. An aliquot part (20 fluid ounces) was then filtered off, excess of lead removed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the sulphide filtered out, the solution boiled to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen and the infusion, when cool, was fermented in the usual way. But acetic acid was necessarily present from the decomposition of the lead salt by the sulphuretted hydrogen, and this on distilling would tend to raise the specific gravity. To remedy this, slaked lime, or preferably potassic hydrate, was added before redistilling, but considering that from one to three per cent. of ammoniacal salt is contained in the original tumbeki, it is probable that some might still remain and by the action of the fixed alkali furnish a trace of free ammonia which would lower the specific gravity, and thus apparently raise the percentage of alcohol. As far as we can judge basic acetate of lead does not seem to remove fermentable matter from infusion of tumbeki.

────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────
│ I. │ II.
────────┼─────┬────────────┼─────┬────────────
│ │ Pb │ │ Pb
│ │ treatment. │ │ treatment.
Ispahan │2·64 │ 2·67 │ — │ 2·35
Hidjaz │3·00 │ 2·8 │ 2·7 │ —
Kechan │5·58 │ 5·33 │ — │ —
Shiraz │3·48 │ 3·88 │3·23 │ 3·1
────────┴─────┴────────────┴─────┴────────────

“Ash.—The following bases and acids were uniformly found in the ashes:—Sodium, potassium, lithium, magnesium, calcium, iron, aluminium, silica, chlorine, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid.

GENERAL TABLE OF RESULTS.

─────────────────────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────
│Ispahan. │Hidjaz. │Kechan. │Shiraz.
─────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
Nicotine │ 5·4945 │ 2·046 │ 2·909 │ 5·835
Saccharoid matter │ 2·64 │ 2·85 │ 5·58 │ 3·355
Saccharoid matter after │ │ │ │
Pb treatment │ 2·51 │ 2·80 │ 5·33 │ 3·49
Soluble in water │42·0 │42·3 │39·9 │55·6
Insoluble in water │58·0 │57·7 │60·1 │44·4
Ash │22·0 │28·5 │28·5 │26·15
─────────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────

“The foregoing work has been carried out in the laboratories of the Pharmaceutical Society.”

_Philippines._—The soil and climate of the Philippines are eminently suited to tobacco culture; but the unjust Spanish monopoly cripples the industry, and it is declining. Next to the Cuban (Vuelta abajo) and a few prime Turkish sorts, Manilla tobacco is admitted to be the best. Most of the Philippines produce it. According to the quality of the produce, the provinces rank as follows:—(1) Cayagan and Ysabel, (2) Ygorrotes, (3) Island of Mindanáo, (4) Bisayas, (5) New Ecija. On the average, over 400 million cigars, and a quantity of tobacco sufficient to bring up the total weight to 56,000 cwt., are annually exported. The advantage of the plantations in Cayagan lies in the annual deposit of alluvial matters by the overflowing of the large streams. The cultivation in Bisayas promises to become extinct, whereas if the natives were free to sell in the best market, the industry would increase immensely. The yield of the Cebu district in 1878 was 8780 _quintals_, the whole of which went to the cigar factories of Cadiz and Alicante. The exports from Manilla were:—in 1877 17,526,700 lb. tobacco, value 525,801_l._; 87,007,000 cigars, value 243,619_l._; 1878, 15,630,400 lb. tobacco, value 468,918_l._; 136,835,000 cigars, value 383,136_l._; 1879, 9971 _quintals_ (of 101½ lb.) tobacco leaf to Great Britain, and 74,490 _quintals_ to Spain; cigars, 10,571,000 to Great Britain, 6,557,000 to Australia, 44,586,000 to the Straits Settlements and India, 25,861,000 to China and Japan, 693,000 to the United States, 100,000 to California, 1,521,000 to Spain and the Continent; the total values amounted to 480,263_l._ The exports of tobacco from Yloilo were 25,454 _piculs_ (of 133⅓ lb.) in 1878, and 20,600 _quintals_ (of 101½ lb.) in 1879, all to Spain.

_Roumania._—Tobacco was extensively cultivated at one time, with success, near Macin and in other parts; but the monopoly has greatly affected the condition of the industry.

_Russia._—As regards the production of tobacco, Russia ranks second among continental countries, but the consumption is less per head than in other lands. Consul Stanton says that smoking began in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and the habit steadily increased, notwithstanding the fact that it was punished by the knout, slitting of the nostrils, and banishment to Siberia. It is most extensively cultivated in Tshernigoff, Poltava, Bessarabia, and Samara. In Poland, the production is not large, and is mainly confined to the vicinity of Warsaw. It is chiefly cultivated by the peasants and is often their only occupation.

In 1883, Riga exported 70,722 _pouds_ of leaf tobacco, valued at 194,486 _rubles_. Sevastopol shipped 59 _pouds_, value 1100 _rubles_. Tobacco is now cultivated largely in all parts of the Crimea, and is likely to become an export of considerable importance. In Taganrof plantations are on the increase, and the culture promises well.

_San Salvador._—The exports of tobacco in 1884 were 16,113 dollars’ worth of leaf, 5898 dollars’ worth of manufactured, and 826 dollars’ worth of other sorts.

_Servia._—It is estimated that there are 4000 acres under tobacco culture in Servia.

_Spain._—The port of Cadiz is a great centre of the tobacco industry. The imports here in 1878 were:—123 _kilo._ from Germany, 304,538 _kilo._ from the United States, and 6,776,900 _kilo._ from Spanish colonies; the exports were 15,600 _kilo._ to Germany, and 213,846 _kilo._ to France. Corunna exported 58,280 _kilo._, value 87,420 _pesetas_, in 1884. Cadiz exported 514,817 _kilo._, value 2,574,085 _pesetas_, in the same year.

_Sumatra._—This great island is assuming a first-rate importance in the tobacco industry.

The year 1883 was an exceptionally favourable one, as the harvest in Sumatra was very good, while prices for Java tobacco were higher than of late years, in consequence of the short harvest of 1882.

Large quantities of Sumatra tobacco found buyers in the United States, in consequence of the protectionist measure introduced in that country in favour of the home tobacco producers. The duty was raised from 35 c. to 75 c. per lb. on and after the 1st July, 1883, and great efforts were made to import as much as possible at the lower duty before that date.

The principal owners of the plantations are Dutchmen, and the labour employed is Chinese coolies, brought to the island principally from the Malaya peninsula. The crop, according to one of these successful planters, is scarcely ever reared two years in succession on the same lands. The jungle is first cleared, and then the seed planted. After the first crop of tobacco is gathered, it is the next season used for rice, or something else, and tobacco is not planted again until the sixth or seventh year after the jungle is cleared. By adopting this method, a better result is obtained.

The drying-house is thus described by a recent visitor to the island:—

“The interior is very much like a rick-yard, with tobacco stalks instead of hay-ricks, among which a perfect army of half-clad Chinese coolies, 400 strong, are hard at work sorting, ranging and stowing. So overpoweringly strong is the scent of the half-dried tobacco leaves that a smoker would have nothing to do but to take in an empty pipe with him and enjoy a good hard smoke gratis, merely by inhaling the air through it. But the Chinamen, whether habituated to it by long use, or fortified against it by the superior power of opium, breathe this perfumed atmosphere as easily as if it were the purest air of the sea. ‘That is how we measure the heat, you see,’ says our host, calling our attention to the hollow bamboos thrust through the heart of each stack, with a stick inside it, which, when pulled out, is almost too hot to touch. ‘It must never be above or below a certain point, you know. Instead of stripping off the leaves at once, we hang up the whole plant to dry, and do not strip it till it is quite dried. The Sumatra tobacco, however, will not do for cigars. It is only used for what we call the ‘deckblatt’ (cover leaf), which covers the outside of the cigar.’”

Consul Kennedy reports that “the main cause of the prosperity in Deli is the tobacco, the first crop of which was shipped in 1869.

“The crop for 1884 will turn out about 122,000 bales, valued at 2,080,000_l._

“The accompanying table shows the export during the last 11 years:—

Year. Bales. Value.
──────────────────────────
£
1873 9,238 208,333
1874 12,811 250,000
1875 15,147 291,666
1876 28,947 520,833
1877 36,167 541,666
1878 48,155 750,000
1879 57,544 875,000
1880 64,965 937,500
1881 82,356 1,187,500
1882 102,032 1,750,000
1883 92,000 1,583,333
[Estimated.]
──────────────────────────
NOTE.—One bale equals 176
English lb.

“Prices for Deli tobacco have ruled on the whole fairly high, the special quality of the leaf lying in the fact of its being light and elastic in texture, with thin fibres, so that it is admirably adapted to serve as cover-leaf, and as such is a good substitute for Havana tobacco. As a smoking-tobacco it lacks flavour. There is a pretty general concurrence of opinion that the seed of the Deli tobacco was indigenous, and obtained from Batak tribes in the interior; and although many experiments have been made with seeds from Java, Manilla, and other places, the planters have invariably come back to the original seed, finding that the new kinds develop a coarseness of leaf attributed to the extraordinary richness of the virgin soil, a soil partly alluvial and partly volcanic, but covered throughout with dense forests.

“The tobacco estates consist of grants of land taken out by individuals or companies, and are as a rule of such an extent that every year a new district can be cleared and used for the coming crop, and this state of things will continue for many years to come; indeed, hitherto only a small portion of the ground cultivated (not one-fifth) has borne two crops, although it is expected that, unless fresh ground is taken up by the planters, a time will arrive when use must be made of old fallow lands, and then guano will be required.

“The planters consist of three or four large companies, principally Dutch—such as the Deli Company, the Amsterdam Deli, and the Batavia Deli—as well as of individual planters of many nationalities, Germany and Switzerland being strongly represented, while there are also a good sprinkling of Englishmen, the principal English firm being the Langkat Plantations Company, with its headquarters in London.

“The grants of land are taken direct from the chiefs before mentioned, and are only valid after confirmation at Bengkalis. The term is for 75 years, and for such a grant a sum of money, by way of premium, amounting to from 1 dol. to 2 dol. per bouw (equal to an acre and two-thirds), is paid in cash, while an annual rent of 40 c. a bouw, payable at the expiration of the fifth year, is also reserved. Such at least are the terms of the last recognised agreements. The whole of the conveniently-situated land in the three districts before-mentioned has now been taken up, and it is only in the outlying regions that fresh ground can be obtained; but as in such outlying regions settled government is not so well established, the Dutch authorities are now very chary in confirming grants in places where the tobacco-growing community would be less under control.

“It is estimated that at least 2,000,000_l._ sterling is now invested in the tobacco industry in the Deli districts.

“The tobacco when ready for shipment is all sent to Clambia on the L angle at river, to the Deli river, or the Sirdang river (as the case may be), and is despatched thence viâ Penang or Singapore to Amsterdam, which is the tobacco mart for the continent of Europe. The United States have also bought the Deli tobacco in the Amsterdam market in late years. Very little of the tobacco goes to England. The leaf remains so moist that the English import duty would press it heavily in comparison with other tobaccos, and this circumstance operates as a check on the import of tobacco from Sumatra into England as compared with tobacco from Java. The principal purchasers are German manufacturers and Dutch middlemen. The latter retail the tobacco over the continent, and supply the several Régies, amongst others the Austrian, Italian, and French. The Americans confine their purchases to dark-leaved, heavy tobacco, requiring 100 leaves or less to the lb.

“It is worth remarking that the whole of the carrying trade in connection with the Deli tobaccos is in the hands of Messrs. Holt’s line, the rate of freight from Deli to Amsterdam being about 3_l._ 2_s._ 6_d._ per ton. The shipping season may be said to last from January to June.

“The tobacco crop of 1884 is estimated to yield about 20,000 bales in excess of that of 1883, but the crop in 1883 was a short one owing to unfavourable weather. The 1884 crop is the best one ever obtained, both as regards quantity and quality. Roughly speaking, the Deli tobacco in the Amsterdam market fetches 1_s._ 4_d._ per lb. English, and the profits realized may be judged from the dividends given by the most flourishing companies; the shares of the Deli Company being now quoted at 500 per cent. premium. Of course there are exceptions where unsuitable soils have been met with, and losses have been sustained of no inconsiderable amount. These losses have occurred principally on Sirdang lands, where the tobacco grown is reputed not equal to that produced in the other two districts. This comparative defect is disclosed in the burning, the Sirdang tobacco yielding a brown instead of a white ash, and being probably therefore lacking in potash.

“The forests when cleared for the tobacco plantations afford splendid timber, and this is utilized for constructing drying-sheds and coolies’ quarters, but a good deal of the wood which might be exported for building or fuel is wasted for want of conveyance and burnt on the ground. As a compensation there can be no doubt that this burnt timber, or rather the ashes of it, supply an excellent manure.

“The labour employed may be distributed under three classes. There are, firstly, Malays and Batak tribesmen, who fell heavy timber, do general clearance, and build sheds; then come the Klings from the Madras districts, who occupy themselves with drainage and road-making; and lastly, we have the Chinese for planting, sorting, and preparation of the weed. The planting is conducted on a co-operative system. Coolies have their fields allotted to them, and plant at their own risk under supervision. Their payment depends on the yield. Reckoning from the estimated out-turn of last year’s crop, and that one coolie will raise seven piculs of tobacco in the season, we arrive at the figure 23,000 as representing the total number of Chinese engaged at Deli in tobacco cultivation, to which number 7000 extra hands must be added, employed in pursuits incidental to the industry. 3000 additional Chinese coolies are reported to have been engaged for the coming year. The strength of the Kling community may be taken at about 3000. The Chinamen go into their clearings and begin work during January and February: those not actually in service on the tobacco estates earning money as shopkeepers, pedlars, or gardeners, many of the latter being old hands who, under advances, have taken to planting patches of tobacco on their own account, for which they find a ready sale in Penang. The Klings are also to be met with as drivers of carts and carriages.

“An industrious coolie would, on an average, net in the course of a year 100 to 150 Dutch florins, and on this sum he pays to the Dutch Government 2 per cent. by way of income tax. The coolie, however, arrives in the country with a debt of from 100 fl. to 150 fl., and thus as a rule is not clear and able to leave with a balance in hand till the end of the second year. The coolie is engaged for a year, but he generally re-engages, and takes his departure in the beginning of the third year.

“The Dutch Government regulations with regard to the maintenance of a medical man by every estate and to the erection of hospitals for sick coolies are stringent; and, on the whole, the coolie-lines, considering their temporary nature, are adequate, so that the lot of the coolie in Deli may be regarded as a favourable one, even when compared with places where he is under British control.

“The importing of British Indians, as is well known, is not tolerated, though many have found their way into the country under the stimulus of high wages, the latter running from 7 dol. to 10 dol. a month, according to capacity.”

The following report by Consul Eckstein on the export of Sumatran tobacco to the United States, and Dutch dealings in the same in 1882 will be of interest.

Consul Eckstein says “it is not quite three years since a few dealers in tobacco and manufacturers of cigars in the United States had first their attention attracted to Sumatra tobacco, with a view of introducing and using it for cigar-wrappers.

“From this port shipments of the article began to be made during the latter half of the year 1880, and, considering that this trade has only so recently taken its rise, and that by this time it has already assumed rather important proportions, I felt called upon to prepare the present report, giving some information concerning the same.

“In order to show, as nearly correct as possible, the course this trade has taken from its commencement to the present time, I made up the following statement, which exhibits the quantity and value of such tobacco shipped from Amsterdam to the United States during each quarter since such shipments first began to be made, viz.:—

──────────────────────────────┬────────────┬────────────
Quarters ending— │Quantities. │ Value.
──────────────────────────────┼────────────┼────────────
│ Bales. │ $
September 30, 1880 │ 311│ 37,694
December 31, 1880 │ 454│ 52,113
│ ————————│ ————————
Total │ 765│ 89,807
│ ————————│ ————————
│ │
March 31, 1881 │ None.│ None.
June 30, 1881 │ 558│ 56,958
September 30, 1881 │ 1,162│ 128,474
December 31, 1881 │ 1,059│ 114,758
│ ————————│ ————————
Total │ 2,779│ 300,190
│ ————————│ ————————
│ │
March 31, 1882 │ 496│ 52,203
June 30, 1882 │ 1,464│ 140,184
September 30, 1882 │ 2,245│ 254,372
December 31, 1882 │ 2,785│ 333,254
│ ————————│ ————————
Total │ 6,990│ 780,013
──────────────────────────────┴────────────┴────────────

“From this statement it will be observed that the export of the article to the United States is constantly and very largely increasing; and when it is further taken into account that certain quantities of it were invoiced and shipped from Rotterdam and Bremen as well, it may safely be stated that about 9000 bales of Sumatra tobacco entered our markets in 1882.

“What has created, increased, and what sustains this trade appears to be:

“1st. That certain qualities of Sumatra tobacco in certain dark colours have been found to be peculiarly and advantageously adaptable for cigar-wrappers, and are gaining more and more in favour with manufacturers of cigars in the United States; and

“2nd. The ever-increasing crops of the article, thus also increasing the supply of the particular sorts especially suitable for the American market.

“The recent animation in this trade has undoubtedly furthermore been stimulated by the removal of the 10 per cent. discriminating duty, formerly payable thereon, being a product of the East Indies, exported from the west of the Cape of Good Hope.

“This will be clearly evident when I state that many shipments, aggregating large quantities of this tobacco, purchased or ordered for months last past, were purposely delayed until late in December, so as not to arrive until after the law abolishing the discriminating duty had gone into effect.

“This unlooked-for introduction and now so considerable export of this staple into the United States has begun to be viewed with great disfavour by cultivators or growers of ‘seed-leaf’ tobacco in the United States.

“They apprehend, as I am informed, that the imports of Sumatra tobacco into our country will increase still further in the near future, and seem to consider this would prove greatly detrimental to their interests.

“I am hardly in position or prepared to express an opinion as to how well grounded or justified their fears really are, and, moreover, am inclined to believe that the interested parties are the better judges of this matter, but so far as I can possibly make myself serviceable by giving information which may assist them in reaching correct conclusions on the subject I deem it my duty to do, and do cheerfully.