Chapter XXXVIII: Appendix: E (2)

[288] This is not the great river which flows near Cuzco, and falls into the Ucayali. The Indians call all rivers which serve as the trunk or centre of a system of streams _Huilca_ or _Vilca-mayu_.

[289] Brother of the present rector of the university of Cuzco.

[290] Account of the Valleys of Marcapata, by Don José Maria Pacheco. _Museo Erudito del Cuzco_, 1839, No. 21. See also an account of a journey down the course of the river Marcapata as far as its junction with the Ollachea, signed Paul Marcoy, in the _Revue Contemporaine_, tom. 4^{me}, 1860. _Scènes et Paysages dans les Andes._

[291] _Comm. Real_, ii. lib. iii. cap. xix. p. 174.

[292] Lib. iv. cap. iv.

[293] Don Pablo Pimentel says that the ancient name of the province was _Inahuaya_.

[294] _Bosquejo del estado actual de la provincia de Carabaya, y majorias que proponen al Supremo Gobierno el Suprefecto de ella, Don Pablo Pimentel._ Arequipa, 1846.

[295] _Memorias de los Vireyeo_, i. p. 36.

[296] _Memorial de cosas tocantes las minas de Caravaya._ J. 58, p. 441. A very illegible manuscript in the national library at Madrid.

[297] _Relacion del Conde de Castellar_, p. 222.

[298] _Relacion del Obispo Melchor Liñan y Cisneros_, p. 299.

[299] This appears from the _Informe_ of Diego Tupac Amaru, dated Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781; in which he stipulates that the coca estate near San Gavan, in Caravaya, shall be granted to Mariano Tupac Amaru as his rightful possession, because it belonged to his father the Inca.

[300] _Bosquejo_, &c.

[301] There is one other town, or rather wretched village, on this Arctic plain, within Caravaya, called Macusani, about 30 miles north-west of Crucero.

[302] A Quichua poem was written on the Cura Cabrera, and his breed of paco-vicuñas, by Don M. M. Basagoitia. _Rivero's Antiq. Per._ 112-13.

[303] According to Don Pablo Pimentel. The people of Sandia told me 45,000 cestos, or 900,000 lbs.; and Lieut. Gibbon, U.S.N., in his work, says 500,000 lbs.

[304] These Chunchos of Caravaya belong to the same tribe as the fierce Indians of the Paucartambo valleys, for some account of whom see my former work, _Cuzco and Lima_, p. 272.

Don Pablo Pimentel calls the wild tribes of Caravaya _Caranques_ and _Sumahuanes_, but I think this is a mistake. Garcilasso de la Vega mentions the _Coranques_ as a fierce tribe to the north of Quito, who were conquered by the Inca Huayna Capac.--_Comm. Real_, i. lib. viii. cap. vii. p. 274.

[305] _Challhua_, fish, in Quichua; and _uma_, water, in Aymara.

[306] _Lijera descripcion que hace Juan Bustamante, de su viaje a Carabaya, y del estado actual de sus lavaderos y minerales._ Arequipa, 1850. Bustamante says that, at the time of his visit, there were a hundred people at the _lavaderos_ of the Challuma, and that the Indians received 4 rials a day.

[307] _On the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru_, by David Forbes, Esq., in the Journal of the Geological Society for Feb. 1861, p. 53.

Mr. Forbes had, of course, personally examined only a portion of this great Silurian region. At Tipuani, in Bolivia, there is a very rich auriferous country, composed of blue-clay slates, with no fossils; while the beds near Sorata contain fossils, and consist of blue-clay shales, micaceous slates, grauwacke, and clay slates, with gold-bearing quartz, metallic bismuths, iron-ore, and argentiferous galena. "The whole of this Silurian formation is eminently auriferous, and contains everywhere frequent veins of auriferous quartz, usually associated with iron pyrites."

[308] The thermometer was at 25° Fahr. inside the hut.

[309] Observations by Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometer.

[310] Titulo 14, s. 104.

[311] The _Juntas Departmentales_ have since been abolished by the Reformed Constitution, promulgated in Nov. 1860. Up to May, 1860, Gen. Castilla, the President, had never permitted them to meet.

[312] Titulo 15, s. 114.

[313] _La Revista de Lima_, tom. i. p. 159-60. Nov. 15, 1859. An article by G. A. Flores.

[314] The same was once the case all over Peru, in the good old days of the Incas, as we know from the curious dying confession of the last of the conquerors, Marcio Serra de Lejesama, addressed to Philip II., A.D. 1589.

"Your Majesty must understand that my reason for making this statement is to relieve my conscience, for we have destroyed the government of this people by our bad example. Crimes were once so little known among them, that an Indian with 100,000 pieces of gold and silver in his house left it open, only placing a little stick across the door, as a sign that the master was out; and nobody went in. But when they saw that we placed locks in our doors, they understood that it was from fear of theft; and when they saw that we had thieves amongst us, they thought little of us; but now these natives, through our bad example, have come to such a pass that no crime is unknown to them."--_Calancha_, lib. i. cap. 15, p. 98.

[315] G. de la Vega, _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15.

[316] _Acosta_, lib. iv. cap. 22, who cannot agree with those who believe its reputed virtues to be the effects of imagination.

[317] _Cedula_, 18 Oct. 1569.

[318] _Solorzano_, _Polit. Ind._, lib. ii. cap. 10, quoted by Unanue.

[319] J. de Jussieu was the first botanist who sent specimens of coca to Europe, in 1750.

Dr. Weddell suggests that the word comes from the Aymara _khoka_, a tree, i. e. _the_ tree _par excellence_, like _yerba_, _the_ plant of Paraguay. The Inca historian Garcilasso, however, spells the word _cuca_.

[320] The cesto of coca sells at 8 dollars in Sandia. In Huanuco it is 5 dollars the arroba of 25 lbs.

[321] Report of the Prince of Esquilache.

[322] Poeppig calculates the yield of Huanuco at 500,000 lbs.

[323] Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 252; also Van Tschudi, p. 455.

[324] In Caravaya the _llipta_ is made into a pointed lump, and kept in a horn, or sometimes in a silver receptacle, in the _chuspa_. With it there is also a pointed instrument, with which the _llipta_ is scratched, and the powder is applied to the pellet of coca-leaves. In some provinces they keep a small calabash full of lime in their _chuspas_, called _iscupurus_.

[325] _Bonplandia_, viii. p. 355-78.

[326] The information in this chapter is derived from personal observation; from the essay on coca by Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue, in Nos. 3 to 8 of the _Museo Erudito_; and from the works treating of coca, by Van Tschudi, _Travels in Peru_, p. 455; Dr. Poeppig, _Reise in Peru_, ii. p. 248; Dr. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 516; the _Bonplandia_; and a memorandum by Dr. Booth, of La Paz. These are the best authorities on the subject.

[327] Dr. Weddell, the discoverer of this species, had never seen it in flower. I brought home leaves, flowers, and fruit of the _C. Caravayensis_, which are now in the herbarium at Kew.

[328] An Umbellifer. The roots taste something like a parsnip, and there are four kinds--white, yellow, brown, and reddish.

[329] _Lenco_ appears to mean "sticky mud," and _huayccu_ is a ravine, in Quichua.

[330] _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15.

[331] Lib. iv. cap. 29.

[332] Not, of course, the famous gold-bearing river of the same name.

[333] _Carhua-carhua-blanca (Lasionema ?) Tree._--30 or 40 feet high, growing in moist parts of the valley of Tambopata.

_Leaves._--Opposite, entire, petiolate, oblong, acute, smooth on both sides, dark green above, lighter beneath, with veins and midrib nearly white. 2-1/2 feet long by 9 or 10 inches broad. Coarse, bulging, and wrinkled between the veins.

_Calyx._--Deep purple and green, leathery, 5-toothed, teeth rounded.

_Corolla._--Tube white, tinged with light purple, leathery, 5 laciniæ, smooth and reflexed.

_Stamens._--5, attached to the middle of the tube of the corolla, exserted. Filaments pillose at the base, tinged with purple. Anthers a little shorter than the filaments, all lying on the lower sides of the tube of the corolla, light brown.

_Style._--Exserted, but a little shorter than the stamens, light green colour. _Stigma_, bi-cleft.

_Panicles._--Corymbose and multiflor, in threes, 6 to 15 buds on each. _Pedicels_ a brownish purple.

I have attempted to describe this tree, because I have been unable to identify it with any of the chinchonaceous plants in Dr. Weddell's work.

[334] _Yana_, in Quichua, is black; and _mayu_ a river.

[335] _Rupicola Peruviana_ (family of _Ampelidæ_). Van Tschudi says that they feed on the seeds of chinchona-trees.--_Travels in Peru_, p. 427.

[336] The bark, leaves, and capsules from this tree are deposited in the herbarium and museum at Kew.

[337] I brought home a bunch of the capsules, now in the herbarium at Kew.

[338] There we also found the _Trichomanes muscoides_, a pretty little fern which, I am informed by Mr. J. Smith, of Kew, though common in the West Indies, was not previously known to be a native of Peru.

[339] Specimens from this locality were examined and reported upon at 28, Jermyn-street.

[340] Described by Dr. Weddell, in his _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, in a note under the genus _Pimentelia_.

[341] In Peru the father of a child is _compadre_ to its godfather. It is considered a very close and sacred relationship.

[342] Hence the name _Lenco-huayccu_. _Lenqui_ is anything sticky in Quichua, and _huayccu_ a ravine.

[343] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, Feb. 1, 1860, p. 59.

[344] Dr. Weddell believes it to be a distinct species from the _C. Micrantha_ of Huanuco, and has named it _C. Affinis_.

[345] "_Alcalde Municipal del Distrito de Quiaca, al Señor Juez de Paz Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda._

_"6 de Mayo de 1860._

"Teniendo positivas noticias de que sea internado a los puntos de Tambopata un estranjero Ingles, con objeto de estraer plantas de cascarilla, me es de absoluta necesidad pasarle a vm esta nota, para que sin permitir que en grave perjuicio de los hijos del pais, lo tome ni una planta, por lo que como autoridad debe vm de aberiguar bien para capturar a el y al persona quien se propone a facilitarle dichas plantas, y conducirlos a este.

"Dios guarde a vm.,

"JOSÉ MARIANO BOBADILLA."

[346] Hence the name of the Peruvian province of _Parinacochas_. _Parihuana-cocha_, the Flamingo lake.--G. de la Vega, _Comm. Real._ i. lib. iii. cap. ix. p. 83.

[347] "We give here the notices which we have collected respecting the existence and position of a lake which is not to be found in any map, and which bears the name of Arapa. It is said to be 6 leagues to the north of lake Titicaca, and is 30 leagues in circumference. It extends from the foot of a very abrupt chain of mountains, and its figure is that of a half-moon. It contains some islands. Its waters, having traversed two other smaller lakes to the west, fall into the Ramiz, which is thus rendered navigable at all seasons. The principal villages around the lake of Arapa are Chacamana, Chupan, Arapa, and Vetansas. Round the latter place it is said that there are many veins of silver and mines of precious stones."--_Castelnau_, tom. iii. chap. xxxix. p. 420.

[348] _Taya_ is an Aymara word, meaning "cold."

[349] _La Balsa de Arequipa_, Junio 15.

"Las cuestiones municipales han hecho gran daño al puerto de Islay, pues todo va mal con el desacuerdo que reina entre el cuerpo y las demas autoridades que lo combaten escandalosamente.

"Quiero que se sepa en esa ciudad que los estranjeros han dado en esportar per esta plantas de cascarilla, que es sabido esta prohibido hacerlo: acaba de embarcar un Ingles una multitud de ellas para la India, por comision official de su Gobierno. Yo no sé como es que esto se tolera, defraudando asi uno de los mejores y mas esclusivos ramos de nuestra riqueza."

[350]

"_Ministerio de Hacienda y Comercio._

_Lima, Junio 20 de 1860._

En el expediente relativa a la medida tomada por el Administrador de la Aduana de Islay, impediendo la extraccion de cierto numero de plantas de cascarilla, ha recaido con fecha de hoy, el siguiente decreto.

Visto este expediente, y atendiendo a que no esta prohibida por reglamento de Comercio, la extraccion de plantas de cascarilla, y a que de impedirse su exportacion, con detrimento de la libertad comercial que las leyes de la Republica, y ese reglamento protejan, no se conseguiria en manera alguna el objeto que el Administrador de la Aduana se ha propuesto al impedir el embarque de varias plantas de esa especie, se desaprueba dicha prohibicion, sin que por este se entiende que el Gobierno deja de apreciar el celo y patriotismo que revela en el preindicado Administrador la enunciada medida.

Dios guarda a V. S.,

JUAN JOSÉ SALCEDO."

[351] In an Appendix will be found a list of these knights errant in the cause of liberty. It was one of the last things upon which that gallant old warrior, General Miller, the most distinguished of their number, was engaged before his death in November 1861.

[352] "Pos las narraciones tan calumniosas como absurdas de algunos aventureros maldicientes, se nos considera punto menos que salvages," says a Peruvian writer.

[353] In Spanish times there were 83 "titulos de Castilla" in Peru, consisting of 1 duke, 46 marquises, 35 counts, and 1 viscount. The descendants of several of these noblemen still reside on their estates in Peru.

[354] The boundary between Ecuador and Peru is now founded on the _uti possidetis_ of 1810, and the treaty of 1829.

[355] _Pruvonena_, i. p. 688.

[356] Pedro Castilla discovered the class of ore called _lecheador_ (chloro-bromide of silver). See Bollaert's _Antiquarian and other Researches in Peru_, &c. In this work there is a full and interesting account of the province of Tarapaca, and of the nitrate of soda works, and other mineral products of that part of Peru.

[357] This province also yields great quantities of tobacco, sugar, rice, and maize; and the adjoining province of Truxillo produces cochineal, which was introduced by Mr. Blackwood.

[358] 1 _fanegada_ = 41,472 square _varas_ (yards), and 1 acre = 4840 varas. In Arequipa the square measure is called a _topu_. 1 _topu_ = 5000 square _varas_.

[359] Mr. Gerard Garland is about to commence a cotton plantation in the littoral province of Payta; and, if his project succeeds, it will doubtless induce others to follow his example.--_Cotton Supply Reporter_, March 15th, 1862.

[360] The use of guano as a manure was well known to the ancient Peruvians long before the Spanish conquest. Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian of the Incas, thus describes the use made by them of the deposits of guano on the coast of Peru:--

"On the shores of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is more than 200 leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of sea-birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would also seem incredible. From afar the heaps of manure appear like the peaks of some snowy mountain range. In the time of the kings, who were Incas, such care was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was not lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither was it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the islands or elsewhere, also on pain of death. Each island was, by order of the Incas, set apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly divided, each village receiving a due portion. Now in these times it is wasted after a different fashion. There is much fertility in this bird-manure."--II. lib. v. cap. iii. p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.)

Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was brought from Iquique and other ports along the coast, and landed at Arica and Ylo, for the aji-pepper and other crops.--Frezier's _South Sea_, p. 152. (London, 1717.)

[361] _Informes sobre la existencia de Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, por la comision nombrada por el Gobierno Peruano_, 1854. A small pamphlet, with plans.

[362] Bollaert's _Account of Tarapaca_.

[363] In 1858 there were 52 ships loading at the Kooria Mooria islands, off the coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano is found coating nearly the whole of the island (about 500,000 tons), white and polished, so as to be very slippery, which is very different from the guano of Peru. In May, 1857, this guano from Jibleea island was analyzed at Bombay by Dr. Giraud, with the following result:--

Water 6·88
Azotized matter, with ammoniacal salts 38·75
Fixed alkaline salts 6·
Sand 26·25
Sulphate of lime 3·77
Phosphate of lime 18·35
------
100·00
------

Thus the quantity of phosphate of lime is very small, and it appears that the rains have washed it down, and that it has formed a stalactitic deposit on the surface of the rock beneath the guano. A cargo of this deposit was shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8_l._ a ton.

The composition of Peruvian guano is as follows:--

Water 13·73
Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 53·16
Phosphates 23·48
Alkaline salts 7·97
Sand 1·66
------
100.00
------

Of Ichaboe guano:--

Water 24·21
Organic matter, and ammoniacal salts 39·30
Phosphates 30·00
Alkaline salts 4·19
Sand 2·30
------
100·00
------

[364] The Peruvian Government contracted three loans in London between 1822 and 1825, amounting to 1,816,000_l._, bearing interest at 6 per cent.

No interest was paid from 1825 to 1849, when the sales of guano had greatly increased the resources of Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an agreement with the bondholders to issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per annum, the rate to increase 1/2 per cent. annually up to 6 per cent. Arrears of interest, about 2,615,000_l._, were to be capitalized, and Deferred Bonds to be issued to represent 75 per cent. of these arrears, and to bear interest at 1 per cent. per annum, increasing 1/2 per cent. annually up to 3 per cent.

In 1852 the Congress authorised General Mendiburu to effect a loan in London for 2,600,000_l._ to redeem the remainder of the 6 per cent. loan, and to refund other home and Chile debts.

The annual interest and sinking fund amount, respectively, to 267,000_l._ and 82,000_l._; the payment of which is secured on the profits of guano sold in Great Britain.

There is also a French loan of 800,000_l._ secured on the profits of guano sold in France.

The whole foreign debt of Peru amounted to 4,491,042_l._ in 1857; and the domestic debt to 4,835,708_l._ The foreign debt is annually reduced by means of a sinking fund.

[365] _Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru._ (Lima, 1859.)

[366] After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets lodged.

[367] Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of red bark.

[368] There is no ascertained law by which many of the species of the chinchona genus are thus limited to narrow zones as regards latitude. Mr. Spruce mentions that on the lower regions of the Andes of Pasto and Popayan, in New Granada, there are the conditions of climate and altitude requisite for the growth of _C. succirubra_, but it has not been found there.

[369] This is not the same as the _pata de gallinazo_ of Huanuco, which has been named by Mr. Howard _C. Peruviana_.

[370] Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; one began to germinate on the fourth day, and at the end of a fortnight four seeds had pushed their radicles. In three weeks one had the seed-leaves completely developed; and on the twenty-eighth day after sowing, the last of the eight pushed its radicle. Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, which had remained nine months in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, which clearly shows that well-ripened and properly-dried seeds do not lose their vitality for a much longer period than their excessive delicacy would lead one to suspect.

[371] 1. _Notes of a visit to the Chinchona Forests_, by R. Spruce, Esq., printed by the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their _Proceedings_.

2. Mr. Spruce's _Report to the Under Secretary of State for India_, Oct. 12, 1860.

3. _Report of the Expedition to procure Plants and Seeds of the Chinchona succirubra_, by R. Spruce, Esq., Sept. 22, 1861.

[372] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated July 9, 1861.

[373] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated Dec. 13, 1860.

[374] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 63.

[375] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 126.

[376] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 136.

[377] Smyth, p. 115; who says that, according to a register which had been kept there, it rains at Casapi on more than half the days of the year.

"From May to November the sun shines very powerfully in the valley of Chinchao, and consequently the soil, when it is cleared of wood, becomes so parched that its surface opens in chinks, but underneath it always preserves humidity, and therefore needs no irrigation. From November to May it rains much, sometimes six or seven days without intermission."--Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57.

[378] Of the identity of the species collected by Mr. Pritchett there is no doubt. He brought home specimens from the trees whence the seeds were obtained, which have been examined by Mr. Howard, and proved to belong to _C. nitida_, _C. micrantha_, and _C. Peruviana_. The barks also have been found to contain a satisfactory percentage of alkaloids. Some further particulars respecting these species have already been given in chap. ii. p. 30-35.

[379] Pavon gives its height at from 18 to 24 feet, and 8 to 9 inches in diameter.

[380] They yield the _crown bark_ of commerce.

[381] Seemann's _Voyage of H. M. S. Herald_, i. p. 177. For some further particulars respecting the chinchona region of Loxa, see chap. ii. p. 21-25.

[382] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon._ _C. Chahuarguera_ and _C. crispa_.

[383] Mr. Cross transmitted the following dried specimens of the parts of chinchona-trees from Loxa:--

1. Very characteristic specimens of the bark, leaves, flowers, and capsules of _C. Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_, Pavon). This kind yields the rusty crown bark of commerce.

2. Bark, leaves, and flowers of _C. crispa_, Tafalla, a kind which is included in the _C. Condaminea_, H. and B. It yields the _quina fina de Loxa_, or _cascarilla crespilla_.

3. Bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_ of Pavon, from Zamora. This is the _cascarilla de hoja de lucma_ of the natives. Mr. Cross made no attempt to collect the seeds, as this species is comparatively worthless.

[384] My collection of dried specimens is deposited in the museum and herbarium at Kew. It consists of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of _C. Calisaya_; leaves and flowers of _C. micrantha_; leaves and fruit of _C. Caravayensis_; fruit of _Pimentelia glomerata_; and bark from the branches of almost every species of chinchona and allied genera in the Caravayan forests.

Mr. Spruce's collection of all the parts of _C. succirubra_ is in the herbarium at Kew.

Mr. Pritchett's collection of leaves, fruit, and bark of _C. nitida_, _C. micrantha_, _C. Peruviana_, and _C. obovata_, is in the possession of Mr. Howard.

Mr. Cross's dried specimens of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of _C. Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_ of Pavon), bark, leaves, and flowers of _C. crispa_ of Tafalla, and bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_, are partly in my possession, partly in that of Mr. Howard, and partly in that of Mr. Veitch.

[385] Six cases of chinchona-plants from this depôt were despatched to Ceylon by the mail of March 4, 1862.

[386] See Fortune's _Tea Districts_, chap. xxi. p. 358-9.

[387] Mr. Cross says that Wardian cases, as they are at present constructed, are notoriously unfit for the growth of plants of any description. He adds that the plants must be healthy root and top before they are deposited in the cases. They ought to be exposed for at least a month to the full action of the sun and atmosphere, so that the juices, stems, and leaves may be fully developed and matured. Plants taken out of hothouses, or from dense forests, are not in a fit state to be sent away immediately in Wardian cases. They are then "blanched," and are easily affected by adverse influences, such as excess of moisture or drought.

[388] In October, 1861, the _Schinus molle_ plants were 3 feet high; and the chirimoyas 15 inches. Plants of both have been sent to the gardens at Bangalore.

[389] Seemann's _Voyage of the Herald_, i. p. 171.

[390] These 11 classes are:--1. The _Kirüm Nairs_, who are agriculturists, clerks, and accountants, and do the cooking on all public occasions, a sure sign of transcendent rank. 2. The _Sudra Nairs_. 3. The _Charnadus_. 4. The _Villiums_, who are palkee-bearers to Namburis and Rajahs. 5. The _Wattacotas_, or oil-makers. 6. The _Atticourchis_, or cultivators. 7. The _Wallacutras_, or barbers. 8. The _Wallateratas_, or washermen. 9. The _Tunars_, or tailors. 10. The _Andoras_, or pot-makers. 11. The _Taragons_, or weavers, who are very low in the scale, for even a potter must purify himself if he chances to touch a weaver.--Buchanan, ii. p. 408.

[391] Buchanan.

[392] Temulporum and Palghaut.

[393] They range from 12 to 60 reas, or 6 pies to 2 annas 5 pies per tree.

[394] The value of the exported nuts, kernels, oil, and coir of the cocoanuts in 1859, was 157,995_l._

[395] Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[396] The best soil for ginger-cultivation is red earth free from gravel. At the commencement of the monsoon beds of 10 or 12 feet by 3 or 4 are formed, in which holes are dug a foot apart, which are filled with manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug out, chipped into suitable sizes for planting (1-1/2 to 2 inches long), and buried in the holes. The bed is then covered with a thick layer of green leaves, which serve as manure, while they keep the beds from too much dampness. Rain is requisite, but the beds must be kept from inundation, and drains are therefore cut between them. The roots or rhizomes, when old, are scalded, scraped, and dried, and thus form the white ginger of commerce.--Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[397] The tallipot or fan-palm (_Corypha umbraculifera_) has a stem 60 or 70 feet high, crowned with enormous fan-shaped leaves, with 40 or 50 pairs of segments. These fronds, when dried, are very strong, and are used for hats and umbrellas. The petiole is seven feet long, and the blade six feet long and thirteen feet broad.

[398] The sumach-tree (_Cæsalpinia coriaria_) was introduced into India from America, by Dr. Wallich, in 1842. The pods are much used for tanning purposes.

[399] _Nil_, blue, and _giri_, a mountain; from the blue _Justitias_ which cover many of the hill-slopes.

[400] _Report of Captain J. Ouchterlony, Superintendent of the Neilgherry Survey in 1848._

[401] Ferdosi.

[402] Dr. Wight says that this plant might be collected in vast quantities with little trouble or expense, and yields an excellent red dye.

[403] This nettle is frequent all over the higher ranges of the Neilgherries. The bark yields a fine strong fibre, which the natives obtain by first boiling the whole plant, to deprive it of its virulently-stinging properties, and then peeling the stalks. The textile material thus obtained is of great delicacy and strength.--Wight's _Spicelegium Neilgherense_. The fibre of the Neilgherry nettle is worth 200_l._ a ton in England, and its cultivation is likely to be a remunerative speculation.

[404] _Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, from the rough Notes of a German Missionary._ (Madras, 1856.)

[405] _Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri Mountains_, by the Rev. F. Metz, of the German Evangelical Mission. (Madras, 1857.)

[406] _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_, by Captain H. Congreve, 1847. Also, Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. The German missionaries believe that these cairns were the work of the Kurumbers, another wild hill tribe.

[407] Todars pay two taxes to Government in return, on female buffaloes and on grazing land, both small in amount.

[408] _Raggee_, however, is the least nourishing of all the cereals, although it forms the chief part of the diet of the poorer classes in Mysore and on the Neilgherries. In good seasons it yields 120-fold, but it is very poor fare.

[409] In 1807 Buchanan mentioned the Badagas of the Neilgherries, as gatherers of honey and wax in the hills south of Wynaad.--ii. p. 246 and p. 273.

[410] Literally "one stone village."

[411] The great Tamil scholar.

[412] _Hooli_, a tiger in the Badaga language; and _cul_, a rock or stone in Tamil and Canarese. _Pili_ is a tiger in Tamil.

[413] Mr. Fowler, in his evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons, gave 2500 to 4000 feet as the most favourable elevation for the growth of coffee.

[414] There are 11,386 acres of land under coffee cultivation in Wynaad, 7358 owned by Europeans, and 4028 by natives: of these 7224 are liable to assessment, that is, the coffee-trees are in bearing.

[415] Besides a _jemmi_ fee on Government land, of eight annas an acre.

[416] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of Southern India_, p. 16.

[417] Several species of _Chinchonæ_ flourish at altitudes from 8000 to over 10,000 feet above the sea, and within the region of frequent frosts.

[418] Karsten.

[419] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 115.

[420] Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57.

[421] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 27.

[422] Called _Cinchona excelsa_ by Dr. Roxburgh, but excluded from the list of Chinchonæ by Dr. Wallich, who gave the plant its present name.

[423] In the _Mahabharata_ the five Pandus, who contended with the 100 Kurus or vices, were--Yudisthira, the personification of modesty; and his brothers Arjuna, or courage; Bhima, or strength; Nakal, or beauty; and Sahadeva, or harmony. The conversation between Arjuna and the incarnate deity Krishna, in the _Bhagavat Gita_, an episode in the _Mahabharata_, is perhaps the finest passage in the whole range of Sanscrit literature.

[424] _Cæsalpinia sappan_, a handsome tree, with curiously-shaped pods. It yields a valuable dye.

[425] Called _jowaree_, in Bengalee; _jonna_, in Telugu; _yawanul_, in Sanscrit; and _doora_, in Egypt.

[426] _Dolichos lablab_, a kind of pulse much eaten by the poor people.

[427] Cotton (_Gossypium Indicum_) is called _parati_, in Tamil; _putti_, in Telugu; and _kurpas_, in Sanscrit.

[428] The former of these grains has already been mentioned. The latter is _Panicum spicatum_, or spiked millet. It is called _bajree_, in Guzeratee; and _kunghoo_, in Sanscrit; and is made into cakes and porridge.

[429] "The black cotton soil seems to have arisen from the decomposition of basalt and trap. When dry it is dark-coloured, and glistens from the presence of nearly pure grains of silica. It possesses extraordinary attraction for water, and forms with it a most tenacious mud."--_Dr. Forbes Watson._

[430] "The district of Coimbatore lies opposite the great gap in the Peninsular chain between the southern slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, and the northern face of those of Travancor. Across this depression the S.W. monsoon has almost a free passage to the eastward; but the great elevation of the mountains on both sides, and the absence of any considerable hills in the district, cause the monsoon wind to pass over without depositing much of its moisture; and, though the climate is humid, the rainfall is very trifling. During the N.E. monsoon the hills of Salem intercept the moisture."--Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 132.

[431] Lindley's _Theory and Practice of Horticulture_, p. 487.

[432] "This is an assurance which no private tenant in any country, not even in England, has obtained."--_East India Company's Memorandum_, 1858, p. 17.

[433] _Koda_, a shade or umbrella; and _karnal_, a jungle.

[434] Literally "Fruit-hills."

[435] Yet I missed the _Berberis Mahonia_, which in the Neilgherries is not found beyond the limits of the S.W. monsoon.

[436] For short accounts of the Pulney hills, see--

1. _Memoir of the Varagherry Hills_, by Capt. B. S. Ward, _Madras Journal of Literature and Science_, Oct. 1837, vol. vi. p. 280.

2. _Observations on the Pulney Mountains_, by Dr. Wight, _Madras Journal_, v. p. 280.

3. _Report on the Pulneys_, by Lieut. R. H. Beddome, _Madras Journal_, 1857.

4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's _Official Tour in the South of India_. He says, "It is an important fact that, as regards much the largest portion of this tract, there is no claim to the soil which can interfere with the establishment of the most absolute freehold."

[437] For a very interesting account of the Anamallay hills, see _Forests and Gardens of South India_, p. 289-302, by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency.

[438] Tamil is spoken throughout the Carnatic, in the southern part of Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, by about 10,000,000 souls. Telugu, the first of the Dravidian languages in euphonious sweetness, is spoken in the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of the Nizam's territory, and part of Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and Mysore; and Malayalam in Malabar. The whole Dravidian race numbers 30,000,000 souls. The Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam languages have each a system of written characters peculiar to itself: the Canarese letters are borrowed from the Telugu.

[439] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. Preface, p. v.

[440] _Lectures on the Science of Language_, p. 341.

[441] Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas which the human mind is capable of forming. See a paper read before the Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, _On the numerals as evidence of the progress of civilization_, by Mr. Crawford.

[442] Caldwell, p. 2.

[443] _Kolki_ of the Periplus; perhaps _Kilkhar_, on the Coromandel coast, opposite Rameswaram.

[444] In Sanscrit.

[445] In 1802 a pot of Roman coins was dug up near Dharaparum, in Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, with _Cæsarea_ marked on them, the place where they were struck. Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 318.

One coin, a Roman _aureus_, has been found in a cairn on the Neilgherry hills.--Captain H. Congreve's _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_.

[446] The author of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda (Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and Comari (Cape Comorin), as under King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan Kings of Madura lost Malabar between the time of the author of the Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because the latter does not allude to Pandion until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira is the modern Coimbatore, and the capital of the Chira state was at Caroor. The state of Chola is the modern Tanjore. The word _Pandya_ is probably of Sanscrit origin, but the masculine termination of _on_ is Tamil.

[447] "In Tamil few Brahmins have written anything worthy of preservation: but the language has been cultivated and developed with immense zeal and success by native Sudras."--_Caldwell_, p. 33. Tamil literature, now extant, dates from the eighth or ninth century: p. 68.

[448] Dr. Ainslie, in his _Materia Medica_, gives a list of twenty works by Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, some of them translated from Sanscrit.

[449] For a list of kings of Madura, of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, see a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, by H. H. Wilson; from MS. collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie.

[450] Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas in 1675. The last Naik sovereign of Madura was installed as a tributary of the Nawab of the Carnatic.

[451] Namely the _Michelia Champacca_, a golden-coloured flower with a strong aromatic smell, also dedicated to Krishna; the mango-flower-called _amra_; the _Pavonia odorata_ with a sweet flower, called _bulla_; the _Strychnos potatorum_; and the _Mesua ferea_, a guttiferous plant, with a flower white outside, and yellow inside the tube, with a smell like sweet-briar.

[452] While on the subject of sacred Hindu plants, I may also mention the _soma_ juice, so often alluded to in the Vedas, which comes from a leafless asclepiad (_Sarcostemma viminale_) with white flowers in terminal umbels, which appear during the rains, in the Deccan: the holy _kusa_-grass (_Poa cynosuroides_), made into ropes in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, the banyan, the neem (_Melia Azadyraclita_): the _Cratæva religiosa_, specially sacred to Siva: the _Nerium odorum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Cæsalpinia pulcherrima_, sacred to Siva: the _Guettarda speciosa_, sacred to Siva and Vishnu: the _Origanum marjoranum_, a labiate plant sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Caryophyllum inophyllum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Pandanus odoratissimus_, sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, but offensive to Siva: the _Artemisia astriaka_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Ocimum sanctum_ or _toolsu_, a labiate plant with a white flower, specially sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and the _Chrisanthemum Indicum_, a yellow flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva.

[453] Mr. Caldwell considers that these lines do not allude to any of the avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but that they are borrowed, in some unexplained way, from Christianity.

[454] In Fergusson's _Architecture_, i. p. 105, the hall is represented with an arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's _Views of Hindostan_.

[455] There was a Portuguese Jesuit mission, with two Christian churches, established at Madura during the reign of Tirumalla Naik. It was founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and the missionaries wore the sacred thread, declaring themselves to be Brahmins from the West.

[456] The Brahmins of course are of mixed blood, through intercourse with Tamil women. Children are therefore Sudras, and are not Brahmins until they are invested with the sacred thread.

[457] From _Parei_, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals.

[458] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_, Appendix, p. 491.

[459] _Proceedings of the South India Missionary Conference_, 1858, p. 283.

[460] _Reports connected with the duties of the Corps of Engineers of the Madras Presidency_, 1846, vol. ii., p. 108. _Report of Captain Bell_, p. 117.

[461] There was formerly a peculiar system of collecting land revenue prevalent in Tanjore and part of Tinnevelly, called _Oolungoo_, by which the Government demand was dependent on the current price of grain. A standard grain assessment was fixed on each village, and also a standard rate according to which the grain demand was to be commuted into money; but if prices rose more than 10 per cent. above the standard commutation rate, or fell more than 5 per cent. below it, the Government, and not the cultivator, was to receive the profit and to bear the loss. The advantage of the system was that the Government participated in the benefit of high prices with the cultivator, while the latter was relieved from loss when prices were much depressed.--Mill's _India in 1858_, p. 119.

This Oolungoo system was introduced into Tanjore in 1825. It was found that the system was fertile in fraud and corruption, especially in connection with the determination of the annual price, and with claims for alleged deficiency of produce. In July, 1859, the Government resolved to abolish the Oolungoo system, and to substitute a fixed money demand, similar to that which prevails in all other districts. By 1860 this change had been completed, both in Tanjore and Tinnevelly.--_Principal Measures of Sir Charles Trevelyan's Administration at Madras_ (_Madras_, 1860), p. 55.

[462] The largest temple in Southern India, next to that of Madura.

[463] From _Kar_, black, and _ur_ a town, in Tamil.

[464] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 124.

[465] Ibid., i. p. 133.

[466] Dr. Cleghorn states that the Seegoor forest has been much exhausted by unscrupulous contractors. "It is important," he adds, "that it should be allowed to recover, as it is the main source of supply to Ootacamund for housebuilding purposes." Captain Morgan has been placed in charge of it, and it is hoped that the sale of sandal and jungle-wood will cover the expenses, while the young teak is coming on for future supply, P. 36.

[467] The areca-palm requires a low moist situation, with rather a sandy soil, either under the _bund_ of a tank, or in a position otherwise favourable for irrigation. The seeds are put into holes six feet apart, and the tree comes into bearing in about eight years. It yields fruit for fifty years, and, when in full bearing, produces 1-1/2 lbs. of nuts.

[468] The Lingayets are members of the _Vira Saiva_ sect, or worshippers of Siva as the _Linga_, a representation of which they carry round their necks. The sect is numerous in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. It is of modern origin, having been founded by a Brahmin of Kalyan in the middle of the 12th century. Its members deny the sanctity of the Brahmins and the authority of the Vedas, recognize various divinities, and virtually abolish the distinction of castes and the inferiority of women. They are divided into _Aradhyas_, by birth Brahmins, and often well versed in Sanscrit literature; _Jangamas_, who have a literature of their own, written in Karnata and Telugu; and Bhaktas.--Wilson's _Indian Glossary_, p. 311.

[469] The whole population of Coorg is about 119,160.

[470] Namely, the _Amma Kodagas_ or Cauvery Brahmins; the _Kodagas_ or chief tribe; the _Himbokulu_ or herdsmen; the _Heggade_ or cultivators; the _Ari_ or carpenters; the _Badige_ or smiths; the _Kuruba_ or honey gatherers; the _Kavati_ or jungle cultivators; the _Budiya_ or drawers of toddy from the _Caryota urens_ palm; the _Meda_ or basket-makers; the _Kaleya_ or farm-labourers; the _Holeya_ or slaves; and the _Yerawa_ or slaves from Malabar, cheaper than cattle.

[471] _Coorg_, by Rev. H. Moegling. (Mangalore, 1855.)

[472] Observations by Dr. R. Baikie. _Madras Journal_, 1837, vi. p. 342.

[473]

1860-61.

_Revenue of Coorg._ | _Expenditure._
|
Land revenue £14,727 | General expenditure £10,211
Excise and stamps 3,611 | Public works 1,153
Income tax 98 |
Miscellaneous 8,300 |
------ | ------
£26,736 | £11,364
------ | ------

[474] Seemann's _Popular History of the Palms_, p. 134.

[475] Moegling's _Coorg_, pp. 74-77; also Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 511, and Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[476] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of South India_, pp. 126-44, where the official correspondence respecting _kumari_ will be found.

[477] _Cleghorn_, p. 11. Poon spars are also obtained from _Stercula fœtida_, a tree with brownish flowers, emitting a most horrible smell.

[478] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 126.

[479] The inhabitants of the Laccadive islands are Sooni Mussulmans. They have some songs commemorating the introduction of Islam 500 years ago, but do not know when the Beebee of Cannanore got possession. Menakoy, the largest island, is a mass of coral 5-1/2 miles in diameter. The land is less than a mile wide, the rest being a reef encircling a large lagoon. Within a hundred yards of the reef there is no bottom. The lagoon, which abounds in turtle and fish, has three entrances from the sea, one of which has a depth of two fathoms. The soil of the island is a coarse powdered coral, with a little vegetable matter. It is quite flat, no part being destitute of vegetation; the south thickly covered with cocoanut-trees and underwood, and the north more sparingly. Rats abound, there are some cats, a few cows and goats, large grey cranes, ducks occasionally, and the mosquitos are fearful.

The population is 2500; of these 116 are _Malikans_, the aristocracy of the islands, who own vessels trading to Bengal. The _Koornakar_, or agent of the Beebee, is generally a _Malikan_; he collects rents, and superintends her traffic. The _Malikans_ have the exclusive privilege of wearing shoes, live in large houses built round courtyards, and possess English quadrants, charts, compasses, and telescopes. Below them are 180 _Malummies_, or pilots, a rank obtained by merit. Then 1107 _Klasies_, forming the bulk of the population, who are small landed proprietors, go to sea for regular wages, but are very independent. Then 583 _Maylacherries_, or tree-climbers for hire. The head-men are elected by the people. The islanders have six or seven vessels fit for the Bengal trade, and three or four for coasting. They go with money to Goa and Mangalore for salt and rice, with coir to Bengal, with cocoanuts to Galle, and bring Calcutta cloths home.--Mr. Thomas's _Report_.

[480] The gross exports of cotton from the ports in the various districts of the Madras Presidency in 1859-60 were as follows:--

Vizagapatam 40,758 lbs. Valued at £783
Gosavery 3,000 " 36
Krishna 198,670 " 1,591
Nellore 21,075 " 230
Fort St. George 7,960,368 " 128,648
Tinnevelly 18,562,546 " 274,380
Malabar 2,509,132 " 49,900
N. and S. Canara 33,264,498 " 504,905
----------- --------
Total 62,560,047 " 960,473
----------- --------

In 1860-61 the total export of cotton from Bombay amounted to 355,393,894 lbs.; of which 278,868,126 lbs. went to Great Britain.

In the same year the ports of Malabar and Canara sent 55,182,181 lbs. to Bombay.

[481] In lat. 15° N. the western ghauts are not more than 1100 feet above the sea.

[482] The trap formation of the northern part of the ghauts terminates in 18° N., and is succeeded by laterite.

[483] _Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay for 1838_, i. p. 92.

[484] Or _Gnidia eriocephala_ of Graham.--Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 221.

[485] Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 93.

[486] Ibid., p. 275.

[487] The following list of shrubs, trees, and ferns growing at Mahabaleshwur has been kindly furnished by Mr. Dalzell.

LIST OF SHRUBS AND TREES GROWING ON THE HIGHEST GROUND AT MAHABALESHWUR.

Eugenia Jambolanum.
Memecylon tinctorium.
Mæsa Indica.
Pygeum Zeylanicum.
Indigofera pulchella.
Actinodaphne (2 sp.).
Bradleia lanceolaria.
Elæagnus Kologa.
Osyris Wightiana.
Lasiosiphon speciosus.
Salix tetrasperma.
Callicarpa cana.
Strobilanthus asperrimus and callosus.
Ligustrum Neilgherrense.
Olea dioica and Roxburgiana.
Ilex Wightiana.
Maba nigrescens.
Diospyros (3 sp.)
Hopea spicata and racemosa.
Embelia ribes and glandulifera.
Notonia grandiflora.
Artemisia parviflora and Indica.

CHINCHONACEÆ.

Grumilea vaginans.
Pavetta Indica.
Ixora nigricans and parviflora.
Canthium umbellatum.
Vangueria edulis.
Santia venulosa.
Wendlandia Notoniana.
Hymenodictyon obovatum and excelsum.
Griffithia fragrans.
Randia dumetorum.

FERNS AT MAHABALESHWUR.

Lastrea densa and cochleata.
Nephrodium molle.
Sagenia hippocrepis.
Athyrium filix fœmina.
Asplenium planicaule and erectum.
Diplazium esculentum.
Pteris quadrialata, lucida, and aquilina.
Campteria Rottleriana.
Adiantum lunulatum.
Cheilanthes farinosa.
Polypodium quercifolium.
Pleopeltis nuda.
Pœcilopteris virens.
Leptochilus lanceolatus.
Acrostichum aureum.
Lygodium scandens.
Osmunda regalis.

[488] Every Hindu wears a sect-mark on his forehead. These marks are thick daubs of white earth, red ochre, or sandal-wood, and there are several forms according to the different sects. The grand distinctions are between worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, the latter wearing his mark horizontal, and the former perpendicular. Any conical or triangular mark is a symbol of the _linga_. Two perpendicular lines and a dot between, denotes a worshipper of Vishnu as Rama or Krishna, &c. &c.

[489] Cleghorn, p. 222. Dalzell, p. 86.

[490] Or _Euphorbia neriifolia_. Dalzell, p. 226.

[491] _Account of the village of Lony_, by T. Coats. _Transactions of the Bombay Literary Society_, 1823, vol. iii. p. 172.

[492] The _cumboo_ of the Madras Presidency (_Holcus spicatus_).

[493] The _cholum_ of Madras (_Sorghum vulgare_).

[494] The natives of India are supplied, by Nature, with an endless variety of condiments to season their food, many of them growing wild. In the different parts of India I noticed as many as twenty-five ingredients used in curries and porridges. The tender leaves and legumes of the _agati_ (_Agati grandiflora_); oil from the _elloopa_ fruit (_Bassia longifolia_); young unripe gourds of the _Benincasa cerifera_; the _papaw_ fruit; cocoanut-oil; the leaves of _Canthium parviflorum_; capsicums; cinnamon; leaves of _Cocculus villosus_; turmeric; cardamoms; _jhingo_ (_Luffa acutangula_); the fruit of _Momordica charantia_; green fruit of _Morinda citrifolia_; the legumes of the horse-radish-tree (_Hyperanthera Moringa_); the plantain; the tender shoots of the lotus; the pickled seeds of a _Nymphæa_; the leaves of _Premna latifolia_; berries of _Solanum verbascifolium_; legumes of _Trigonella tetrapetala_; the white centre of the leaf culms of lemon-grass; the _Lablab cultratus_; onions; the fruit of _Sapota elingoides_ in the Neilgherries; the _moong_ (_Phaseolus mungo_); and many other pulses.

[495] The ploughs, and the carts on wheels bringing home the food from the fields, are mentioned in the 1st Ashtaka of the Rig Veda.

[496] Dr. Forbes Watson has made some very interesting calculations on the amount of pulses rich in nitrogen, which must be added to rice and other cereals comparatively poor in that constituent, in order that the mixture may contain the same proportion of carbonous to nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat, namely six to one. (See Table, next page.)

The cereals which I saw growing in the peninsula of India, besides rice, maize, wheat, and barley, were:--

1. _Setaria Italica_, called _tennay_ in Tamil, and _samee_ by the tribes on the Neilgherry hills, which is the Italian millet. The seeds are used for cakes and porridge. In the Deccan it is only cultivated in small quantities for the ryot's own use, and seldom for market. The grain is very small.

2. _Panicum Miliaceum_, called _varagoo_ on the Pulney hills, and _warree_ in the Deccan: a small millet, generally sown broadcast on the sides of hills. In the Neilgherries it is used as an offering to the gods, mixed with honey, and wrapped in plantain-leaves.

3. _Panicum pilosum_, or _badlee_, will grow in the worst soil, but is not much cultivated, unless the rains happen to be too scanty for other crops. The seed is very small, forming a long hairy spike.

4. _Cynosurus corocanus_, or _ragee_, is a very prolific grain, and forms the staple food of the poorer classes in Mysore, and on the slopes of the ghauts. It requires a light good soil, from which the water readily flows. In the Deccan they raise it in seed-beds, and transplant when a few inches high. It is made into dark brown cakes.

5. _Holcus spicatus_, or spiked millet, called _cumboo_ in Madras, and _bajree_ in the Deccan, where it is the chief food of the inhabitants, and is considered very nutritious.

6. _Sorghum vulgare_, or great millet, called _cholum_ in Madras, and _jowaree_ in the Deccan. It is made into cakes and porridge, and the stalks, which contain sugar, are excellent fodder for cattle. It grows six or eight feet high, and soon exhausts the soil, so that two crops are never taken in succession.

7. _Sesamum Indicum_, or gingelee oil-plant, called _till_ in the Deccan. Oil is expressed from the seeds, which are also toasted and ground into meal for food. In the Deccan it is sown on gravelly or red soil, and the plants grow three or four feet high. Presents of the seed, made up in little boxes, are exchanged by friends on the day that the sun takes its northerly declination; and they are also acceptable as offerings to the god Mahadeo or Siva.

With these seven grains, the following pulses are usually raised:--

1. _Cicer arietinum_, or Bengal gram, the seeds of which are eaten, and the oxalic acid, which exudes from all parts of the plant, is used as vinegar for curries.

2. _Dolichos unifloris_, or horse gram, with grey seeds, used for feeding horses and cattle.

3. _Dolichos sinensis_, or _lobia_, a twining annual, with large pale violet flowers. The seeds are much used for food.

4. _Cajanus Indicus_, pigeon-pea, or _toor_. A shrub three to six feet high, with yellow papilionaceous flowers. This is an excellent pulse, and makes a good peas-pudding.

5. _Phaseolus mungo_, black gram, or _moong_. A nearly erect, hairy annual, with greenish-yellow flowers. It is much cultivated, and is a very important article of food.

6. _Phaseolus rostratus_, or _hullounda_, a twining plant, with large, deep rose-purple, papilionaceous flowers, grown in Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula.

7. Another kind of _moong_, called _ooreed_, with black and white seeds.

8. _Lablab cultratus_, a twining plant, with white, red, or purple papilionaceous flowers; much cultivated in gardens, and used for food.

9. _Dolichos lablab_, or _bulla_, a twining plant of which there are several varieties. The seeds are much eaten by the poorer classes when rice is dear, and are reckoned a wholesome substantial food. Cattle are very fond of the stalks. One variety, with white flowers, is cultivated in gardens, supported on poles, forming arbours about the doors of houses. The pods are eaten, but not the seeds.

[497] Built in 1749 by the Peishwa Balajee Bajee Rao.

[498] "The cultivation of the chinchona-trees may succeed in localities not appearing to offer exactly the same conditions regarding climate and the general character of the country as are peculiar to their native forests."--_Report by Dr. Brandis_ (Supplement to the _Calcutta Gazette_, August 31, 1861), p. 467.

[499] "Mr. McIvor deserves great credit for the manner in which he has laid out the garden. It is both a beautiful pleasure-ground, and a valuable public institution for the improvement of indigenous, and the naturalisation of foreign plants; and it has been formed from the commencement by Mr. McIvor, with great industry and artistic skill, out of a rude ravine."--_Minute by Sir Charles Trevelyan_, Feb. 24th, 1860.

[500] _Cleghorn_, p. 318.

[501] _Cleghorn_, p. 180 and 359.

[502] I have supplied Mr. McIvor with the following works on the chinchona-plants:--

1. Weddell's _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_.

2. Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_.

3. Poeppig's _Notes on the Chinchona Trees and Barks of Huanuco_.