Chapter III: Introduction (1)

=Benavente's Life.=--Jacinto Benavente y Martínez or Jacinto Benavente, as he is commonly known, was born in Madrid on August 12th, 1866. He attended school in his native city, studied law at the University there, and finally abandoned his thought of a legal career in order to devote himself to dramatic literature. Much intercourse with varied types of people has supplied him with the knowledge of human nature evident in his dramatic productions. Although he has traveled to a considerable extent, Madrid has been the center of nearly all his literary activity, and it is impossible to identify him with any other place. The principal events of his life have been associated with the theater, and are best reviewed in connection with the study of his dramatic career.

Mariano Benavente, the father of the author, was a physician and specialist in children's diseases, who came originally from Murcia. His influence upon his son is perhaps noticeable in the respect shown by the latter for the medical profession and in his fondness for children.[i.1]

=Devotion to the Stage.=--In an interview published in the Madrid periodical _La Esfera_ (in 1916) Benavente tells us that his affection for the theater was awakened at a very early age. He says that as a boy he took delight in fashioning little theatrical pieces in which he could act, and that his enthusiasm was aroused by the presentation rather than by the composition of such pieces. Even recently[i.2] he declared that he would rather have been a great actor than a writer of plays. In fact, he has been known to appear on the stage with the actress María Tubau and in some of his own productions, one of which was _Sin querer_.

Benavente is a peculiarly natural product of the stage. No one could give himself more whole-heartedly to his profession than he has done. He is interested in all theatrical matters: in the writing and presentation of plays, in actors, in the Madrid public which he praises and censures in turn, in the history and criticism of the drama, in aesthetic principles, in the relation between good art and financial success; in short, no detail escapes his notice. He likes to work with his audiences, to please and to amuse them, yet he does not lose sight of the serious mission of the drama. No outside interests have ever taken him for any considerable time from his true vocation. He is an excellent and well-rounded, but at the same time a delightfully spontaneous product of Spanish dramatic art.

=Minor Works.=--We are informed in the interview already mentioned that Benavente was forced to write several plays before he composed one that was accepted. In characteristically ironical style he asserts that it was not hard for him to gain a hearing, because his father was the physician of the theatrical manager to whom he made application. His earliest models, according to his own statement, were Shakespeare and Echegaray. Veneration for the great English dramatist is apparent in Benavente's entire career. The influence is perhaps most directly seen in the _Teatro fantástico_, the first in date of his published writings (1892). Short sketches and prose dialogues are contained in two other early volumes, _Figulinas_ and _Vilanos_. A fourth book containing youthful writings and entitled _Cartas de mujeres_ is a series of letters meant to illustrate the thoughts and the epistolary style of women. These letters have been much praised in Spain for their literary workmanship and for their insight into the feminine heart, a faculty which has always been considered one of the clearest manifestations of Benavente's genius.[i.3]

Other productions distinct from the central body of Benavente's dramatic works (the _Teatro_) are _De sobremesa_ and the _Teatro del pueblo_. The former, a collection in five volumes of weekly articles composed for _Los lunes_ of _El Imparcial_ (1908-1912), is the principal source for its author's views on dramatic criticism and on worldly affairs in general. The _Teatro del pueblo_ is a series of papers on subjects connected with the stage. Both these productions will be discussed after a review of the plays.

=List of Plays.=--The following titles are encountered, in the order here followed, in the twenty-two volumes of the _Teatro_. The date of the _estreno_ (first performance) and a brief description are given with each title.[i.4]

1894 October 6th. _El nido ajeno_ (comedy, three acts).
1896 October 21st. _Gente conocida_ (scenes of modern life, four acts).
1897 February 13th. _El marido de la Téllez_ (comedy sketch, one act).
February 27th. _De alivio_ (monologue).
October 31st. _Don Juan_ (translated from Molière).
November 30th. _La farándula_ (comedy, two acts).
1898 November 7th. _La comida de las fieras_ (comedy, three acts).
December 28th, _Teatro feminista_ (farce comedy with music, one act).
1899 March 11th. _Cuento de amor_ (from Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night").
May 4th. _Operación quirúrgica_ (comedy, one act).
December 7th. _Despedida cruel_ (comedy, one act).
1900 March 31st. _La gata de Angora_ (comedy, four acts).
April 6th. _Viaje de instrucción_ (zarzuela).
July 15th. _Por la herida_ (drama, one act).
1901 January 18th. _Modas_ (sketch, one act).
January 19th. _Lo cursi_ (comedy, three acts).
March 3rd. _Sin querer_ (comedy sketch, one act).
July 19th. _Sacrificios_ (drama, three acts).
October 8th. _La gobernadora_ (comedy, three acts).
November 12th. _El primo Román_ (comedy, three acts).
1902 February 24th. _Amor de amar_ (comedy, two acts).
March 17th. _¡Libertad!_ (translated from the Catalan of Rusiñol).
April 18th. _El tren de los maridos_ (farce comedy, two acts).
December 2nd. _Alma triunfante_ (drama, three acts).
December 19th. _El automóvil_ (comedy, two acts).
1903 March 17th. _La noche del sábado_ (stage romance, five divisions).
No date. _Los favoritos_ (adapted from episode in Shakespeare's
"Much Ado About Nothing").
March 23rd. _El hombrecito_ (comedy, three acts).
October 29th. _Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle_
(translated from Dumas Pére).
October 26th. _Por qué se ama_ (comedy, one act).
November 20th. _Al natural_ (comedy, two acts).
December 9th. _La casa de la dicha_ (drama, one act).
March 16th. _El dragón de fuego_ (drama, three acts).
1904 March 15th. _Richelieu_ (translated from Bulwer-Lytton).
No date. _La princesa Bebé_ (scenes of modern life, four acts).
March 3rd. _No fumadores_ (farce, one act).
1905 April 13th. _Rosas de otoño_ (comedy, three acts).
No date. _Buena boda_ (based on Augier).
July 18th. _El susto de la condesa_ (dialogue).
July 22nd. _Cuento inmoral_ (monologue).
December 23rd. _La sobresalienta_ (farce with music).
December 1st. _Los malhechores del bien_ (comedy, two acts).
December 24th. _Las cigarras hormigas_ (farce comedy, three acts).
1906 February 22nd. _Más fuerte que el amor_ (drama, four acts).
No date. _Manón Lescaut_ (adapted from the Abbé Prévost).
1907 February 8th. _Los buhos_ (comedy, three acts).
February 21st. _Abuela y nieta_ (dialogue).
No date. _La princesa sin corazón_ (fairy-tale).
January 10th. _El amor asusta_ (comedy, one act).
March 16th. _La copa encantada_ (adapted from Ariosto,
one act zarzuela).
November 7th. _Los ojos de los muertos_ (drama, three acts).
No date. _La historia de Otelo_ (comedy, one act).
No date. _La sonrisa de Gioconda_ (comedy sketch, one act).
No date. _El último minué_ (comedy sketch, one act).
September 21st. _Todos somos unos_ (farce with music).
December 9th. _Los intereses creados_ (comedy of masks).
1908 February 22nd. _Señora ama_ (comedy, three acts).
October 19th. _El marido de su viuda_ (comedy, one act).
November 10th. _La fuerza bruta_ (comedy, one act).
March 14th. _De pequeñas causas_... (comedy sketch, one act).
December 23rd. _Hacia la verdad_ (scenes of modern life,
three divisions).
1909 January 20th. _Por las nubes_ (comedy, two acts).
April 10th. _De cerca_ (comedy, one act).
No date. _¡A ver qué hace un hombre!_ (dramatic sketch, one act).
October 14th. _La escuela de las princesas_ (comedy, three acts).
December 1st. _La señorita se aburre_ (based on Tennyson, one act).
December 20th. _El príncipe que todo lo aprendió en los libros_
(fairy-tale, two acts).
December 20th. _Ganarse la vida_ (fairy-tale, one act).
1910 January 27th. _El nietecito_ (from Grimm's Fairy Tales, one act).
1911 November 9th. _La losa de los sueños_ (comedy, two acts).
1913 December 12th. _La malquerida_ (drama, three acts).
1914 March 25th. _El destino manda_ (from Hervieu).
1915 March 4th. _El collar de estrellas_ (comedy, four acts).
No date. _La verdad_ (dialogue).
December 22nd. _La propia estimación_ (comedy, two acts).
1916 February 14th. _Campo de armiño_ (comedy, three acts).
May 4th. _La ciudad alegre y confiada_ (second part of
_Los intereses creados_).[i.5]

It will be observed that the _Teatro_ includes nearly all varieties of dramatic output: one, two, three, and four act plays, monologues, dialogues, translations, adaptations, zarzuelas, farces, fairy-dramas, comedies, and tragedies.

=First Period.=--Between 1894 and 1901 Benavente produced eighteen plays on the Madrid stage. They represent, in a general way, the first phase of his dramatic career. The element that characterizes them most conspicuously is satire. Benavente holds up to scorn Spanish aristocratic society of the present day. He introduces to his audiences a succession of types whose failings and foibles are displayed with merciless precision. The author himself is concealed behind the array of personages whom he presents to the public.

Occasionally the reader will encounter a noble character isolated in the midst of selfish, amusement-seeking men, frivolous women, scheming parents and thoughtless sybarites. Such types, however, are comparatively rare; their function is to bring into stronger relief the general worthlessness of other characters. A woman is usually chosen to play the part of strength and virtue. This is by no means accidental. Study of Benavente reveals him as a defender of women; not at all their blind worshiper, it is true, but distinctly a sympathizer with their trials and problems.

It is to be noted that no character in any of these early plays is represented as utterly bad. That would be contrary to the author's conception of human nature. Benavente insists that no man or woman can be regarded as entirely perverse or entirely admirable. Although his attitude is nearly always objective, and his general method satirical or ironical, he evinces upon occasion the ability to sympathize with the very weaknesses of the persons whom he ridicules. If we will try to forget for a moment that Benavente is making fun of an idle aristocracy vainly seeking relief from boredom, we shall understand that we are brought face to face with individuals drawn from real life, whose principal attributes are a discouraging mediocrity and inability to rise above a certain level.

=Originality.=--Benavente has been accused of plagiarism in his early plays. The charge has been brought, particularly with reference to _Gente conocida_, that he borrowed the character of the strong woman from Ibsen. His reply to this censure argues that there was no conscious imitation. He declares that Henri Lavedan served as a model as much as any writer can be said to have done so. That is to say, Benavente wished to unfold a picture of life as it is, in a series of photographic scenes.[i.6] Such a species of play has always been preferred by him. In days of more mature power, when he was writing with a more obvious purpose, he lamented that he was no longer doing what was pleasing to him, but was catering to the desires of others.

It may be gathered from what has just been said that there is not a strong element of plot in these plays of Spanish society. The object is rather delineation of character. Among the longer plays _Gente conocida_, _La comida de las fieras_ and _Lo cursi_ have perhaps received the greatest attention. _Lo cursi_ is an excellent example of a skilfully constructed society comedy. Some of the shorter pieces, such as _Operación quirúrgica_, _Despedida cruel_, and _Por la herida_ are very effective. A glance at the list of plays shows that _Don Juan_, _La farándula_, _Cuento de amor_, and _Viaje de instrucción_ are unconnected in subject matter with the characteristic type just discussed.

It may not be amiss to call attention to Benavente's reason for choosing the aristocracy as a butt of ridicule. That he is not a mere vulgar reviler of rich and prominent people is shown by the following remarks, made in the course of a panegyric of the interest of the nobility in agriculture.

"If at times I have lashed our aristocracy, it was not on account of prejudice against it, but because, called upon to satirize, and considering the natural and roguish desire of the public to laugh at somebody's cost, it seemed to me more charitable to excite laughter at the expense of those who enjoy many advantages in life, rather than at the expense of the humble who toil and who suffer privations of all kinds. It has never seemed to me that hunger is a fit subject for laughter, and we know that in half of our comic plays hunger is the principal cause of merriment."[i.7]

=Transition.=--Many discussions and criticisms of Benavente indicate that he is known principally as a composer of plays that deal with society, written objectively to depict life as it is, without any betrayal of the author's opinions. As we pass beyond the year 1901, we realize that a change is taking place. This does not mean that pictures of life in the upper classes are to constitute an unimportant part of Benavente's _teatro_. As has been noted, they are especially congenial to his artistic sense. However, the later periods of his career give evidence of ever-expanding powers and of increasing versatility. The early type of play does not disappear, but it becomes only one of a number of different _genres_, all of which are connected by their author's keenness of observation, fidelity to life, genius for irony and universal human interest.

=1901-1904.=--No convincing bond of union is found in the eighteen plays written in the first three years of the present century. Four translations and adaptations are encountered. The society play is continued in _El automóvil_ and _El hombrecito_, although the latter shows elements of the problem drama. With scarcely any change of method the scene of action is shifted from Spanish to royal and international society in _La noche del sábado_ and _La princesa Bebé_. _El primo Román_, _Al natural_, and _La casa de la dicha_, although differing widely in details, evidence a broader view of human nature. Free rein is given to the spirit of fun in _El tren de los maridos_ and _No fumadores_. Serious steps toward a thesis drama are evident in _Alma triunfante_ and _Por qué se ama_. But the two most striking plays of the period are _La gobernadora_ and _El dragón de fuego_.

_=La gobernadora.=_--In this play the spectator or reader is introduced to prominent political characters in a provincial town. The successive incidents show how influence may be brought to bear upon an administrative official from a variety of undesirable sources. The governor's wife, a shrewd, capable woman, persuades her husband to use his authority against his better judgment. The moneyed classes, devoted to reaction, use intrigues of all kinds to force him to forbid the performance of a play that extols liberal tendencies. The working classes attempt a riot in order to compel him not to interfere with the spectacle. The details of the plot need not be given. One thing, however, deserves to be mentioned--the brilliancy of the scenes in which a great number of characters are shown on the stage at the same time. One scene brings before our eyes a crowd collected in a café, and another shows us the spectators at a bull-fight. Benavente portrays faithfully and vividly the gayety inherent in the outdoor life of the races of Southern Europe. He reminds us of the splendid pictures that mark some of the best plays of Goldoni.[i.8]

=Political Ideas.=--Benavente has more than once called himself a reactionary in politics. Unfortunately we do not know just what he means by reaction. He speaks of the folly of endeavoring to correct abuses by law, but just when he appears to be on the point of committing himself, a satirical or ironical remark leaves us in doubt as to his real convictions. In recent utterances he has demonstrated greater willingness to discuss current problems from a severely logical point of view. In many respects he is a modern thinker; projects for the gradual improvement of Spanish and world-wide ills meet with his unqualified approval. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, he is not always consistent in his desire to see things accomplished without governmental interference; for instance, he favors state control of the theater.

_=El dragón de fuego.=_--No better example could be given of the difficulty of determining Benavente's political notions than _El dragón de fuego_. It is at the same time his most serious, most mysterious, and, in the opinion of some critics, his most pessimistic work. The plot is as follows: A certain civilized country called Sirlandia has gained control over the uncivilized people of Nirván, thereby outdistancing the rival powers, Franconia and Suavia (the names may be applied to Western European nations as each reader sees fit). The emissaries of civilization are a general, a merchant, and a clergyman, who symbolize arms, money, and spirituality. The Europeans uphold upon the throne a puppet-king, Dani-Sar, who is the protagonist of the play and whose character is in every respect admirable. His weakness and his strength are those of a man removed from western civilization. Although in love with a maiden, Sita, he surrenders her to his brother Duraní, whom he thinks she loves. Foreigners and natives are alike dear to him, but he falls victim to the selfish and cruel policy of civilization. When the Sirlandians discover that Dani-Sar is not a pliant tool, they dethrone him and make his brother king. Dani-Sar is taken to Sirlandia, where he is held in custody. Outwardly he receives good treatment, but his heart is eaten away by loneliness, despair, and homesickness. He cannot endure the cold climate of the north and the hypocritical hospitality of his captors.

In this remarkable play Benavente is well-nigh as inscrutable as the sphinx. He recognizes the power of civilization and the inevitability of its advance. Yet he seems to value even more highly the gentle, noble patriotism of his hero. Other savages he describes as depraved and superstitious, although brave and in love with liberty. The whole composition is a masterly objective treatment of the unavoidable conflict between an advanced and a backward race.

=Thesis Plays.=--Those who are familiar only with Benavente's earlier manner can scarcely conceive of him as the author of a problem or thesis drama. A tendency to deny the presence of a thesis may be observed on the part of certain reviewers and critics. But careful reading of the plays and consideration of their chronological development disclose that at one period in his career Benavente's mind was busy with the problems of married life in such a way that he produced something very close to the drama with a purpose. We may trace the beginning of this tendency back to some of the first plays in which a strong woman is introduced as a foil to her worthless companions. Later, _Alma triunfante_ is a glorification of a woman's generosity of soul, and _Por qué se ama_ describes the influence of compassion in causing a woman to cling through thick and thin to the object of her affection.

In 1905 and 1906 appeared the plays that best illustrate a purposeful treatment of conjugal relations. Benavente's prime object is to idealize feminine love and constancy. A second theme, second in prominence only to the first, is a glorification of true love itself. The topic of compassion, already referred to, is carried to its greatest extreme in the gloomy but powerful tragedy _Más fuerte que el amor_.

_=Rosas de otoño.=_--The most striking of the problem plays is _Rosas de otoño_. Some critics who deny a thesis elsewhere admit it in this production. The heroine, Isabel, is married to Gonzalo, an unfaithful husband, who gives no heed to his wife's strictures, but persists in asserting that she is sacred to him in spite of everything. Gonzalo's daughter by an earlier marriage, María Antonia, marries a certain Pepe, whose actions are not above criticism. Yet Gonzalo defends him. Baseless rumors are circulated against the fair fame of María Antonia, and Pepe wishes to divorce her. Again Gonzalo defends him. This is too much for Isabel, who chides her husband so severely that she really succeeds in breaking through his selfishness. Although he endeavors to defend a feeble cause by an argument in favor of delinquent men, it is clear that his heart has been touched, and that Isabel, after long years of patient resignation, is destined to enjoy her "Autumn Roses."

The prevailing gloom of _Rosas de otoño_ is relieved by certain trivial and even comic incidents on the part of minor characters, so arranged that they do not appear out of place. Moreover, Benavente is not too partisan; although frankly defending a cause, as a follower of Shakespeare he cannot forget that he is depicting human life. He gives due weight to the partial justice in the selfish arguments of Gonzalo and Pepe, and does not insist that they are utterly depraved. Heedlessness and egoism make them yield to temptation, but Gonzalo never overlooks the fact that his wife's honor must be respected and treasured.

Notwithstanding the good qualities of _Rosas de otoño_ and kindred pieces, the play dealing with more or less conventional marital problems can scarcely be regarded as characteristic of Benavente. He is probably more successful in other directions.

_=Los malhechores del bien.=_--No other play of Benavente has provoked so great an outcry as _Los malhechores del bien_. On the surface it is a clever comedy containing an arraignment of misguided charity. It was received by the audience as anti-religious propaganda. On the night of its first performance many people left the theater by way of protest. It does not seem necessary to regard a dramatist as anti-clerical because he censures and ridicules the abuses and the patronizing attitude of religious organizations. The fact that they are religious is really accidental. The fault lies in the frailty of human nature. One Spanish reviewer very sensibly treats the play as a simple comedy and deprecates the storm of disapproval that greeted its appearance.[i.9]

It is worth noting that side by side with serious efforts Benavente produced between 1904 and 1906 four pieces marked exclusively by the search for comic effect. Especially amusing is _Las cigarras hormigas_, the longest member of the _Teatro_, a rollicking three act comedy, literally crammed with fun from beginning to end.

=Period of Maturity.=--_Los buhos_ was first performed in February, 1907, and _La malquerida_ in December, 1913. To the seven years between these dates belong twenty-five theatrical pieces that reveal Benavente as a mature, confident, versatile dramatist. So perplexing is the succession of different types of plays that they can be logically discussed only by disregarding chronology and making divisions according to subject matter.

=Moral Tendency.=--Prepared as a reader might be, after perusal of the problem plays, to anticipate further changes, he could scarcely expect from Benavente's pen simple sketches written with no other aim than to uphold humble virtues. Yet in some cases that is exactly what we find. A definite moral tone is observable in a large portion of Benavente's recent output. _Los buhos_ is a beautiful treatment of the pure affection entertained by two scholars, father and son, for two friends who are mother and daughter. _Por las nubes_ suggests emigration to South America as a remedy for the struggling middle classes; in this play there is a resort to the expedient of making one of the characters (a physician) a mouth-piece for the author's opinions. _¡A ver qué hace un hombre!_ is a plea for the unemployed workman. _Hacia la verdad_ furnishes a eulogy of simple pleasures. _De cerca_ is a literary gem that shows how the distrust existing between rich and poor may be overcome if they can learn to understand the common humanity that binds them. _La fuerza bruta_ and _La losa de los sueños_ glorify the spirit of sacrifice.

At first sight it seems as if Benavente's whole theory of art had been revolutionized. The key to the solution of the problem is in the pages of _De sobremesa_. In his weekly articles he frequently discusses conditions of wretchedness in the world about him. He suggests practical remedies for the alleviation of misery among the poor and in the middle classes. He evinces such a spirit of commiseration for human woes that no one can wonder that his natural feelings of sympathy and his desire to benefit his fellow men are reflected in his dramas. Thus it is that we find intensely moral plays coming from the hand of the man who wrote in the preface to the standard edition of his works: "I love art above all things, but all that I have attained in my works has been only a vain longing of my infinite love."

=Plays for Children.=--A passion for the welfare and happiness of children is one of the keynotes of Benavente's existence. In periodical writings he maintains that the young are neglected in Spain, that they receive a miserable education, and that the poor are wont to regard those children who die young as truly fortunate. Yet he feels that the most important element in the future improvement of the race is the careful upbringing of the newer generations. In company with other people Benavente long agitated the founding of a theater for children. His efforts were at last crowned with success, and he himself wrote for the new institution _El príncipe que todo lo aprendió en los libros_, _Ganarse la vida_, and _El nietecito_. He endeavored, with considerable success, to combine fairy legends, playful imagination, and educational value. Unfortunately the theater seems to have been a failure; its existence was limited to about one year.

=Romantic Plays.=--Benavente has always possessed a vein of poetry or of romance that makes him take delight in pure fancy. More than once in _De sobremesa_ he defends works of imagination. In his own career the tendency can be traced back to the _Teatro fantástico_, and it is presumably connected with veneration of Shakespeare. Thus it is that we find among recent productions, not only the children's plays but _La princesa sin corazón_, _La copa encantada_, _El último minué_, and other flights of fancy. The inspiration that brought forth _Los intereses_ creados may perhaps be assigned to the same source.[i.10]

=Miscellanies.=--It must not be supposed that recent years have witnessed a decline on the part of Benavente in power of irony and observation of character. Not only are these qualities present in nearly all his plays, but they are predominant in some. _Abuela y nieta_ is a delightful character sketch. _De pequeñas causas_... is reminiscent of the earliest plays. _Los ojos de los muertos_ is a gloomy tragedy of unhappy marital relations. And so we might continue with other scattered titles.

_=Señora ama and La malquerida.=_--To the period now being discussed belong the two most striking (from the point of view of tendencies) of Benavente's latter-day achievements, _Señora ama_ and _La malquerida_. They carry us to rural districts and plunge us into an inferno of ignorance, corruption, and vice. The author of these tragic histories has no illusions about the innocence of the country. Benavente is reported to have said that he liked _Señora ama_ better than any other of his plays. The verdict of public and critics has been in favor of the companion piece. One critic, in particular, has used _La malquerida_ as an argument to place Benavente among the really great masters of the world's literature.[i.11]

_La malquerida_ is a tragedy with a unified plot; the end of each act forms a climax, while the whole leads to a final crisis. A drama with the plot hinging upon a complicated series of incidents was about the only thing lacking to round out Benavente's _teatro_. It may now be claimed that he has cultivated with success practically every variety of composition that might reasonably be attempted in modern times for a modern audience.

=Analysis.=--The scene of _La malquerida_ is laid among country people in fairly easy circumstances. Raimunda, the leading female character, is married to Esteban.[i.12] She has a daughter, Acacia, from a former marriage, and one of her chief desires is that her husband and daughter be on good terms. To her disappointment, Acacia ever since childhood has shown an aversion toward her stepfather, too strong to be overcome by Esteban's kindness and by the many presents that he has brought to her upon various occasions.

At the time of the opening scene of the play, Acacia is betrothed to Faustino, son of a neighboring farmer, Eusebio. She had previously been engaged to her cousin, Norberto, but the engagement had been broken for no obvious reason. One night, just after a visit in company with his father to the house of his fiancée, Faustino is murdered; shortly afterwards the first act ends.

The community is aroused, and the finger of suspicion is directed against the unfortunate cousin, Norberto. Especially do Eusebio and his remaining sons believe him guilty, and when justice, on account of lack of proof, does not detain Norberto, they determine to take their own revenge. They lie in wait for him as he is coming to see Raimunda, fall upon him, and wound him. He is carried to Raimunda's home, and there tells her a secret and also some horrible rumors that are being circulated in the community. He discloses that Esteban had long been in love with his stepdaughter Acacia, and that he could not bear the idea of losing her. Therefore he had threatened Norberto with death if he should insist upon marrying his cousin; that was the true reason for the breaking of the engagement. Later, when Acacia was betrothed to an outsider, Esteban could not use threats, but he was driven nearly crazy at the thought of being abandoned by his stepdaughter. He talked matters over with his servant El Rubio, and inflamed him to such an extent that he murdered Faustino.

Suspicion has been aroused by certain unguarded statements made by El Rubio while under the influence of wine. The whole community begins to suspect Esteban of the crime.

At the beginning of the last act Esteban and El Rubio have gone away, apparently with a vague idea of flight, but they soon return to face justice. Esteban regrets having been an accomplice in murder; El Rubio offers to take the responsibility if Esteban will agree to secure his liberty after a short interval. At this moment Raimunda enters, and accuses her husband of the crime. Together they review their life of the past few years, she criticizing him and he defending himself. He says that he has not been able to endure it; that the presence of the girl Acacia has always made his blood boil; that he has tried to resist, but in vain. If Acacia when a child had only called him father and had loved him, all would have been well. Raimunda takes pity on him when he says this, and assures him that they will live happily after sending Acacia to the house of a relative. Thereupon Acacia enters, and shows hatred and scorn for her stepfather. He is saddened by her attitude, and chides her. Raimunda begs her to call him father, before he gives himself up to justice. Then Acacia can no longer restrain the feelings that she has so long concealed from everybody. Instead of father she calls him Esteban; she embraces him, and Raimunda realizes the final truth. Her daughter has always loved her stepfather. Infuriated, she calls upon everybody within hearing, and tells the dreadful secret. Esteban tries to escape with Acacia, in order to enjoy his newly discovered love. When he finds that he is unable to get away, he fatally wounds his wife, Raimunda. Fatality again places Acacia, the "Ill-beloved," on the side of her mother, and this time forever; Raimunda prepares to die, satisfied with her final victory.

=The Latest Plays.=--The _estreno_ of a play of Benavente is now one of the principal events of the theatrical year in Madrid. His reputation is securely established, and the public looks to him for the great events of the season. It is true, perhaps, that no play since 1913 has reached the heights achieved by _La malquerida_ and other masterpieces. The keynote of _El collar de estrellas_, _La propia estimación_, and _Campo de armiño_ seems to be the building of character. Nowhere else, perhaps, is the author quite so insistent in setting a standard of human virtue. As a natural consequence he paints some personages who come perilously close to being angels or villains. The tendency is quite in line with the progressive development of Benavente's dramatic and intellectual life. Possibly his art has suffered slightly from a desire to exert a good moral influence, but his reflections have become correspondingly more profound and valuable. Moreover, we must not forget his astonishing versatility. He can stop in the midst of a series of didactic plays and compose something like _Los intereses creados_ or _La malquerida_.[i.13] Therefore it is fair to assert that each new step in the evolution of his _teatro_ adds to what has gone before without supplanting it.

=Replies to Criticism.=--Certain criticisms of methods employed by Benavente have been noticed. Replies made by him to unfavorable comment are contained in the following statements:

"If any remorse troubles my artistic conscience, it is because I have often sacrificed art to preaching; but in Spain... it is necessary to preach so much, and the theater is such a good pulpit!"[i.14]

"And what shall I say of myself? I am the same man that I was in 1897; even my concessions to middle-class sentimentalism, as I could demonstrate with texts, do not belong to the present day alone. And why not? An author has the whole work in which to say what he feels and what he thinks; later, in the conclusion, seeing that life does not conclude anything, why not please the public? If this public, with or without concessions, had not been on my side from the beginning of my dramatic career, could I have continued to present plays? The public was my real support against the critics, who were almost unanimous in affirming that that was not drama."[i.15]

"No one is more opposed than I am to giving scandal either in books or in conduct. I shall never defend my works as literary works, but I will defend them as works of spotless morality. If in any of them there is anything that may seem sinful in appearance, it is not I who am speaking; it is some person for whose morality I am not responsible. I am accustomed to allow the personages of my works to express themselves according to their character and temperament. Unfortunately these evil characters are the ones who are always closest to the truth. Only God and my artistic conscience know that it is necessary for us to lie when we wish to moralize."[i.16]

"My life as a dramatic author cannot be remembered without remembering Rosario Pino, the ideal interpreter of so many comedies of mine when my comedies were pleasing only to myself; whereas at present they are pleasing to many people, and not at all to me. And I am more mournful now at not being in accord with the applause, than I was then, when I could not agree with the censure."[i.17]

_=Teatro del pueblo.=_--The opinions of Benavente on various technical and critical matters related to the stage are found in a book of essays called _Teatro del pueblo_ after the first article, which is an argument in favor of the establishment of a free theater for the people. Many of the themes discussed in the book allow the author to give free play to satire and irony. He criticizes savagely theatrical conditions in Spain, favors translations, upholds moving-pictures, one act plays, vaudeville, the circus, photography, etc., at the expense of the legitimate stage; but through it all there appears a man fond of poetry, interested in the lower classes and in children, an artist and a clear-headed man of affairs.

_=De sobremesa.=_--It remains only to describe the impression made by Benavente in matters unconnected with the theater. The periodical writings contain more about dramatic criticism than about any other one topic, but they also include a great many discussions of themes of national and world-wide interest; they were naturally affected by the current events of the years 1908-1912. The author of _De sobremesa_ shows himself to be a typical product of modern life. Possessing the cultivation characteristic of intellectual life in a modern European capital, his mind is encumbered by few, if any, illusions. He is both satirical and practical. Irony and hatred for Spanish abuses do not prevent him from exhibiting a pure and noble patriotism. Cosmopolitan as he may be in theories, his nature is essentially and intensely Spanish. It is a genuine comfort to find that the scientific observer of human nature, the man who can make acute comments on the most diversified subjects, can occasionally give way to a noble passion, and even to a pardonable prejudice; not too often, but just often enough to prove that he is human. One cannot turn away from Benavente without feeling that he has been enriched by communion with a master spirit and benefited by association with a broad, clear-thinking, sympathetic nature.

=Conclusion.=--When an author is still alive, and especially when he is in the prime of life, it is difficult to pass judgment upon him. The future may show an evolution hitherto unsuspected. As far as can be told at present, Benavente's position is unassailable. He has been admitted to the Spanish Academy, he is recognized as one of the leading dramatists of Spain, and many consider him the foremost figure in the modern Spanish theater. Before the outbreak of the European War he was almost universally admired in his native country. The bitterness of international discussion has crept into dramatic criticism, but such a situation should be only temporary. There is every reason to expect that future historians of Spanish literature will reserve a post of honor for Jacinto Benavente.

JOHN VAN HORNE

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Cf. _De sobremesa_, vol. II, p. 86, "Por algo soy hijo de quien mereció el nombre de 'médico de los niños.'"

[2] In the interview just mentioned.

[3] Cf. Juan Valera, _Obras completas_, vol. XXXI, pp. 15-23.

[4] It must be remembered that the word _comedia_ (comedy) is used in Spanish for a play with a happy ending; the subject matter may be very serious; similarly a _drama_ denotes a play with a sad ending. Spanish nomenclature is followed in translation, except in a few cases where the word 'farce' is added for clearness. It will be observed that the order of plays is not quite chronological in some cases. Moreover, there are no dates of production for a few pieces; this means that some are, through oversight, not dated in the printed Spanish edition, others were produced privately, and still others were never represented on the stage.

[5] Not yet included in the published volumes of the _Teatro_.

[6] See the _Autocrítica_ prefixed to _Gente conocida_, _Teatro_, vol. 2, pp. 85-87.

[7] _De sobremesa_, vol. I, p. 65.

[8] The most famous Italian writer of comedies (1707-1793).

[9] E. Gómez de Baquero, in _La España moderna_, Jan. 1906, pp. 160-166.

[10] An account of _Los intereses creados_ is incorporated in the Notes.

[11] José Rogerio Sánchez, in _Estudio crítico acerca de La malquerida, drama de Jacinto Benavente_, Madrid, 1913.

[12] At the _estreno_ the part of Raimunda was played by María Guerrero, and that of Esteban by Fernando Díaz de Mendoza; these eminent artists, whose company is the most celebrated in Spain, have appeared in several of Benavente's plays.

[13] Cf. _La ciudad alegre y confiada_, of which a brief notice is given in the body of the Notes, in connection with _Los intereses creados_.

[14] _De sobremesa_, II, 16.

[15] _De sobremesa_, II, 176-179; said in the course of a discussion with the critic Azorín.

[16] _De sobremesa_, IV, 237; an answer to criticism of the morality of _La losa de los sueños_; cf. also _De sobremesa_, V, 161-163.

[17] Words spoken on the occasion of the farewell of Rosario Pino, and included in the last volume of _De sobremesa_, V, 265.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Comments on various phases of Benavente's career are found in a number of sources; some are cited in the footnotes; others that have come to the editor's notice are as follows:

Julio Brouta, "Spain's Greatest Dramatist," translated and published in the _Drama_, November, 1915.

John Garret Underhill, "Introduction" to _Plays by Jacinto Benavente_, New York, 1917.

Adolfo Bonilla y San Martín, "Jacinto Benavente," in the _Ateneo_, January, 1906, pp. 27-40.

Manuel Bueno, "Jacinto Benavente," in _Teatro español contemporáneo_, Madrid, 1909, pp. 129-177.

José León Pagano, "Jacinto Benavente," in _Al través de la España literaria_, 3rd ed., Madrid, 1904, vol. 2, pp. 49-55.

Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Littérature espagnole_, 2nd ed., Paris, 1913, pp. 452-453.

With special reference to _Los intereses creados_: Severino Aznar, in _La Cultura española_, February, 1908, pp. 70-77; E. Gómez de Baquero, in _La España moderna_, January, 1908, pp. 169-177; notices of other plays are scattered through Spanish dramatic reviews.

JACINTO BENAVENTE

Jacinto Benavente nació en Madrid en 1866. Es un hombre pequeño, pulcro, refinado; sus ademanes tienen una elegancia casi femenina; su perfil aguileño y su barba en punta dan a su fisonomía una expresión netamente española; pero su carácter reside sobre todo en su frente, ancha y espaciosa como la de Cervantes,[b.1] y en sus ojos vivos y burlones en los que hay, sin embargo, una ligera sombra de melancolía. Hombre de mundo, gusta del trato social y de los viajes, a lo que debe su amplio conocimiento, no sólo de la sociedad española, sino de la sociedad cosmopolita. Es un conversador de mucho ingenio, a veces malicioso y mordaz; pero su espíritu es bueno y tolerante como lo muestran sus bien acreditados sentimientos humanitarios especialmente respecto de los niños.

Su obra es extensa; ha escrito para el teatro unas ochenta obras durante veinticinco años. Con ellas ha conquistado el primer puesto entre los autores dramáticos de su tiempo.

Cuando Benavente empezó a escribir, hacia 1894, encontró grandes dificultades para atraer la atención y la estimación del público. Los principios estéticos del teatro de Benavente eran distintos y aun contradictorios de los que dominaban entonces en España. Estaba entonces en su apogeo el drama elevado y romántico, de trágicos conflictos y pasiones violentas, cuyo principal representante fue Don José Echegaray. Benavente, en cambio, aparecía como escritor de comedias realistas, en las que la fuerza era sustituida por la gracia y la exaltación dramática por la naturalidad y la verdad. No es extraño que el público necesitase algún tiempo para cambiar su gusto y acostumbrarse a este nuevo tipo de teatro más natural y más moderno. Más tarde el éxito fue completo y Benavente goza hoy de la misma popularidad de que hace veinticinco años, cuando él empezó a escribir, gozaba Echegaray.

Benavente ha pintado en sus comedias la sociedad española de hoy, sobre todo la sociedad madrileña de las clases media y alta. La ha pintado casi siempre con intención satírica ridiculizándola; seguramente hay en esa sociedad madrileña mucho más de bueno y de malo que lo que Benavente ha visto en ella, pero lo que él ha visto es verdad y es una verdad divertida e interesante. Las primeras comedias son más puramente satíricas y se reducen a la descripción de tipos y costumbres; la naturalidad y la verdad de los personajes y la agudeza e ingenio de las conversaciones constituyen el encanto de esas comedias.

Más adelante la visión del autor se ensancha y se eleva y sus comedias adquieren un sentido más moral y humano. Hay en ellas no sólo una amena burla de la sociedad que nos rodea, sino un ideal de una humanidad mejor. Al mismo tiempo la ironía es más amable y tolerante, y aunque siempre nos vemos invitados a reírnos de lo que es ridículo y a despreciar lo que es malo y ruin, hay en estas obras un cierto espíritu de simpatía humana que nos inclina a la tolerancia y a la compasión.

La obra de Benavente en que todas estas cualidades se han logrado de un modo más acabado y más perfecto--al menos según la opinión de los más--es la que constituye la base de este volumen: _Los intereses creados_. Esta obra no es como las más de Benavente una pintura directa de la sociedad contemporánea. Las ideas y los sentimientos, la visión del mundo y de la vida, son los mismos que se han desarrollado a través de toda la obra del autor; pero aparecen aquí, fuera de lugar y de tiempo, con una sencillez e intensidad verdaderamente clásicas. Siguiendo el artificio de la antigua farsa, los personajes de esta obra, que al parecer son muñecos exagerados e ingenuos, nos muestran los hilos por los que los hombres son movidos en la vida misma, las pasiones malas y buenas que inspiran las acciones humanas. Un personaje astuto y sagaz, conocedor experto del corazón humano, el pícaro Crispín, es el centro de la obra; él es quien mueve todos esos hilos, quien pone en juego todas esas pasiones, no en servicio propio sino en servicio de su compañero de aventuras, que en la ficción de la obra ha tomado el papel de señor. Y es realmente señor Leandro, porque es capaz de pensamientos elevados, de idealismos superiores y de la generosidad del amor.

La antítesis de estos dos personajes, que en realidad son uno mismo desdoblado en dos, de tal modo que el uno sin el otro no tendrían existencia, es la reproducción audaz y feliz de un tema eterno, de aquél mismo que encarnó de modo incomparable en las inmortales figuras de Don Quijote y Sancho. Cada alma humana se encuentra representada en esos dos personajes antitéticos que sin embargo se necesitan mutuamente; lo que en nosotros hay de generoso, de grande, de elevado, necesita amenudo para realizarse de otras aptitudes más bajas que hay también en nuestro espíritu. El idealista sin sentido práctico suele ser un hombre ineficaz e inepto destinado a ser vencido en las luchas ordinarias de la vida.

Parece pues que esta obra es una obra pesimista en la que se reconoce y afirma la necesidad del mal. Es, sin duda, una obra satírica en la que aparecen admirablemente pintadas algunas de las pequeñas pasiones, ambiciones y vanidades que muy amenudo encontramos en la vida; pero el amor y la generosidad triunfantes quedan afirmados en su pureza como realidades más poderosas que todas las impurezas y ficciones que a su alrededor se mueven en la comedia como en la vida.

La obra está escrita en un castellano noble y bello, sobrio y expresivo. Aunque ciertos giros intentan darle un cierto sabor arcaico, el lenguaje está lleno de sencillez y naturalidad. Tanto por el estilo como por la concepción, los españoles consideran esta obra como una de las mejores comedias del teatro moderno y hasta se atreven a compararla con las grandes producciones del teatro clásico que floreció en España en el siglo XVII.

Las otras dos obritas que acompañan en esta edición a _Los intereses creados_ representan en pequeño el modo como Benavente acostumbra escribir sus comedias contemporáneas. La lectura de ellas dará suficiente idea de la finura y la gracia propias de este escritor y al mismo tiempo dará a conocer unas cuantas escenas vivas y animadas en las que tipos más o menos corrientes de la sociedad española expresan, con la mayor naturalidad y verdad posibles, su manera de ser.

FOOTNOTES:

[b.1] Hay una semejanza bastante grande entre el retrato que Cervantes ha dejado escrito de sí mismo y la fisonomía de Benavente; salvo el color del pelo, que en Cervantes era rubio en la barba y castaño en la cabeza y que en Benavente es más bien negro, hay una notoria coincidencia en los demás rasgos. Cervantes era «de rostro aguileño, de cabello castaño, frente lisa y desembarazada, de alegres ojos, y de nariz corva aunque bien proporcionada..., los bigotes grandes, la boca pequeña, los dientes ni menudos ni crecidos,... el cuerpo entre dos extremos, ni grande ni pequeño,... algo cargado de espaldas y no muy ligero de pies.» (Cervantes, Prólogo a las _Novelas ejemplares_)

SIN QUERER

BOCETO DE COMEDIA EN UN ACTO Y EN PROSA

Estrenado en el Teatro de la Comedia el día 3 de marzo de 1901

REPARTO

PERSONAJES ACTORES

LUISA SRA. PINO
UNA DONCELLA SRTA. SAMPEDRO
PEPE SR. BENAVENTE
DON MANUEL » RUBIO

_En Madrid.--Gabinete elegante_

ACTO ÚNICO

Escena Primera

LUISA, la DONCELLA y después PEPE

DONCELLA. ¡Señorita Luisa, señorita Luisa!

LUISA. ¿Ha subido?

DONCELLA. Sí.

LUISA. ¿Por la escalera de servicio? ¿No le ha visto nadie?

DONCELLA. Por la escalera de servicio. ¡Cómo se conoce que la señorita no está acostumbrada a estas cosas!... ¡Para llamar más la atención!...

LUISA. Es verdad; los porteros le conocen; y sobre todo, con que[3.1] papá no le vea... Corre, que pase,[3.2] y ten mucho cuidado; en cuanto salga mi tío de hablar con papá, nos avisas[3.3]...

DONCELLA. Descuide usted.

LUISA. Y no vayas a decir a nadie...

DONCELLA. ¡Señorita! Porque me haya usted oído[3.4] contar más de cuatro cosas que ha visto una[3.5]... Tratándose de usted[3.6] ya sé que esto no será ninguna trapisonda, aunque lo parezca.

LUISA. Por supuesto... Ya lo sabrás... Anda, no hagas ruido al pasar[3.7] por el gabinete. (_Sale la doncella. A poco entra Pepe._)

PEPE. ¡Luisita!

LUISA. ¡Chist! No digas nada, no levantes la voz, no te muevas... Tenemos que hablar; siéntate. No dejes el sombrero, no fumes... ¡Uf, qué humo! No dejes ahí el cigarro. Siéntate, hombre,[4.1] siéntate. Ya supondrás[4.2] por qué te he llamado de esta manera...

PEPE. Sí; supongo...

LUISA. No supones, lo sabes... Sabes que mi padre y el tuyo conferencian en este momento.

PEPE. ¿En este momento?

LUISA. Sí. Se han encerrado en el despacho. Y era urgente, preciso, que nosotros nos viéramos antes a solas, con toda libertad, para ponernos de acuerdo... Nuestros padres deciden allí; pretenden decidir de nuestro porvenir, disponer de nuestro corazón[4.3]... Ya estás enterado; quieren casarnos.

PEPE. Sí; papá siempre me estaba diciendo: «Las bodas deben hacerse en familia; hay más probabilidades de acertar... En nuestra familia hay excelentes muchachas; debes fijarte en una de tus primas.» Pero la verdad, como sois veintitantas en la familia... era imposible fijarse...

LUISA. Papá estaba siempre con la misma canción; pero como el único primo casadero de la familia eres tú, cuando papá me decía: «Debes casarte con uno de tus primos», ya sabía yo que el primo eras tú. Comprende que hay mucha diferencia de[4.4] poder escoger entre veintitantas a[4.4] no tener dónde escoger... Pero aparte de eso, la idea de nuestros padres es ridícula. ¿Por qué nos hemos de[4.5] casar nosotros? ¿Me quieres tú a mí? ¿Te quiero yo a ti? Es decir, nos queremos... así, como buenos parientes... y eso es lo malo; mejor sería que no nos quisiéramos nada; yo creo que me sería más fácil quererte mucho de pronto no habiéndote querido nunca nada... Pero pensar ahora: «¡Ea!, voy a quererle más, debo quererle más.» ¿Por qué voy a quererte hoy más de lo que te quería ayer? Y, francamente, queriéndote hoy como te quería ayer, es un disparate que piensen que nos casemos mañana.

PEPE. Sí, es expuesto.

LUISA. Y vamos a ver, ¿qué te ha dicho tu padre? Supongo que antes de decidirse a hablar con el mío seriamente te habrá dicho[5.1] algo.

PEPE. Me ha dicho lo que me dice siempre que se enfada conmigo, cuando le pido dinero, cuando paga mis cuentas: «Ya es hora de que[5.2] acaben las locuras.» Papá llama locuras a las cuentas de 500 pesetas para arriba... Ya ves, ésas son locuras del sastre, del camisero... «Es preciso que pienses en casarte...»

LUISA. Eso es; cuando el señorito da guerra en casa...

PEPE. Y tu padre, ¿cuándo piensa casarte a ti?

LUISA. ¡Ay! Siempre que nos toca el turno del Real[5.3] y le obligo a dejar su partida de tresillo. Lo que es[5.4] las noches de tercer turno,[5.5] no le importaría[5.6] verme casada con cualquiera. Y en papá se comprende ese afán... Viudo, con sus ocupaciones... Yo no puedo soportar a las ayas, ni a las señoras de compañía; así es que vivo sacrificada, porque papá sólo se presta a acompañarme al teatro Real; eso sí, las noches que cantan La Walkyria ¡me da una lástima!

PEPE. Sí, tú, la verdad, sola con tu padre desde muy niña,[5.7] ya debías haberte casado...

LUISA. ¿Ya? No dirás tú como papá, que me estoy pasando...

PEPE. ¡Qué disparate!

LUISA. No; es que como me pusieron de largo muy pronto, porque di un estirón a los catorce años, la gente cree que tengo más edad. Pero tú sabes...

PEPE. ¡Ay, si lo sé![6.1] Soy un viejo comparado contigo.

LUISA. Viejo, no; pero no estás para[6.2] perder el tiempo. Nuestros padres tienen razón; debemos casarnos; pero cada uno por su lado. ¿No te parece? No es que yo sea romántica (en toda mi vida habré leído dos novelas), ni que yo sueñe con ideales, ni con príncipes encantados; pero estas bodas, arregladas en familia, me parecen bodas de interés, de conveniencia... Un poco de poesía nunca está de más... Sobre todo, que[6.3] nosotros[6.4] se puede decir que no nos conocemos. ¿Qué sabes tú de mí? ¿Qué sé yo de ti? Ni me ha importado nunca saberlo. ¿Sabes siquiera si yo he tenido algún novio?