Chapter II: Preface

The object of this book is not merely to set forth the situation in Turkey as it is to-day, but to trace the influences that have produced it. Those influences are very complex. They include the social characteristics of the peoples of Turkey, the religious beliefs and ecclesiastical customs that have grown up in the empire during the past centuries, the political ambitions and jealousies of the European Powers, and the personal qualities of the different men who have been prominent in the control of affairs. Probably no chapter in history is more kaleidoscopic in its character. To set forth its various phases, the topical rather than the strictly historical form has been adopted. The effort has been made to let each phase stand out as clearly as possible, first in itself, and then in its relation to the other phases. The contemporary historian is never logical. That remains for those who, with longer range, have a better perspective.

The various histories of Turkey have been consulted, but special acknowledgment must be made to “Turkey Old and New,” by Sutherland Menzies, which more than any other traces the development of the Eastern Question from the standpoint of the European Powers. “The Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,” by Stanley Lane Poole, “Turkish Life in War Time,” by Henry O. Dwight, and Dr. Cyrus Hamlin’s books, “My Life and Times” and “Among the Turks,” have been consulted with great advantage. It is a privilege not less than a duty to acknowledge the very efficient aid rendered by Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, Dr. Benjamin Labaree and Professor E. A. Grosvenor. Dr. Hamlin’s vivid remembrance of the picturesque phases of Turkish diplomacy during the reigns of Mahmud II and Abd-ul-Medjid; Dr. Labaree’s scholarly as well as practical knowledge of branches of the Eastern Church which to most are little more than historic names; Professor Grosvenor’s intimate acquaintance with, and sympathetic appreciation of, the Greek life and character, have laid me under peculiar obligations to each. I must also express my thanks to those who from the very center of the conflict have given those sketches which describe so vividly the terror of the situation. Some of the letters appear for the first time on these pages; others have been already given to the world in the columns of _The Independent_ and the daily press. Their authors I know well and esteem most highly for their great ability and high character, which has been most nobly manifest during the trying scenes of the past year. As I write these lines word has come of the death of one and of the critical condition of another. They have been urged to leave their posts, but one and all they have refused, with the exception of a very few who, in their own physical weakness, have felt that they could not strengthen their associates. Turkey and Russia are banded together to force them to leave; the former that they may not bear witness against the evil done; the latter that they may not hinder the progress of that policy of repression already applied to Evangelical thought throughout her empire.

What is in the future no man can tell, but the growth of pure religion in whatever form of church organization; the development of freedom of thought; the attainment of civil liberty, and that not merely for Armenian, but for Greek, Nestorian, Jacobite, and even for the Turk himself, depends upon the continuance of the influences for a higher life that have been at work during the past sixty years, and that depends upon the missionaries being supported at their posts. Theirs is no sectarian work. They stand as the friends of Gregorian Armenians, Roman Catholic Chaldeans, Nestorians and Jacobites as well as of those in closer affiliation with the Protestant Churches of Europe and America. America should stand by them and demand their full protection. It is our right by treaty; it is our right by the duty we owe humanity, by the duty we owe to our tradition as a liberty loving nation. We have no political ends to serve; we want not a square foot of the Sultan’s domains; but we stand, as we have always stood, for freedom for the oppressed, for the right of every man to worship his God in the light of his own conscience.

EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS.

_New York City,
March 21st, 1896._

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE TURKISH EMPIRE.

Geographical Extent--Topography--Physical
Characteristics--Products--Traveling and Transportation--Building 19

CHAPTER II.

POPULATION AND LANGUAGES.

Accurate Statements as to Population Impossible--No Census--Best
Available Estimates--Distribution--Most of the Races Described in
Other Chapters--Jews and Foreigners--General Characteristics--The
Languages--How Distributed--Peculiarities of the Turkish--Number
Spoken in the Seaboard Cities 37

CHAPTER III.

RELIGIONS.

Islam and Christianity--A Few Pagan Communities--Origin
of Mohammedanism--The Koran--The Traditions--Extent of
Islam--Present Condition--Effect upon the Turks--Contact with
Civilization--Sects--Oriental Christianity--Characteristics 51

CHAPTER IV.

THE TURKS.

Their Origin--Early History--General Characteristics--Good
Qualities--Kindness--Hospitality--Temperance--Honesty--Intellectual
Ability--Obedience to Rulers--Bravery--Bad
Characteristics--Indifference to
Suffering--Brutality--Degradation of Women--Sensuality--Official
Unreliability--Fatalism--Insolence--Indolence--General Summary 66

CHAPTER V.

THE KURDS.

Legend of the Serpents--Connected with the Medes--Tribal
Organization--Nomad Life--Saladin and the Crusaders--After the
Russo-Turkish War--The Hamidieh Cavalry--Brutal Treatment of
Christians--Arabs--Circassians and Other Moslem Subjects--The
Nusairiyeh--Yezidis and Druzes 85

CHAPTER VI.

THE ARMENIANS.

Their Origin--Early History--First Nation to Accept
Christianity--Dispersion Under Oppression--Change from
Agricultural to Commercial People--General Characteristics;
Loyalty to Nation and Religion--Industry--Morality--Intellectual
Ability--Shrewdness--Jealousy of One Another--Influence of Missions
and European Ideas--Growth of National Ambition--Armenians
in Russia--Autonomy--Armenians in Other Countries--Patriarch
Mattheos--Outlook for the Future 106

CHAPTER VII.

THE GREEKS.

Fidelity of the Oriental Churches--The Apostle Andrew--Concessions
by Mohammed II--Gennadios II--Suffering and Misery--Greek
Revolution--Growth of National Spirit--Hellenes or
Romaioi--Bulgarians in their Relation to the Greek Church 130

CHAPTER VIII.

OTHER ORIENTAL CHURCHES.

The Syrian Church Divided into Syrians, Chaldeans,
Nestorians, Jacobites, and some Roman Catholic Bodies--The
Jacobites--Patriarch of Antioch--Condition of Villagers--Jebel
Tur Region--Nestorians--Patriarch of Babylon--Badir Khan
Bey--Chaldeans--The Copts of Egypt--Maronites and Druzes 145

CHAPTER IX.

RISE AND DECLINE OF OTTOMAN POWER.

Capture of Constantinople--Victories of Mohammed II--The Sultans
Assume the Caliphate--Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent--Attack upon
Venice--Constant Strife over the Danubian Principalities--Internal
Disorganization--Weak Sultans and Powerful Viziers--Alliances with
Foreign Powers--Repeated Disasters--Weak Rule in Asia--Revolt in
Egypt and Syria--Condition at Commencement of present century 164

CHAPTER X.

TURKEY AND EUROPE.

First Intercourse--Alliance between Francis I and Suleiman the
Magnificent--Intrigues between France and Austria--The First
Treaty--Nature of Capitulations--Peculiar Favors Granted to the
French--Their Recognition as the Protectors of Christians--Entrance
of Other Powers--Louis XIV and His Ambassador--Influence of De
Brèves--Peace of Carlowitz--Turkey No Longer Dreaded in Europe 183

CHAPTER XI.

RUSSIA AND TURKEY.

Aggression of Peter the Great--Diminution and Renewal of French
Influence--The Contest over the Holy Places--Victory of Russian
Influence in Favor of the Greek Church--Russia’s Religious
Propaganda Among the Greeks--Rise of Phil-Hellenism--Dismemberment
Talked of--Effect of the French Revolution--The Russian Fleet in
the Dardanelles--The English Fleet at Constantinople--Peace of
Tilsit--Plan for Partition--Accession of Mahmud II 195

CHAPTER XII.

MAHMUD II.

A Disintegrating Empire--An Energetic Sultan--Napoleon
and Alexander--Lord Stratford de Redcliffe--Greek War
for Independence--Russia’s Perfidy--Destruction of the
Janissaries--Reforms Attempted--Mehemet Ali of Egypt--Accession of
Abd-ul-Medjid 210

CHAPTER XIII.

REFORM AND PROGRESS.

Reign of Abd-ul-Medjid--Influence of Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe--English Policy in Turkey--Hatti Sherif of Gulhané--A
Remarkable Document--Equal Rights for All Subjects of the
Sultan--Land Tax and Judicial Reform--General Situation of the
Country--Application of the Reforms 225

CHAPTER XIV.

TREATIES OF PARIS AND BERLIN.

Influence of Lord Stratford--The Holy Places--Crimean War--Treaty of
Paris--Abd-ul-Aziz--Extravagance--Influx of Europeans--Provincial
Government--Accession of Abd-ul-Hamid II--Russo-Turkish War--Treaty
of San Stephano--Treaty of Berlin--Cyprus Convention 238

CHAPTER XV.

CONDITION OF THE CHRISTIANS.

The Christians under Early Moslem Rule--Mohammed II--General
Oppression--Protection by French Government--Russian Intrigue--Power
of the Greek Church--Reforms under Mahmud II and Abd-ul-Medjid--The
Hatti Humayoun--General Improvement Throughout the Empire 259

CHAPTER XVI.

THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT.

True Moslem State Theocratic--Dual Form of the Present
Government--The Sublime Porte--Army and Navy--Internal
Administration--Financial Management--General
Corruption--Administration of Justice--Treatment of Christians--The
Ulema--The Palace Party--The Sultan 280

CHAPTER XVII.

PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN TURKEY.

Early History--Opposition of Ecclesiastics in the Oriental
Churches--Attitude of the Turkish Government--Work Among
Moslems--Development of Education--Societies at Work--The
American Board--Presbyterian Boards--American and British Bible
Societies--English Societies--General Statistics--Relations to the
Turkish Government--Character of the Missionaries 302

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE ARMENIAN QUESTION.

A Progressive Grand Vizier--Victory of the Reactionary
Party--Egypt and the Mahdi--Rise of the Armenian Question--Russian
Intrigue--Articles of the Berlin Treaty--Autonomy Desired--The
Huntchagist Committee--Placards in Asia Minor--Burning of American
Building at Marsovan--Numerous Arrests--Armenians Exiled--Coercive
Measures of the Government--American Citizens--Threats--Huntchagists
Disowned by the Nation--Young Turkey Party--Absolute Failure of the
Huntchagist Movement 324

CHAPTER XIX.

GENERAL SITUATION IN 1894.

Terrible Oppression--Exaggerated Reports--Truth Stranger Than
Fiction--Religious Liberty Infringed Upon--Oppressive School
Laws--Rigorous Censorship--General Effort of the Government to
Suppress Christian Development 345

CHAPTER XX.

THE SASSUN MASSACRE.

A Deliberate Plan of The Turkish Government--Kurdish Raids--Armenians
Defend Themselves--Kurds Reinforced by Regular Troops--Terrible
Scenes of Slaughter--Stories of Survivors 368

CHAPTER XXI.

POLITICS AND MASSACRE AT CONSTANTINOPLE.

Investigation at Sassun--Mr. Gladstone on the Situation--Disturbances
in Constantinople--Joint Notes by the Embassies--Plan of Reforms--New
English Government--Massacre in Constantinople--Decisive Action
of the Embassies--Signing of the Reforms--Subsequent Acts of
Defiance--Breach Between England and Russia--Collapse of English
Influence 384

CHAPTER XXII.

MASSACRES AT TREBIZOND AND ERZRUM.

Importance and General Prosperity of Both Cities--Threats by the
Turks--Terror Among the Armenians--Suddenness of the Attacks--Murder
and Pillage by Regular Soldiers, Under the Eye of Foreign
Consuls--Ferocity of the Turks--Testimony of Eye-Witnesses--Terrible
Scenes at the Burial of the Victims 406

CHAPTER XXIII.

MASSACRES IN HARPUT DISTRICT.

American Residences--First Indications--Specious Promises--Riot,
Murder and Pillage--A Dangerous Journey--Attempts at Defense--List
of Villages and Details of Massacres--Statement of a Turkish
Official--Armenians not Responsible--Turkish Dread of Reform--Tabular
Statement 427

CHAPTER XXIV.

AINTAB, MARASH AND URFA.

The Situation in Northern Syria--No Revolutionary Movement--Massacre
at Aintab--Kurdish Women--A Turkish Captain Helps the Pillage--A
Colonel Checks it--Caring for the Wounded--Two Attacks at
Marash--Destruction of American Houses--Brave Men in Zeitun--Story of
Massacres at Urfa 447

CHAPTER XXV.

CHARACTER OF THE MASSACRES.

Massacres at Sivas, Cesarea, Birejik, Bitlis, and the Region
of Mardin--Protection by the Turkish Government for the
Jacobites--General Survey--Place and Time of the Massacres--Victims
Exclusively Armenians--Effort to Destroy the Strength of the
Nation--Motive--Responsibility of the Turkish Government and of the
Sultan 464

CHAPTER XXVI.

RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION.

Motive of the Massacres--Primarily Political, then Religious--The
Religious Element Overpowering the Political--Dread of Christian
Domination--False Statements by the Turkish Government--Instances
of Persecution and Enforced Conversion to Islam--A Tremendous Moral
Disaster--Efforts of the Government to Suppress Reports 482

CHAPTER XXVII.

RELIEF WORK.

The General Situation--Absolute Destitution--Appeals to America and
England--Work in the Sassun Region--Van and Dr. Kimball--Appeals
Following the Greater Massacres--Clara Barton and the Red
Cross--Opposition of the Turks--Letter from Van--After the Massacre
in Harput--Suffering in the Villages--Appeal for Help 502

CHAPTER XXVIII.

PARTITION OF TURKEY.

Factors in the Problem--Turkey and Europe--Topography of the
Country--Distribution of Population--Countries Interested--Russia,
England, France, Austria, Italy, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria--Desire
for Territorial Aggrandizement--Mutual Jealousies--Possible
Solution--Turkish Factor Often Overlooked--Great Difficulties to be
met 528

CHAPTER XXIX.

AMERICA AND TURKEY.

Early Treaties--Some Prominent Ambassadors--American
Missionaries--Obedience to the Laws--Treaty Rights--Questions
of Importance--Indemnity at Harput and Marash--More Consuls
Needed--Naturalized Americans--Right of Domicile Threatened--Positive
Action Needed--Duty of America 542