Chapter IV: Preface (4)

53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose, because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig. 15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables, and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air to pass through them.

54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar, but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top, and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is lined with table oilcloth.

STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS

55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.

56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they, too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food whenever it is not well protected.

Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored unless they are stored in dark places.

Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.

STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS

57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.

Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however, if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors, being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a dry place.

Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of spoiling should be removed.

MENUS AND RECIPES

58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_, consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed, so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are given in the proper order.

59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they will be given so that success will result from carrying them out in detail.

60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able to report on the success she has had with each dish.

MENU

Pan-Broiled Chops Mashed Potatoes Creamed Peas Cabbage Salad Orange Fluff with Sauce

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RECIPES

PAN-BROILED CHOPS

Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling. Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.

MASHED POTATOES

Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they are light and fluffy.

CREAMED PEAS

Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may be used.

SAUCE FOR PEAS

1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and 1/2 c. milk 1 Tb. butter 1/2 tsp. salt 1 Tb. flour

Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.

CABBAGE SALAD

1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage 1/2 tsp. salt 1 small red or green sweet pepper Dash of pepper 1 small onion Salad dressing

Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.

CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING

3/4 c. vinegar 1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired 1/4 c. water 1/2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 3 Tb. sugar 1 Tb. flour

Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.

ORANGE FLUFF

1/2 c. sugar 1/4 c. orange juice 5 Tb. corn starch 1 Tb. lemon juice Pinch of salt 2 egg whites 1 pt. boiling water

Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.

When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.

SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF

1 Tb. corn starch 3/4 c. boiling water 2 Tb. butter 3/4 c. sugar 2 egg yolks 1/4 c. orange juice 1 Tb. lemon juice

Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.

61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may be provided for.

62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.

TERMS USED IN COOKERY

63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books, menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.

In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to this science.

A la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as, smelts a la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.

Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual practice, also flavored with grated cheese.

Au naturel (o nat-ue-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.

Bechamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or milk-named from a celebrated cook.

Biscuit Glace (bis-kue-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glaced shells, sometimes in paper cases.

Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.

Bouchees (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.

Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.

Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme, and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.

Cafe au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.

Cafe Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.

Canapes (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sauted in butter and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch or dinner.

Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.

Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in seasoning.

Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality of the flesh.

Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.

Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.

Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.

Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc., molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.

Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sauted or used in salads.

Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.

Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.

Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.

Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.

Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.

Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.

Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are sometimes served.

Creole, a la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.

Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.

Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with or in soup.

Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried herbs.

Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.

Deviled.--Highly seasoned.

Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.

En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.

Entrees (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.

Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.

Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.

Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled and tied.

Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef, served with steak.

Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.

Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are several varieties of this preparation.

Frappe (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.

Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.

Glace (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.

Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a foundation for soups and gravies.

Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.

Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.

Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat and vegetables are finely divided.

Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.

Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.

Italiene, a la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.

Jardiniere (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.

Julienne (zhue-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.

Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.

Kippered.--Dried or smoked.

Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is inserted before cooking.

Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.

Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans, peas, and lentils.

Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.

Macedoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.

Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before cooking.

Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is seasoned.

Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.

Menu.--A bill of fare.

Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar well beaten.

Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and frozen without turning.

Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.

Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.

Pate (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.

Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.

Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.

Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.

Puree (pue-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have been rubbed through a sieve.

Ragout (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served with a sauce.

Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in which such a mixture is cooked.

Rechauffe (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.

Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and fried until crisp.

Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.

Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.

Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with a thick sauce.

Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.

Shallot.--A variety of onion.

Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as sherbet.

Souffle (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.

Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups and sauces.

Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and vegetables.

Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.

Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.

Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart sauce for fish.

Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or ragout.

Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs, who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.

Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.

Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other highly flavored green vegetables and spices.

Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large pate or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters, fish, or meat and a cream sauce.

Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.

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ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking utensils?

(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their advantages.

(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.

(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?

(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables; (_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.

(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_) creaming; (_e_) folding.

(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?

(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.

(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should be followed.

(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?

(11) Tell why foods spoil.

(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling. (_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?

(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does success in drying foods depend?

(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on which it is based.

(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_) cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.

(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.

(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without ice.

(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and cared for?

(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell the best ways in which to preserve such foods.

(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?

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REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list. Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops, tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy, write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.

Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?

Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?

Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?

Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?

Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?

Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor disagreeable?

Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?

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CEREALS

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PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION

PRODUCTION OF CEREALS

1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man. When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization. Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.

The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants, have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.

2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up of cereals.

3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time. Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a price that is fairly uniform.

Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals, of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.

4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni, spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a large measure to them.

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water, mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself; that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought about by the addition of other substances.

6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside, and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the _germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter is generally lost.

7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food, but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat, and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called _gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals is one of the cheaper varieties.

8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals, used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed, and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in the milling process.

9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances, rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient quantity to place them with the protein foods.

10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.

11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large amounts it would add materially to their bulk.

12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering, and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.

13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals, contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose, the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way they are of value as a food.

TABLE I

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

Protein Fat Carbohydrate Cellulose Mineral Matter
or Ash

Wheat Oats Rice Oats Oats

Rye Corn Rye Buckwheat Barley

Oats Barley Corn Barley Buckwheat

Barley Buckwheat Wheat Wheat Rye

Corn Rice Barley Rye Wheat

Buckwheat Wheat Buckwheat Corn Corn

Rice Rye Oats Rice Rice

* * * * *

CEREALS AS A FOOD

USES OF CEREALS

14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first solid foods fed to them.

15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose, they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sauted and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children. When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast, or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served, whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course, the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But, to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable to those which are poorly cooked in the home.

SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS

16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing, which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as, for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._

Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work of digestion.

17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food. In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper. Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and similar raw cereals in packages.

18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost. They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.

Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.

19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.

20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food. The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.

TABLE II

GRAIN PRODUCTS

/ Pearl barley
| Hulled wheat
/ Whole Grains {Hominy: Corn
| | Corn
| \ Rice
|
| / Farina: Wheat or corn
| | Cream of Wheat: Wheat
| Crushed Grains {Cracked Wheat: Wheat
| | Hominy Grits: Corn
| | Wheat Grits: Wheat
| \ Samp: Corn
Cereals {
| / Corn
| Meal {Barley
| | Rice
| \ Oats
|
| / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn
\ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat
| Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn
\ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat

/ Corn
Starch {Rice
\ Wheat

/ Macaroni
Wheat {Vermicelli
\ Spaghetti

Glucose} Usually corn Sirup /

/ Wheat
Cereal Coffee {Rye
\ Barley

/ Wheat
| Rye
Flour {Corn
| Buckwheat
\ Rice

Liquors \ Malted Drinks} All grains Beer | Whisky /

Alcohol: All grains

Feed for animals: All grains

* * * * *

PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE

METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS

21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible, cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.

22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking, cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form. This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion, but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if any, is digestible.

23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done systematically and with the least expenditure of time.