Chapter VI: Preface (6)

Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.

77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor. Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the accompanying recipe.

PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT (Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. pearl barley 1 tsp. salt 5 c. boiling water 1 c. dates, figs, or prunes

Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added. After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used, wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.

78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sauted in butter until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.

RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET

79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat cereal foods.

80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds, which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes, recipes for which are given in another Section.

81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since, in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries, it is ground into flour and used for making bread.

PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS

82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact, because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals, principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded, pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye and barley.

83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into _dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat, which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an indirect effect.

SERVING CEREALS

84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and that makes them tough.

To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold, milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except to add flavor.

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ITALIAN PASTES

PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION

85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed, macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now takes the place of what was formerly imported.

86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily prepared and digested.

87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are _macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook. To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight; if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks. All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of poor quality.

88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein, or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though, being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made from wheat.

RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES

89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly understood.

In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and elastic they have not cooked enough.

In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used in soups or served with sauce or gravy.

90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to take the place of meat.

MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1/4 c. crumbs

CREAM SAUCE

2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. milk

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.

91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in the same meal.

MACARONI WITH EGGS (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 1-1/2 c. milk 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 4 hard-boiled eggs 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.

92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given, tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in which it is low.

MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 2 c. canned tomatoes 8 thin slices bacon

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes, and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.

93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.

MACARONI WITH CHEESE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1-1/2 Tb. butter 1-1/2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1/8 tsp. paprika 1-1/2 c. milk 1 c. grated or finely cut cheese 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour. Serve hot.

94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni. Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.

MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 1 c. grated cheese 2 qt. boiling water 2 Tb. butter 2 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1 tsp. salt

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese, butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni, put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.

95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat, it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds nutrition to the dish.

MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1-1/2 c. scalded milk 2/3 c. grated cheese 1 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. paprika 1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish, placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer, and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley and serve.

96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe here given.

MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS (Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. water 2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 3/4 c. hot milk 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1/4 tsp. pepper 1 c. canned kidney beans

Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper. Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish and serve.

97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned, is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.

SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. spaghetti 2 Tb. butter 2 qt. boiling water 2 Tb. flour 2 tsp. salt 1/2 c. grated cheese 1 can tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1 small onion, chopped 1/4 tsp. pepper 1/2 c. water

Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.

98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.

BREAKFAST MENU

99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.

MENU

Berries and Cream or Oranges Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream Scrambled Eggs Buttered Toast Cocoa or Coffee

SCRAMBLED EGGS

5 eggs 1/2 c. milk 1/2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 1/8 tsp. pepper

Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan, put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.

BUTTERED TOAST

Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with butter, and serve while hot and crisp.

COCOA

2 c. scalded milk 3 Tb. cocoa 3 Tb. sugar 1/4 tsp. salt 2-1/2 c. boiling water

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds to its flavor.

BOILED COFFEE

Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg, pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed. Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil. After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep hot and then serve.

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CEREALS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?

(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods. (_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?

(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?

(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the structure of cereal grains.

(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?

(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?

(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in cereals, and what are its purposes?

(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?

(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe the process of setting a cereal.

(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What are the advantages of the double-boiler method?

(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.

(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you would use them.

(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_) Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may be utilized.

(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains look when they are properly cooked?

(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.

(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be predigested.

(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals? (_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?

(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be applied to judge the quality of these foods?

(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much does macaroni increase upon being boiled?

(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_) What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat substitute?

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REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?

Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?

Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently toasted? unevenly browned?

Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?

Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?

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BREAD

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BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS

IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD

1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note the advancement that has been made.

2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people. The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat, compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course, more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_, or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation under favorable conditions.

Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States, whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_, _bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always meant when the term bread is used alone.

3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much attention has been given to these matters that at present the three important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of practically all civilized nations.

4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it. Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may present to her family only the best quality of this food.

Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past, bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which, besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the household expense.

5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a consequent waste of material.

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INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING

INGREDIENTS REQUIRED

6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number, being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar, salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food, containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.

FLOUR

7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye, are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake, so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light, porous loaf.

8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries, particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that, although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture, but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.

9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour of a good quality may be obtained.

This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.

Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and _winter_, or _soft, wheat_.

10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known, the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America, it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough, elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from soft wheat is more satisfactory.

11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat, because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used for all purposes.

12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:

PER CENT. Protein...................................... 11.9 Fat.......................................... 2.1 Carbohydrates................................ 71.9 Mineral salts................................. 1.8 Water........................................ 10.5 Cellulose..................................... 1.8 Total....................................... 100.0

So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1. At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_ is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called, which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain, or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most gluten occurring next to the bran covering.

13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills, has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process, by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.

14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers, which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.

15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ, etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in the germ is liable to become rancid.

16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained. Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour, because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts, which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.

17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases, it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it, provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of both very well.

18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality, is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next, _second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called _red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used considerably for the making of paste.

The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance, because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread. Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of good flour and should buy accordingly.

19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark, chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality. The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour, when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty. When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is characteristic of flour.

The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.

20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured, it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should be returned to the dealer.

YEAST

21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was, it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued study and observation have brought to light enough information to show that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.

22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant, namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.