Chapter VII: Preface (7)

The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or _carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the three results of the action of the ferment.

23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic, glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active that it is not noticeable.

24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food, they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese, canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers' vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure, unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of yeast plants from a few.

Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and _dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.

25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and has no odor except that of yeast.

Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from manufacturers or dealers.

26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time, facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these processes, a smaller quantity is required.

27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves. To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount. Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.

More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may be retained for the next baking.

28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course, accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition, it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted, the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast, whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that a fresh supply should be prepared.

YEAST AIDS

29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be mashed and added to it.

MILK AND FAT IN BREAD

30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread. While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making. Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.

31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast. Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.

PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS

32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3 cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about one-third as much liquid as flour.

The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.

UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING

33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_; measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread, pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.

The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3 1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than others, the baking will then be more uniform.

34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course, often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread, as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.

A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching a wire netting over a wooden frame.

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BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES

ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING

35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course, skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery. Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well, before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize good wheat bread.

36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat. The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that should not be overlooked.

Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut surface of the loaf.

The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right, wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite "sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to the light.

The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.

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MAKING THE DOUGH

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS

37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together, and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast, they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added, be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.

COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS

38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment, they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process; whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired. The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as shown in Fig. 3.

39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.

40. The long-process sponge method is employed when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.

41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.

The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.

42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients, there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the _straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.

43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat, liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to rise sufficiently, bake them.

44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less. It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.

CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH

45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been placed in the oven.

46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86 degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of hot water.

47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to 105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.

48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about 90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.

49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.

In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to soften completely before the next kneading is begun.

50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly. Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is entirely full.

KNEADING THE DOUGH

51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.

52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8, take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10, push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.

To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to be softened.

SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES

53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed, it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.

54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose, and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf, and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.

55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig. 13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in the pan, as at _a_, for rising.

BAKING THE BREAD

56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done, the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and then toasted.

57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425 degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400 degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin to brown in about 15 minutes.

58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15 shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into the oven.

Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.

59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1 hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should proceed rather slowly.

To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position. Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides of the pan.

60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans, and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm, because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not keep so well.

After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine, so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried every 2 or 3 days.

SCORING BREAD

61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread, as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.

SCORE CARD

External Appearance: PER CENT.
Shape................................. 5
Size.................................. 2
Crust:
Shade............................... 2
Uniformity of Color................. 2
Character........................... 2
Depth............................ 2--8
Lightness.............................. 20
Internal Appearance:
Even distribution of gas............. 10
Moisture.............................. 5
Elasticity............................ 5
Color................................ 15
Flavor................................. 30
---
Total............................. 100

62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor. To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the bread scores.

63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5, should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig. 15 would fall below perfect.

The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against, for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already mentioned would score high with regard to size.

The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut, the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score so high.

64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too light, the holes will be large and coarse.

65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes, which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives 5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The _elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic, a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains. Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score 15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.

66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points. To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may receive a perfect score.

USE OF THE BREAD MIXER

67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.

68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients and the method that is followed.

In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted. The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.

Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last rising and before they are placed in the pans.

SERVING BREAD

69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not be amiss.