Chapter III: Part 3

121. The finest dates on the market come from Turkey and the Eastern countries. They are prepared for sale at the places where they grow, being put up in packages that weigh from 1/2 to 1 pound, as well as in large boxes from which they can be sold in bulk. It is very important that all dates, whether bought in packages or in bulk, be thoroughly washed before they are eaten. While those contained in packages do not collect dirt after they are packed, they are contaminated to a certain extent by the hands of the persons who pack them. To be most satisfactory, dates should first be washed in hot water and then have cold water run over them. If they are to be stuffed, they should be thoroughly dried between towels or placed in a single layer on pans to allow the water to evaporate. While the washing of dates undoubtedly causes the loss of a small amount of food material, it is, nevertheless, a wise procedure.

122. Dates can be put to many valuable uses in the diet. They are much used in cakes, muffins, and hot breads and in fillings for cakes and cookies. Several kinds of delicious pastry, as well as salads and sandwiches, are also made with dates. Their use as a confection is probably the most important one, as they are very appetizing when stuffed with nuts, candy, and such foods.

FIGS

123. FIGS are a small pear-shaped fruit grown extensively in Eastern countries and to some extent in the western part of the United States. The varieties grown in this country are not especially valuable when they are dried, but they can be canned fresh in the localities where they are grown. Fresh figs cannot be shipped, as they are too perishable, but when dried they can be kept an indefinite length of time and they are highly nutritious, too. In fact, dried figs are nearly as high in food value as dates, and they are even more laxative.

124. Dried figs are found on the market both as pressed and pulled figs. _Pressed figs_ are those which are pressed tightly together when they are packed and are so crushed down in at least one place that they are more or less sugary from the juice of the fig. _Pulled figs_ are those which are dried without being pressed and are suitable for such purposes as stewing and steaming.

125. STEWED FIGS.--If pulled figs can be secured, they may be stewed to be served as a sauce. When prepared in this way, they will be found to make a highly nutritious and delightful breakfast fruit or winter dessert.

STEWED FIGS (Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. pulled figs 3 c. water

Wash the figs and remove the stems. Put them into a preserving kettle with the water and allow them to come slowly to the boiling point. Simmer gently over the fire until the figs become soft. If they are desired very sweet, sugar may be added before they are removed from the heat and the juice then cooked until it is as thick as is desirable. Serve cold.

126. STEAMED FIGS.--When figs are steamed until they are soft and then served with plain or whipped cream, they make a delightful dessert. To prepare them in this way, wash the desired number and remove the stems. Place them in a steamer over boiling water and steam them until they are soft. Remove from the stove, allow them to cool, and serve with cream.

PRUNES

127. PRUNES are the dried fruit of any one of several varieties of plum trees and are raised mostly in Southern Europe and California. In their fresh state, they are purple in color, but they become darker during their drying. They are priced and purchased according to size, being graded with a certain number to the pound, just as lemons and oranges are graded with a certain number to the case. In food value they are about equal to dates and figs. They contain very little acid, but are characterized by a large quantity of easily digested sugar. They also have a laxative quality that makes them valuable in the diet.

128. STEWED PRUNES.--A simple way in which to prepare prunes is to stew them and then add sugar to sweeten them. Stewed prunes may be served as a sauce with cake of some kind or they may be used as a breakfast fruit.

STEWED PRUNES (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 lb. prunes 1 c. sugar

Look the prunes over carefully, wash them thoroughly in hot water, and soak them in warm water for about 6 hours. Place them on the stove in the same water in which they were soaked and which should well cover them. Cook slowly until they can be easily pierced with a fork or until the seeds separate from the pulp upon being crushed. Add the sugar, continue to cook until it is completely dissolved, and then remove from the stove and cool. If desired, more sweetening may be used or a few slices of lemon or a small amount of lemon peel may be added to give an agreeable flavor.

129. STUFFED PRUNES.--After prunes have been stewed, they may have the seeds removed and then be filled with peanut butter. Stuffed in this way and served with whipped cream, as shown in Fig. 21, or merely the prune juice, they make an excellent dessert.

Select prunes of good size and stew them according to the directions just given, but remove them from the fire before they have become very soft. Cool and then cut a slit in each one and remove the seed. Fill the cavity with peanut butter and press together again. Serve with some of the prune juice or with whipped cream.

130. PRUNE WHIP.--A very dainty prune dessert can be made from stewed prunes by reducing the prunes to a pulp and then adding the whites of eggs. Directions for this dessert follow:

PRUNE WHIP (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. prune pulp 1/4 c. powdered sugar 2 egg whites Whipped cream

Make the prune pulp by removing the seeds from stewed prunes and forcing the prunes through a sieve or a ricer. Mix the powdered sugar with the pulp. Beat the whites of the eggs until they are stiff and then carefully fold them into the prune pulp. Chill and serve with whipped cream.

RAISINS

131. RAISINS are the dried fruit of various kinds of grapes that contain considerable sugar and are cured in the sun or in an oven. They come principally from the Mediterranean region and from California. They have an extensive use in cookery, both as a confection and an ingredient in cakes, puddings, and pastry. In food value, raisins are very high and contain sugar in the form of glucose; however, their skins are coarse cellulose and for this reason are likely to be injurious to children if taken in too large quantities. They are also valuable as a laxative and in adding variety to the diet if they are well cooked before they are served.

Like other dried fruits, raisins should be washed thoroughly before they are used. They may then be soaked in warm water and stewed in exactly the same way as prunes. Sugar may or may not be added, as desired. Sultana raisins, which are the seedless variety, are especially desirable for stewing, although they may be used for any of the other purposes for which raisins are used.

DRIED APPLES, APRICOTS, AND PEACHES

132. Apples, apricots, and peaches are fruits that are used extensively in their dried form. They enable the housewife to supply her family with fruit during seasons when it is impossible to obtain fresh fruit. They may also be used to take the place of canned fruit, especially when the supply is low or has been exhausted. Besides their use as a sauce, they may be used for pies and various desserts.

133. These fruits, which may all be used in just the same way, should be soaked before stewing and should be stewed according to the directions for the preparation and cooking of prunes. Then sufficient sugar to make them sweet should be added. If they are desired for sauce, they may be used without any further preparation. However, they may be substituted for fresh fruit in recipes that call for any of them or for prunes. For instance, dried apricots, after being stewed, may be passed through a sieve to make a puree and may then be used to make apricot whip or souffle according to the directions given for other similar desserts. The flavor of apricots is very strong and a small amount of the pulp will flavor a large quantity of ice cream, sherbet, or water ice.

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FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) To what are the flavors and odors of fruits chiefly due?

(2) What food substances are found in only very small amounts in fruits?

(3) Mention the kinds of carbohydrate to which the food value of fruits is chiefly due.

(4) What parts of fruits make up the cellulose they contain?

(5) Discuss the value of minerals in fruits.

(6) Of what value in cookery are fruits containing large quantities of acid?

(7) What qualities of fruits are affected as they ripen?

(8) Discuss the digestibility of fruits.

(9) What are the effects of cooking on fruit?

(10) What sanitary precautions concerning fruits should be observed?

(11) (_a_) How do weather conditions affect the quality of berries? (_b_) What is the most important use of berries in cookery?

(12) Name some varieties of apples that can be purchased in your locality that are best for: (_a_) cookery; (_b_) eating.

(13) How can peach juice be utilized to advantage?

(14) Mention the citrus fruits.

(15) Describe a method of preparing grapefruit for the table.

(16) Describe the preparation of oranges for salads and desserts.

(17) Describe the appearance of bananas in the best condition for serving.

(18) (_a_) Give a test for the ripeness of pineapples. (_b_) Describe the most convenient method of preparing pineapples.

(19) Discuss the use of fruit cocktails.

(20) Describe the general preparation of dried fruits that are to be stewed.

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CANNING AND DRYING

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NECESSITY FOR PRESERVING FOODS

1. The various methods of preserving perishable foods in the home for winter use originated because of necessity. In localities where the seasons for fruits and vegetables are short, the available supply in early times was limited to its particular season. Then foods had to be preserved in some way to provide for the season of scarcity. It was not possible, as it is now, to obtain foods in all parts of the country from localities that produce abundantly or have long seasons, because there were no means of rapid transportation, no cold storage, nor no commercial canning industries.

2. In the small towns and farming communities, the first preservation methods for meats, as well as for fruits and vegetables, were pickling, curing, drying, and preserving. Not until later was canning known. It was this preserving of foodstuffs in the home that led to the manufacture and commercial canning of many kinds of edible materials. These industries, however, are of comparatively recent origin, the first canning of foods commercially having been done in France about a hundred years ago. At that time glass jars were utilized, but it was not until tin cans came into use later in England that commercial canning met with much favor.

3. Both canning in the home and commercial canning have had many drawbacks, chief among which was spoiling. It was believed that the spoiling of canned foods was due to the presence of air in the jars or cans, and it is only within the last 50 years that the true cause of spoiling, namely, the presence of bacteria, has been understood. Since that time methods of canning that are much more successful have been originated, and the present methods are the result of the study of bacteria and their functions in nature. It is now definitely known that on this knowledge depends the success of the various canning methods.

4. Since commercial canning provides nearly every kind of foodstuff, and since cold storage and rapid transportation make it possible to supply almost every locality with foods that are out of season, it has not been deemed so necessary to preserve foods in the home. Nevertheless, the present day brings forth a new problem and a new attitude toward the home preservation of foods. There are three distinct reasons why foods should be preserved in the home. The first is to bring about _economy_. If fruits, vegetables, and other foods can be procured at a price that will make it possible to preserve them in the home at a lower cost than that of the same foods prepared commercially, it will pay from an economical standpoint. The second is to promote _conservation_; that is, to prevent the wasting of food. When fruits and vegetables are plentiful, the supply is often greater than the demand for immediate consumption. Then, unless the surplus food is preserved in some way for later use, there will be a serious loss of food material. The third is to produce _quality_. If the home-canned product can be made superior to that commercially preserved, then, even at an equal or a slightly higher cost, it will pay to preserve food in the home.

5. Of the methods of preserving perishable foods, only two, namely, canning and drying, are considered in this Section. Before satisfactory methods of canning came into use, drying was a common method of preserving both fruits and vegetables, and while it has fallen into disuse to a great extent in the home, much may be said for its value. Drying consists merely in evaporating the water contained in the food, and, with the exception of keeping it dry and protected from vermin, no care need be given to the food in storage. In the preparation of dried food for the table, it is transformed into its original composition by the addition of water, in which it is usually soaked and then cooked.

The drying of food is simple, and no elaborate equipment is required for carrying out the process. Dried food requires less space and care in storage than food preserved in any other way, and both paper and cloth containers may be used in storing it. When storage space is limited, or when there is a very large quantity of some such food as apples or string beans that cannot be used or canned at once, it is advisable to dry at least a part of them. When used in combination with canning, drying offers an excellent means of preserving foods and thus adding to their variety.

6. Canning has a greater range of possibilities than drying. A larger number of foods can be preserved in this way, and, besides, the foods require very little preparation, in some cases none at all, when they are removed from the cans. Practically every food that may be desired for use at some future time may be canned and kept if the process is carried out properly. These include the perishable vegetables and fruits of the summer season, as well as any winter vegetables that are not likely to keep in the usual way or that are gathered while they are immature.

Many ready-to-serve dishes may be made up when the ingredients are the most plentiful and canned to keep them for the time when they are difficult or impossible to obtain otherwise. Such foods are very convenient in any emergency. Often, too, when something is being cooked for the table, an extra supply may be made with no greater use of fuel and very little extra labor, and if the excess is canned it will save labor and fuel for another day. In the same way, left-over foods from the table may be preserved by reheating and canning them. Many foods and combinations of foods may be made ready for pies and desserts and then canned, it being often possible to use fruits that are inferior in appearance for such purposes.

Soup may be canned. It may be made especially for canning, or it may be made in larger quantity than is required for a meal and the surplus canned. For canning, it is an excellent plan to make soup more concentrated than that which would be served immediately, as such soup will require fewer jars and will keep better. Water or milk or the liquid from cooked vegetables or cereals may be added to dilute it when it is to be served.

Meat and fish also may be canned, and many times it is advisable to do this, especially in the case of varieties that cannot be preserved to advantage by such methods as salting, pickling, or curing.

7. The preservation of foods by canning and drying should not be looked at as an old-fashioned idea; rather, it is a matter in which the housewife should be vitally interested. In fact, it is the duty of every housewife to learn all she can about the best methods to employ. Canning methods have been greatly improved within the last few years, and it is a wise plan to adopt the newer methods and follow directions closely. Especially should this be done if foods canned by the older methods have spoiled or if mold has formed on top of the food in the jars.

In order to preserve foods successfully and with ease, the housewife should realize the importance of carrying out details with precision and care. The exactness with which the ingredients are measured, the choice and care of utensils, the selection and preparation of the food to be canned--all have a direct bearing on whether her results will be successful or not.

By observing such points and exercising a little ingenuity, the economical housewife may provide both a supply and a convenient variety of practical foods for winter use. For example, one single fruit or vegetable may be preserved in a number of ways. Thus, if there is a very large supply of apples that will not keep, some may be canned in large pieces, some may be put through a sieve, seasoned differently, and canned as apple sauce, and some may be cut into small pieces and canned for use in making pies. Apple butter and various kinds of jams and marmalades may be made of all or part apples, or the apples may be spiced and used as a relish. Combining fruits of different flavor in canning also adds variety. In fact, neither quinces nor apples canned alone are so delicious as the two properly combined and canned together.

In the same way, if the housewife will watch the markets closely and make good use of materials at hand, she may provide canned foods at comparatively little cost. Of course, the woman who has a garden of her own has a decided advantage over the one who must depend on the market for foods to can. The woman with access to a garden may can foods as soon as they have been gathered, and for this reason she runs less risk of losing them after they have been canned. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out, it is really the duty of every housewife to preserve food in the home for the use of her family.

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CANNING

PRINCIPLES OF CANNING

8. CANNING consists in sealing foods in receptacles, such as cans or jars, in such a way that they will remain sterile for an indefinite period of time. Several methods of canning are in use, and the one to adopt will depend considerably on personal preference and the money that can be expended for the equipment. In any case, successful results in canning depend on the care that is given to every detail that enters into the work. This means, then, that from the selection of the food to be canned to the final operation in canning not one thing that has to do with good results should be overlooked.

9. SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CANNING.--A careful selection of the food that is to be canned is of great importance. If it is in good condition at the time of canning, it is much more likely to remain good when canned than food that is not. The flavor of the finished product also depends a great deal on the condition of the food. Fruits have the best flavor when they are ripe, but they are in the best condition for canning just before they have completely ripened. Immediately following perfect ripeness comes the spoiling stage, and if fruits, as well as vegetables, are canned before they are completely ripe, they are, of course, farther from the conditions that tend to spoil them. This, however, does not mean that green fruits or vegetables should be canned.

Whenever possible, any food that is to be canned should be perfectly fresh. The sooner it is canned after it has been gathered, the more satisfactory will be the results. For instance, it is better to can it 12 hours after gathering than 24 hours, but to can it 2 hours after is much better. Fruits, such as berries, that are especially perishable should not be allowed to stand overnight if this can be prevented; and it is absolutely necessary to can some vegetables, such as peas, beans, and corn, within a very few hours after gathering. Unless this is done, they will develop a bad flavor because of _flat sour_, a condition that results from the action of certain bacteria. Imperfect fruits should not be canned, but should be used for making jam, marmalade, or jelly.

10. WHY CANNED FOODS SPOIL.--Canned foods spoil because of the action of micro-organisms that cause fermentation, putrefaction, and molding. The reasons for the spoiling of food are thoroughly discussed in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, and in that discussion canning is mentioned as one of the means of preserving food or preventing it from spoiling. However, when canning does not prove effective, it is because undesirable bacteria are present in the food. Either they have not been destroyed by the canning process or they have been allowed to enter before the jar was closed, and have then developed to such an extent as to cause the food to spoil. Odors, flavors, and gases result from the putrefaction, fermentation, or molding caused by these bacteria, and these make the foods offensive or harmful, or perhaps both.

11. PREVENTING CANNED FOODS FROM SPOILING.--From what has just been said, it will be seen that the success of canning depends entirely on destroying harmful micro-organisms that are present in the food and preventing those present in the air from entering the jars in which the food is placed.

Some foods are more difficult to keep than others, because bacteria act on them more readily and the foods themselves contain nothing that prevents their growth. Among such foods are meat, fish, peas, corn, beans, and meat soups. On the other hand, some foods contain acids that prevent the growth of bacteria, and these keep easily. Among these are rhubarb, cranberries, and green gooseberries. However, foods that keep easily are few, and in most cases extreme care in the process of canning must be exercised.

12. While warmth is necessary for bacterial growth, very high temperatures will destroy or retard it. In canning, a temperature as high as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or boiling point, retards the growth of active bacteria, but retarding their growth is not sufficient. They must be rendered inactive. To do this requires either a higher temperature than boiling point or long continued cooking at 212 degrees. _Spores_ are a protective form that many kinds of bacteria assume under unfavorable conditions. They are very difficult to kill, and unless they are completely destroyed in the canning process, they will develop into active bacteria when conditions again become favorable. The result of the spore development is the spoiling of the food.

13. Other things besides the application of heat assist in the keeping of canned food, as, for example, the acids of the fruits and vegetables themselves, as has been mentioned. The use of sugar also assists; the greater the quantity of sugar in solution the easier it will be to keep the food. This is proved in the case of jams and jellies, which will keep without being sealed tight or put into jars immediately after cooking. Salt helps to keep vegetables that are canned, and, in making butters, conserves, and pickles, the spices and vinegars used help to protect the foods from bacterial action. However, none of these things are essential to the keeping of any _sterile food_, by which is meant food in which all bacteria or sources of bacteria have been rendered inactive by the application of sufficient heat.

14. CANNING PRESERVATIVES.--Numerous compounds, usually in the form of powders, are advertised as being useful for keeping canned foods from spoiling. None of them should be used, however, because they are unnecessary. If the work of canning is carefully and effectively done, good foods will keep perfectly without the addition of a preservative. The pure-food laws of the United States and of many of the states themselves forbid the use of some preservatives because of their harmful effect on the human system. For this reason, to say nothing of the extra expense that would be incurred in their use, such preservatives may well be left alone.

GENERAL EQUIPMENT FOR CANNING

15. The equipment required for canning depends on two things: the quantity of food to be canned at one time and, since there are several canning methods in use, the canning method that is to be employed.

Various kinds of elaborate equipment have been devised to make the work of canning easy as well as effective. However, it is possible to do excellent work with simple equipment, and if the matter of expense must be considered there should be no hesitation about choosing the simplest and least expensive and doing the work in the best possible way with it. It is important also that utensils already included in the household equipment be improvised to meet the needs of the canning season as far as possible.

16. Whatever the canning method that is to be followed may be, there are a number of utensils and containers that go to make up the general equipment that is required. Familiarity with such an equipment is extremely necessary for correct results in canning, and for this reason the general equipment is discussed here in detail. The special equipment needed for each of the canning methods, however, is not taken up until the method is considered. In giving this general equipment, mention is made of some utensils that are convenient but not absolutely necessary. Any unnecessary, but convenient, part of a canning equipment should therefore be chosen with a view to its labor-saving qualities and its expense. A device that will make the keeping of canned foods more certain and prevent loss may be a valuable purchase; still, that which makes for greater convenience, but not absolute saving, need not be considered a necessity.

17. VESSELS FOR CANNING.--The pots, kettles, and pans in ordinary use in the kitchen for cooking purposes are usually satisfactory for the canning of foods. Those made of tin or iron, however, are not so good as enameled ones or those made of other metals, such as aluminum. Especially is this true of utensils used for the canning of acid fruits or vegetables, because, if such food remains in contact with tin or iron for more than a few minutes, the acid will corrode the surface sufficiently to give the food a bad or metallic taste. In addition, such utensils often give the food a dark color. If enameled kettles are used for the cooking of foods that are to be canned, it is important that the surface be perfectly smooth and unbroken. Otherwise, it will be difficult to prevent burning; besides, chips of the enamel are liable to get into the food. Kettles for the cooking of fruits with sirup should be flat and have a broad surface. Fruit is not so likely to crush in such kettles as in kettles that are deep and have a small surface.

18. KNIVES, SPOONS AND OTHER SMALL UTENSILS.--Many of the small utensils in a kitchen equipment are practically indispensable for canning purposes. Thus, for paring fruits and vegetables and cutting out cores, blossoms, and stem ends or any defective spots, nothing is more satisfactory than a sharp paring knife with a good point. For paring acid fruits, though, a plated knife is not so likely to cause discoloring as a common steel knife. There are, however, other useful implements for special work, such as the _strawberry huller_, Fig. 1, for removing the stems of strawberries, and the _peach pitter_, Fig. 2, for removing the stones from clingstone peaches. For placing the food to be canned into jars, both forks and large spoons are necessities. A large spoon with holes or slits in the bowl is convenient for picking fruits and vegetables out of a kettle when no liquid is desired, as well as for skimming a kettle of fruit. For packing foods into jars, a long-handled spoon with a small bowl is convenient. Still another useful small utensil is a short, wide funnel that may be inserted into the mouth of a jar and thus permit the food to be dipped or poured into it without being spilled.

19. DEVICES FOR MEASURING.--Accurate measures are necessary in canning; in fact, some of the work cannot be done satisfactorily without them. A half-pint measuring cup and a quart measure with the cups marked on it are very satisfactory for making all measures.

Scales are often convenient, too. For measuring dry materials, they are always more accurate than measures. Many canning proportions and recipes call for the measurement of the ingredients by weight rather than by measure. When this is the case and a pair of scales is not convenient, it is almost impossible to be certain that the proportions are correct. For instance, if a recipe calls for a pound of sugar and an equal amount of fruit, a measuring cup will in no way indicate the correct quantity.

20. COLANDER AND WIRE STRAINER.--For the cleansing of fruits and vegetables that are to be canned, a colander is of great assistance; also, if a large wire strainer is purchased, it may be used as a sieve and for scalding and blanching, steps in canning that are explained later.

21. GLASS JARS.--For household canning, the most acceptable containers for food are glass jars that may be closed air-tight with jar rubbers and tops. Use is sometimes made of bottles, jars, and cans of various kinds that happen to be at hand, but never should they be employed unless they can be fitted with covers and made positively air-tight. Like utensils, the glass jars that are a part of the household supply should be used from year to year, if possible, but not at the loss of material. Such loss, however, will depend on the proper sealing of the jars, provided everything up to that point has been correctly done. All jars should be carefully inspected before they are used, because imperfect or broken edges are often responsible for the spoiling of food.

In purchasing glass jars, only what are known as _first quality_ should be selected. Cheap jars are likely to be seconds and will not prove so satisfactory. Glass jars may be purchased in sizes that hold from 1/2 pint to 2 quarts. If possible, food should be canned in the size of jar that best suits the number of persons to be served.

If the family consists of two, pint jars will hold even more than may be used at one time, while if the family is large the contents of a quart jar may not be sufficient.

22. Numerous types of glass jars are to be had. Some of them are more convenient than others and may be made air-tight more easily. These two features are the most important to consider in making a selection. Jars that close with difficulty, especially if the tops screw on, are not likely to keep food successfully because the bacteria in the air will have a chance to enter and thus cause the food to spoil.

Glass jars used for canning foods have improved with canning methods. The old-style jars had a groove into which the cover fit, and melted sealing wax or rosin was poured into the space surrounding the cover. Later came the screw-top jar shown in Fig. 3. This type of jar has been extensively used with excellent results. Both the mouth of this jar and the jar top, which is made of metal, usually zinc, lined with glass or porcelain, have threads that match, and the jar is sealed by placing the jar rubber over the top, or ridge, of the jar and then screwing the jar top firmly in place. Such jars, however, are more difficult to make air-tight than some of the newer types. One of these jars is illustrated in Fig. 4. It is provided with a glass cover that fits on the ridge of the jar and a metal clasp that serves to hold the cover in place and to make the jar air-tight after a rubber is placed in position. Another convenient and simple type of glass jar, known as the _automatic seal top_, has a metal cover with a rubber attached.

Another improvement in jars is that the opening has been enlarged so that large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, tomatoes, etc., can be packed into them whole. With such wide-mouthed jars, it is easier to pack the contents in an orderly manner and thus improve the appearance of the product. Besides, it is a simpler matter to clean such a jar than one that has a small opening.

23. JAR TOPS AND COVERS.--While the tops, or covers, for glass jars are made of both metal and glass, as has been stated, the glass tops meet with most favor. Of course, they are breakable, but they are even more durable than metal tops, which are usually rendered less effective by the bending they undergo when they are removed from the jar. Covers made of zinc are being rapidly abandoned, and it has been proved that the fewer the grooves and the simpler the cover, the more carefully and successfully can it be cleaned. For safety, glass tops that have become chipped or nicked on the edges that fit the jar should be replaced by perfect ones. The covers for automatic-seal jars must be pierced before they can be removed, and this necessitates a new supply for each canning. If there is any question about the first-class condition of jar covers, whether of metal or glass, tops that are perfect should be provided.

24. JAR RUBBERS.--Jar rubbers are required with jar tops to seal jars air-tight. Before they are used, they should be tested in the manner shown in Fig. 5. Good jar rubbers will return to their original shape after being stretched. Such rubbers should be rather soft and elastic, and they should fit the jars perfectly and lie down flat when adjusted. A new supply of rubbers should be purchased each canning season, because rubber deteriorates as it grows old. Rubbers of good quality will stand boiling for 5 hours without being affected, but when they have become stiff and hard from age it is sometimes impossible to make jars air-tight. Occasionally, two old rubbers that are comparatively soft may be used in place of a new one, and sometimes old rubbers are dipped in paraffin and then used. However, if there is any difficulty in sealing jars properly with rubbers so treated, they should be discarded and good ones used.

25. TIN CANS.--For household canning, tin cans are not so convenient as glass jars, but in spite of this they are coming into extensive use. The kind that may be used without any special equipment has a tin lid that fits into a groove and is fastened in place with rosin or sealing wax. Some cans, however, require that the lids be soldered in place. While soldering requires special equipment, this method of making the cans air-tight is the best, and it is employed where considerable canning is done, as by canning clubs or commercial canners.

In the purchase of tin cans, the size of the opening should receive consideration. If large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, pears, and tomatoes, are to be canned, the opening must be a large one; whereas, if peas, beans, corn, and other small vegetables or fruits are to be canned, cans having a smaller opening may be chosen. When acid fruits or vegetables are to be canned, use should be made of cans that are coated with shellac, as this covering on the inside of the cans prevents any action of the acid on the tin.

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CANNING METHODS

GENERAL DISCUSSION

26. The methods employed for the canning of foods include the _open-kettle method_, the _cold-pack method_, the _steam-pressure method_, and the _oven method_. Of these, the open-kettle method is perhaps the oldest household method of canning, and it is still used by many housewives. The other methods, which are newer, seem troublesome to the housewife who is familiar with the open-kettle method, yet it will only be fair to give the new methods a trial before deciding which to use. The one-period cold-pack method has much to recommend it. Foods canned in this way undergo less change in form and flavor than those canned by the open-kettle method; besides, there is less danger of spoiling. In fact, many foods, such as vegetables and meats, that cannot be canned satisfactorily by the open-kettle method will keep perfectly if they are carefully preserved by the one-period cold-pack method. The steam-pressure method requires the use of special equipment, as is explained later. While it is a very acceptable canning method, it is not accessible in many homes. The oven method is liked by many housewives, but it offers almost the same chance for contamination as does the open-kettle method.

OPEN-KETTLE METHOD

27. The OPEN-KETTLE METHOD of canning is very simple and requires no equipment other than that to be found in every kitchen. It consists in thoroughly cooking the food that is to be canned, transferring it to containers, and sealing them immediately.

28. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--Not many utensils are required for the open-kettle canning method. For cooking the food, a large enamel or metal vessel other than tin or iron should be provided. It should be broad and shallow, rather than deep, especially for fruit, as this food retains its shape better if it is cooked in a layer that is not deep. The other utensils for canning fruits and vegetables by this method are practically the same as those already discussed--measuring utensils, a knife, large spoons, pans for sterilizing jars or cans, covers, rubbers, and jars or cans into which to put the food.

29. PROCEDURE.--The first step in the open-kettle canning method consists in sterilizing the containers. To do this, first clean the jars, covers, and rubbers by washing them and then boiling them in clear water for 15 to 20 minutes.

Next, attention should be given to the food that is to be canned. Look it over carefully, cut out any decayed portions, and wash it thoroughly. Sometimes roots, leaves, stems, or seeds are removed before washing, and sometimes this is not done until after washing. At any rate, all dirt or foreign material must be washed from foods before they are ready for canning.

After preparing the food, it must be cooked. If fruit is being canned, put it into the required sirup, the making of which is explained later, and cook it until it is well softened, as if preparing it for immediate table use. If vegetables are being canned, cook them in the same way, but use salt and water instead of sirup. When the food is cooked, transfer it to the sterile jars and seal at once with the sterile rubbers and covers. Then invert each jar to permit the food to cool and to test for leaks.

30. The danger of not securing good results with the open-kettle method lies in the possibility of contaminating the contents before the jar is closed and sealed. In addition to having the jars, rubbers, and covers sterile, therefore, all spoons and other utensils used to handle the cooked food must be sterile. Likewise, the jars must be filled to the top and the covers put on and made as firm and tight as possible at once, so that as few bacteria as possible will enter. If screw-top cans are used, the tops should not be twisted or turned after cooling, as this may affect the sealing. If jars leak upon being turned upside down, the contents must be removed and reheated and the jar must be fitted with another cover. Then both jar and cover must be sterilized and the contents returned and sealed immediately.

COLD-PACK METHOD

31. The COLD-PACK METHOD of canning differs from the open-kettle method in that the food to be canned is not cooked in a kettle before placing it in the jars and sealing them. In this method, the food to be canned is prepared by washing, peeling, scraping, hulling, stemming, seeding, or cutting, depending on the kind. Then it is _scalded_ or _blanched_ and plunged into cold water quickly and taken out immediately, the latter operation being called _cold-dipping_. After this it is placed into hot jars, covered with boiling liquid--boiling water and salt for vegetables, meats, fish, or soups, and boiling sirup for fruits. Then the filled jars are covered loosely and placed in a water bath and _processed_; that is, cooked and sterilized. When food that is being canned is subjected to processing only once, the method is referred to as the _one-period cold-pack method_; but when the food in the jars has not been blanched and cold-dipped and is processed, allowed to stand 24 hours and then processed again, and this operation repeated, it is called the _fractional-sterilization method_. The equipment required for the cold-pack canning method and the procedure in performing the work are taken up in detail, so that every point concerning the work may be thoroughly understood.

32. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--The utensils required for canning by the cold-pack method are shown assembled in Fig. 6. Chief among them is a _sterilizer_, or boiler, which consists of a large fiat-bottomed vessel fitted with a rack and a tight-fitting cover. A number of such devices are manufactured for canning by the cold-pack method, but it is possible to improvise one in the home. A wash boiler, a large pail, a large lard can, or, in fact, any large vessel with a flat bottom into which is fitted a rack of some kind to keep the jars 3/4 inch above the bottom can be used. Several layers of wire netting cut to correct size and fastened at each end to a 3/4-inch strip of wood will do very well for a rack. In any event, the vessel must be deep enough to allow the water to cover the jars completely and must have a tight-fitting cover. Besides a sterilizer, there are needed three large vessels, one for scalding the food that is to be canned, one for cold-dipping, and one for keeping the jars hot. To hold the food that is to be dipped, a sieve, a wire basket, also shown in Fig. 6, or a large square of cheesecloth must also be provided, and for placing jars in the water bath, a can lifter, a type of which is shown on the table in Fig. 6, may be needed. The remainder of the equipment is practically the same as that described under the heading General Equipment for Canning.

PROCEDURE IN THE ONE-PERIOD COLD-PACK METHOD

33. PREPARING THE CONTAINERS.--The first step in the cold-pack method consists in preparing the containers for the food. The jars, rubbers, and covers, however, do not have to be sterilized as in the open-kettle method. But it is necessary first to test and cleanse the jars and then to keep them hot, so that later, when they are filled and ready to be placed in the water bath, they will not crack by coming in contact with boiling water. The best way in which to keep the jars hot is to let them stand in hot water.

34. PREPARATION OF THE FOOD.--Attention should next be directed to the preparation of the food to be canned; that is, clean it and have it ready for the processes that follow. The fruits or vegetables may be canned whole or in pieces of any desirable size. What to do with them is explained later, when the directions for canning the different kinds are discussed. While the food is undergoing preparation, fill the sterilizer with hot water and allow it to come to the boiling point.

35. SCALDING AND BLANCHING.--When the food is made ready, the next step is to scald or blanch it. Scalding is done to loosen the skin of such food as peaches, plums, and tomatoes, so that they may be peeled easily. To scald such fruits or vegetables, dip them quickly into boiling water and allow them to remain there just long enough to loosen the skin. If they are ripe, the scalding must be done quickly; otherwise they will become soft. They should never be allowed to remain in the water after the skin begins to loosen. For scalding fruits and vegetables a wire basket or a square of cheesecloth may be used in the manner shown in Figs. 7 and 8.

Blanching is done to reduce the bulk of such foods as spinach and other greens, to render them partly sterilized, and to improve their flavor. It consists in dipping the food into boiling water or suspending it over live steam and allowing it to remain there for a longer period of time than is necessary for scalding. To blanch food, place it in a wire basket, a sieve, or a piece of clean cheesecloth and lower it into boiling water or suspend it above the water in a closely covered vessel. Allow it to remain there long enough to accomplish the purpose intended.

36. COLD DIPPING.--After the food to be canned is scalded or blanched, it is ready for cold-dipping. Cold-dipping is done partly to improve the color of the food. It stops the softening process at once, makes the food more firm and thus easier to handle, and helps to loosen the skin of foods that have been scalded. It also assists in destroying bacteria by suddenly shocking the spores after the application of heat. Cold-dipping, in conjunction with blanching or scalding, replaces the long process of fractional sterilization, and is what makes the one-period cold-pack method superior to this other process. To cold-dip food, simply plunge that which has just been scalded or blanched into cold water, as in Fig. 9, and then take it out at once.

37. PACKING THE JARS.--Packing the jars immediately follows cold-dipping, and it is work that should be done as rapidly as possible. Remove the jars from the hot water as they are needed and fill each with the cold-dipped fruit or vegetable. Pack the jars in an orderly manner and as solidly as possible with the aid of a spoon, as in Fig. 10. Just this little attention to detail not only will help to improve the appearance of the canned fruit, but will make it possible to put more food in the jars.

When a jar is filled, pour into it whatever liquid is to be used, as in Fig. 11. As has been stated, hot sirup is added for fruits and boiling water and salt for vegetables. However, when fruit is to be canned without sugar, only water is added. With tomatoes and some greens, no liquid need be used, because they contain a sufficient amount in themselves.

38. PREPARATION FOR THE WATER BATH.--As the jars are filled, they must be prepared for the water bath. Therefore, proceed to place the rubber and cover on the jar. Adjust the rubber, as shown in Fig. 12, so that it will be flat in place. Then put the cover, or lid, on as in Fig. 13, but do not tighten it. The cover must be loose enough to allow steam to escape during the boiling in the water bath and thus prevent the jar from bursting. If the cover screws on, as in the jar at the left, do not screw it down tight; merely turn it lightly until it stops without pressure being put upon it. If glass covers that fasten in place with the aid of a clamp are to be used, as in the jar at the right, simply push the wire over the cover and allow the clamp at the side to remain up. Jars of food so prepared are ready for processing.

39. PROCESSING.--The purpose of the water bath is to _process_ the food contained in the jars before they are thoroughly sealed. Therefore, when the jars are filled, proceed to place them in the water bath. The water, which was placed in the sterilizer during the preparation of the food, should be boiling, and there should be enough to come 2 inches over the tops of the jars when they are placed in this large vessel. In putting the jars of food into the sterilizer, place them upright and allow them to rest on the rack in the bottom. If the filled jars have cooled, they should be warmed before placing them in the sterilizer by putting them in hot water. On account of the boiling water, the jars should be handled with a jar lifter, as in Fig. 14. However, if the sterilizer is provided with a perforated part like that in Fig. 15, all the jars may be placed in it and then lowered in place.

When the jars are in place, put the tight-fitting cover on the sterilizer and allow the water to boil and thus cook and sterilize the food in the jars. The length of time for boiling varies with the kind of food and is given later with the directions for canning different foods. The boiling time should be counted from the instant the water in the sterilizer begins to bubble violently. A good plan to follow, provided an alarm clock is at hand, it to set it at this time, so that it will go off when the jars are to be removed from the sterilizer.

40. SEALING THE JARS.--After processing the food in this manner, the jars must be completely sealed. Therefore, after the boiling has continued for the required length of time, remove the jars from the water with the aid of the jar lifter or the tray and seal them at once by clamping or screwing the covers, or lids, in place, as in Fig. 16. Sometimes, the food inside the jars shrinks so much in this process that the jars are not full when they are ready to be sealed. This is illustrated in Fig. 17. Such shrinkage is usually the result of insufficient blanching, or poor packing or both. However, it will not prevent the food from keeping perfectly. Therefore, the covers of such jars of food must not be removed and the jars refilled; rather, seal the jars tight immediately, just as if the food entirely filled them. If, in sealing jars removed from the water bath, it is found that a rubber has worked loose, shove it back carefully with the point of a clean knife, but do not remove the cover.

As the jars are sealed, place them on their sides or stand them upside down, as in Fig. 18, to test for leaks, in a place where a draft will not strike them and cause them to break. If a leak is found in any jar, a new rubber and cover must be provided and the food then reprocessed for a few minutes. This may seem to be a great inconvenience, but it is the only way in which to be certain that the food will not be wasted by spoiling.

41. WRAPPING AND LABELING.--When the jars of food have stood long enough to cool, usually overnight, they are ready for wrapping and labeling. Wrapping is advisable for practically all foods that are canned, so as to prevent bleaching, and, of course, labeling is necessary when canned food is wrapped, so as to enable it to be distinguished readily when it is in storage. To wrap canned foods, proceed as in Fig. 19. Use ordinary wrapping paper cut to a size that will be suitable for the jar, and secure it in place with a rubber band, as shown, or by pasting the label over the free edge.

PROCEDURE IN THE FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION METHOD