Chapter X: Part 10

Michelet (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In '29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master's works, '32. His principle work is A System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, '76-81. He has also written on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.

Middleton (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from Paganism, and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow to hitherto received "Christian Evidences." He also wrote a classic Life of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.

Mignardi (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un Nuovo Credente (Memoirs of a New Believer).

Milelli (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as may be seen in his Odi Pagane, '79, Canzonieri, '84, and other works.

Mill (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor of the Literary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published, '17-'19, his History of British India. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham, he wrote largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind, '39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler's Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.

Mill (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint editor in '35. His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally known. This was followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In '59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent works were Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67; Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy '65; Dissertations and Discussions, '59-'75; and the Subjection of Women, '69. In '65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in '68. In '67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says "in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility." Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on "Nature," "Theism," and "Religion."

Mille (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.

Milliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Côte d'Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the Proletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he was, after the coup d'état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of '59. In '69 Millière started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying "Vive l'Humanité."

Mirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the French Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a Critical Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name of Fréret), The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection entitled Nouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1760.

Mirabeau (Honoré Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his Erotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials for his work on The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him "far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time." He died 2 April, 1791. Among his last words were, "Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep."

Miranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806-11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill.

Miron. See Morin (André Saturnin.)

Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876) and Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in the National Reformer, using his initials only.

Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was republished in '81.

Mittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part in the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.

Mittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.

Mocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian philosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva, 1588, with the Peripatetic Question of Cæsalpinus and the books of Telesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum Philosophicarum.

Moleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator, and in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has written Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches, and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him "the father of the modern Materialistic movement."

Molesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In '53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the Westminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.

Mommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by his History of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.

Monboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James).

Monge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator, created him Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.

Mongez (Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said "he had the honor to be an Atheist." He was one of the most ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.

Monroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the Rochford Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to Indianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards Monroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are poems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible Stories.

Montaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous "Essays," which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in literature. Emerson says, "Montaigne is the frankest and honestest of all writers." Montaigne took as his motto: Que sçais-je? [What know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, "Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.

Monteil (Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un Frère Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, and condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000 francs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published at Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La République Française. In '80 he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has compiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.

Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer, b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the Spirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.

Montgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and published at Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written in the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and Mind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.

Montgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June 1810.

Mook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus, published at Zürich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some poems.

Moor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu Pantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.

Moreau (Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe and the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.

Moreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological works.

Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work called Code de la Nature, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.

Morgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited Radicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses "a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over the signature "Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. Lechler calls Morgan "the modern Marcion." Died at London, 14 Jan. 1743.

Morgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of Sketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals, '19. The Examiner says, "He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843.

Morin (André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the signature "Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pensée of Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination of Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his True Value has gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique Religieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of the Bibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.

Morison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In '63 he published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of the founders of the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as in the Athenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley's "Men of Letters" Series. In '86 he published his striking work The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did justice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.

Morley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C. Morison. He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review, edited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which appeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise, Voltaire, '72; Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclopædists '78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in that review. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.

Morselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide in the International Scientific Series, and a study on "The Religion of Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.

Mortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan (Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in '49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man, '64. The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution to the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man, '82. He contributed to the Revue Indépendante, Pensée Nouvelle, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.

Moss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of Freethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower Animals, Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to the Secular Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker, and other journals, and has had a written debate on "Was Jesus God or Man." A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been published, 1889.

Mothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer.

Mott (Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.

Muhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died about 849.

Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.

Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.

Muhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar.

Muller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed good articles to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.

Murger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in "Winter Nights" he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds lui que j'ai lu Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.

Musset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the Romantic school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle, '36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in '52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.

Naber (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.

Nachtigal (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23 Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote an account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.

Naigeon (Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, notably the articles Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in the Theologie Portative. He published the Recuéil Philosophique, 2 vols., Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his Morale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in the Encyclopédie Méthodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.

Naquet (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834, became M.D. in '59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In '69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family, which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's energetic advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.

Nascimento (Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière's Tartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of "Filinto Elysio." Died 25 Feb. 1819.

Navez (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pensée, of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers.

Nelson (Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to be the author of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions, a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.

Newcomb (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was appointed computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political Economy, 1885.

Newman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol College '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at London University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49, he states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A History of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical, '58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History, '77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its Cradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.

Neymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.

Nicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.

Nicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted for founding "The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.

Nietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of Morgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.

Nieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25, '77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed to De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds (Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist paper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against Socialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason, The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one years' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.

Noeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, 1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and a Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.

Noire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist philosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends that language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.

Noorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with the Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.

Nordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He became a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our Civilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.

Nork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).

Nott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish Race, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55; the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.

Noun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.

Noyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.

Nunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.

Nuytz (Louis André). See Andre-Nuytz.

Nystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, '68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has established a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written a History of Civilisation.

Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a translation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an English version.

Ochino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.

O'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the Journal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.

O'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.

Oest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.

Offen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism and A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the Correspondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.

Offray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.

O'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was classed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.

O'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author of Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers, published by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of short papers suggestive of religious Theism.

Oken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became a privat-docent in that university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802, he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work on Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From '17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.

Oliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.

Omar Khayyam. See Khayyam.

Omboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific works.

Onimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, and wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological Sciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the Revue Positive and other periodicals.

Oort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many works, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.

Orelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.

Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.

Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology."

Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).

Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.

Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other journals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education, '82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil.

O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he "denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the Apostolic see erronious."

"Ouida," See Ramée (Louise de la).

Ouvry (Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question.

Overton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.

Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In '24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In '28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's Journal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.

Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28, the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till '32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840; Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.

Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity (Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.

Paepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.

Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes (1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.

Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited Life Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?, '67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.

Paget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of Unbelief" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.

Pageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.

Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the Pennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.

Pajot (François). See Liniere.

Paleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.

Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology.

Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.

Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the Freethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was cremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.

Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.

Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis. Died in Athens 111 B.C.

Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopédie Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.

Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.

Papillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, '65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue des Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life, '73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.

Paquet (Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to literature. Under the anagram of "Nérée Quépat" he has published La Lorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.

Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11 Aug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth, also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.

Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d'état he took refuge in Belgium. In '71 was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.

Parfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of L'Arsenal de la Dévotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of superstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des Pélerinages, '77, and other pieces. Died 1881.

Parisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoilée par la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have occasioned its suppression.

Parker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24 Aug. 1810. From his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the farm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June, '37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion, '47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette's Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.

Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and considered nature eternal.

Parny (Évariste Désiré de Forges de), Viscount. French poet, b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired his "Amatory Poems," and he afterwards wrote the audacious War of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.

Parton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married Miss Willis, "Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also written on Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided in New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.

Parvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was issued in 1746.

Pasquier (Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at Paris. Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked in a bitter satire, Catéchisme des Jésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.

Passerano (Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil de Pièces curieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc., which contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses), an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem; also a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in 1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.