Chapter XIV: Part 14

Vogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters, Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.

Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor '63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, '52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and the first Christian Ages, '82, etc.

Volney (Constantin François Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.

Voltaire (François Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His Lettres Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732, gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.

Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to De Dageraad.

Vosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at Montreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.

Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has also issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.

Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.

Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his "Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.

Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.

Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.

Walferdin (François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.

Walker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and What is Blasphemy? 1843.

Walker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls, Kansas.

Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In '77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85 he was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.

Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University.

Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled Dynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.

Ward (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.

Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an active part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony, Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a "time store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.

Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been published. He now edits the Boston Investigator.

Waters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.

Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was arrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the Republican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature, Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.

Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.

Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He wrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published Christianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.

Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.

Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the Reasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published several pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man, Is Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.

Watts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.

Webber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century wrote heretical works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin, Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.

Weber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, 1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20; Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.

Weitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He was a leader of "Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just, and published at Zürich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America, where he died 25 Jan. 1871.

Wellhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78, etc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the Encyclopædia Britannica.

Westbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60, and has since written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and Whither? In '88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.

Westerman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active co-operator on De Dageraad.

Westra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, "De Dageraad."

Wettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April, 1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine, The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.

White (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled in Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The Warfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in the History of Civilisation, '85.

Whitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with its noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as "the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed." It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands at Seventy. This "good gray poet" has also written prose essays called Democratic Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.

Wicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in '85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.

Wieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the Gods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were "To be or not to be."

Wiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on the Elements of Natural Laws, 1863.

Wiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).

Wigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.

Wightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last person burnt for heresy in England.

Wihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16 Jan. 1882.

Wilbrandt (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno, 1874, and also some novels.

Wilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.

Wilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah an able Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God, published at Bradford, 1853.

Williams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.

Willis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to London, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza, '70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age, and A Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.

Wilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.

Wirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.

Wislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister, but in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the Light of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Zürich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers, was published at Leipsic in '63.

Wittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.

Wixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the "Children's Corner" in the Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator.

Wollny (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.

Wollstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began her literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She also wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke, and Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in childbirth.

Wooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877; Career of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.

Woolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He published in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began his Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible, homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.

Wright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College, '26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and edited the Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator, the Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.

Wright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined Owen's experiment; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette, and afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was published at New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted in founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.

Wright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 16 Aug. 1870.

Wright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the course of which she was continually interrupted.

Wundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), 16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in '64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His principal works are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74; Manual of Human Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.

Wuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.

Wyrouboff (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the Revue de Philosophie Positive with Littré, and edited it with him from 1867-83.

Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.

Ximines (Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.

York (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the States.

Yorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity, London, 1882.

Youmans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the "International Scientific Series," and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.

Zaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La Créche, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic Man, '78; Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific Curiosities, '83.

Zambrini (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.

Zarco (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited El Siglo XIX and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of "Fortun." He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the reactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.

Zeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Würtemberg), 22 Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tübingen and Berlin, became professor at Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for philosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has written a memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, '83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other important works.

Zijde (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen he wrote The Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.

Zimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England since '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.

Zola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April, 1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon Macquart, he made himself the leader of the "naturalist" school, which claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as it is without the ideal.

Zorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834, became a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was prosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since been exiled for his Republicanism.

Zouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh.

Zuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June, 1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of '48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal Law in the University of Pavia.

SUPPLEMENT.

Those which have already appeared are marked *

Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin.

Abu Abd'allah Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of Empedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused of impiety, he left Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to Spain and collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were publicly burned at Seville.

* Acosta (Uriel), the name of his work was Examen Traditorum Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam.

Acuna (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about 1854. Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The Doll's House, and other educational works.

* Adams (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and lecturer, the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written in Secular Thought, the Truthseeker and the Freethinker's Magazine, and published rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In '89 he was elected President of the Canadian Secular Union.

Admiraal (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede, 13 Oct. 1833. At first a schoolmaster, he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at Schoonhoven. He wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over the anagram "Aramaldi." In '67 he published The Religion of the People under the pseudonym "Bato van der Maas," a name he used in writing to many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble constitution. He died 12 Nov. 1878.

Airoldi (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a poet and writer of talent.

Albaida (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one of the founders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his principles; returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869.

* Alchindus. Died about 864.

* Aleardi had better be deleted. I am now told he was a Christian.

Alfarabi. See Alpharabius.

Algeri (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil, pitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.

Alkemade (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to De Dageraad, and also published a work containing many Bible contradictions, 1862; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name "Alexander de M."

Allais (Denis de). See Vairasse.

Allais (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847.

Almquist (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor of philology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new ideas and Freethought.

Altmeyer (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20 Jan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of Humanity, '36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877.

Amari (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7 July, 1806. In '32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote a standard History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of Garibaldi, he was made head of public instruction in the island. He took part in the anti-clerical council of '69. Died at Florence, July 1889.

* Amaury de Chartres. According to L'Abbè Ladvocat his disciples maintained that the sacraments were useless, and that there was no other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell than ignorance and sin.

Anderson (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2 Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and was for some time editress of a periodical De Twintigste Eeuw (the twentieth century). She has also written some novels. She resides now at Würzburg, Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. As pen-name she formerly used that of "Mevrouw Quarlès" and now "Dr. Al. Dondorf."

* Anthero de Quental. This name would be better under Quental.

Apono. See Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano.

* Aquila. Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of the Scriptures.

Aranda (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman, b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclopædists, and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister to France. He was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799.

Argilleres (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards a Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561-2, for having eight years previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle in Bresse.

* Arnould (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist Revue and La Societé Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Liberté, in which many a battle for Freethought has been fought.

Ascarate (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest Radical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of Krause. He has written Social Studies, Self-Government and Monarchy, and other political works.

Aszo y Del Rio (Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist, b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important works on various branches of science. In his political works he advocated the abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.

* Aubert de Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza, which I have not been able to see.

Auerbach (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction, b. Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having previously published an historical romance on the same subject. Died Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882.

* Aymon (Jean). La vie et L'Esprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye, 1719) was afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three Impostors.

* Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this enfant terrible of the German Aufklarung fill 120 volumes.

* Bailey (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered much on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk erected a monument to his memory.

* Bancel (Francis Désiré). In his work Les Harangues de l'Exil, 3 vols., 1863, his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in La Revue Critique.

Barnaud (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphiné. Lived during the latter half of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany, and to him is attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le Cabinet du Roy de France, which is largely directed against the clergy.

Barreaux. See des Barreaux.

Barth (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he attained reputation as orator to working men and took part in the revolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich, where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought.

Bartrina, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died in 1880.

Bedingfield (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823, wrote in National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight, '70. Died 14 Feb. 1876.

* Berigardus (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.

* Bertillon (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, April, '68, he said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died 1883.

* Berwick (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the signature of "Presbyter Anglicanus."

Blein (F. A. A.), Baron, French author of Essais Philosophiques, Paris, 1843.

Blum (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He took an active part in progressive political and religious movements, and published the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican party. He was one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna, and showed great bravery in the fights of the students with the troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.

* Blumenfleld (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym.

Bolin (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied at Helsingford, '52, and became Doctor of Philosophy in '66, and Professor in '73. He has written on the Freedom of the Will, The Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland; he has been repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical views on religious questions.

Bolivar (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas.

Boppe (Herman C.), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A.

Borsari (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator of Freethought.

Bostrom (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4 Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.

Boucher (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was published at Avignon, 1884.

Bourneville (Magloire Désir), French deputy and physician, b. Garancières, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in '79 was appointed physician to the asylum of Bicêtre. He was Municipal Councillor of Paris from '76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he was elected deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75; Hysteria in History, '76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.

Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867; wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, '68; is author of a large and able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has edited the posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870.

* Bovio (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author of a dramatic piece, Cristo alla festa di Purim, and of a History of Law in Italy. Signor Bovio delivered the address at unveiling the monument to Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889.

Boyer. See Argens.

* Bradlaugh (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to repeal the Blasphemy Laws.

Braga (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a History of Portuguese Literature. Is one of the Republican leaders.

Branting (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in '88 to three months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social Democraten.

Braun (Eugen), Dr. See F. W. Ghillany.

Braun (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised many of the Bible stories. Died 1860.

Brewer (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school books, and compiled a Dictionary of Miracles, 1884.

Brismee (Desiré), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor of Le Drapeau he underwent eighteen months' imprisonment. The principle founder of Les Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that society, and his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards the history of Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of his Freethought orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.

* Brothier (Léon). Died about 1874.

* Brown (G. W.) Dr. Brown's new work is published at Rockford, Illinois, and entitled Researches in Jewish History, including the rise and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity.

* Bruno (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that he died impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister of Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore his martyrdom with great fortitude.

Buen (Odon de), Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, of Madrid, b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition From Christiania to Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the Paris Freethought Conference, 1889.

Calderon (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits La Justicia. Has written several books on law.

Calderon (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.

Calderon (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846; professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels in Central America, and written largely on geological subjects.

Calvo (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A pronounced Republican and Freethinker.

* Canestrini (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.

Cassels (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of Supernatural Religion, a critical examination of the worth of the Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three '79). Has written under his own name Eidolon and other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published A Reply to Dr. Lightfoot's Essays.

Castro (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and had a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.

Cavia (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of the Liberal of Madrid.

* Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He served in the navy during the first China War, 1840-42. Published accounts of the siege of Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also "Ride over Rocky Mountains," which he accomplished with great hardships in '50. Was private secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in '54-'58. Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861.

Cornette (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in L'Avenir of Brussels and the Revue Socialite, he has published separate works on Freemasonry, 1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80; Freethought Darwinism, etc.

Curros (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the Bishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems entitled Airs of my Country, but he was acquitted by the jury.

Czerski (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12 May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church, associated himself with Ronge, married, and was excommunicated. Has written several works against Roman Catholicism, and is still living at Schneidemükl-Posen.

D'Ercole (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at variance both with reality and with themselves.

Deschanel (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1819. He wrote in the Revue Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Liberté de Penser; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went to Belgium. He has been Professor of Modern Literature at the College of France, and written many important works.

Desnoiresterres (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters, b. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVII. and XVIII. Siècles, 1881, and Voltaire et la Société Française au XVIII. Siècle, an important work in eight vols.

* Desraimes (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.

Diogenes (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived in the fifth century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at Athens through his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to the State. He held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced to nothing; that the earth was round and had received its shape from whirling. He made no distinction between mind and matter.

Donius (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work, De Natura Dominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit, to motion. The title of his second book is "Omnes operationes spiritus esse motum et semum."

Dosamantes (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of works on Absolute Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees (mystics and materialists), '89.

Druskowitz (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley, Berlin, '84; a little book on Freewill, and The New Doctrines, '83.

Dufay (Henri), author of La Legende du Christ, 1880.

Duller (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He wrote a History of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People (Frankfort, '47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.

* Du Marsais (César Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anonymous work on The World and its Antiquity and The Soul and its Immortality, Londres, 1751.

* Fellowes (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6 Feb. 1847.

Figueras-y-Moracas (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator, b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican opinions. In '51 he was elected to the Cortes, was exiled in '66, but returned in '68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de Montpensiér in '69, and became President of the Spanish Republic 12 Feb. '73. Died poor in 1879, and was buried without religious ceremony, according to his wish.

Fitzgerald (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge, Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in '30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the Quatrains of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883.

Galletti (Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated Feuerbach on Death and Immortality, and also translated from Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.

Ganeval (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author of a work on Egypt and Jesus devant l'histoire n'a jamais vécu. The first part, published in '74, was prohibited in France, and the second part was published at Geneva in '79.

Garrido (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic, Cadiz 1843, a work on Contemporary Spain, published at Brussels in '62, The Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious Persecutions, a work rendered into English in conjunction with C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.

Gerling (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist to an Idealist, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi contributes a preface.

Geroult de Pival, French librarian at Rouen; probably the author of Doutes sur la Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772.

Goffin (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Liége and President of La Libre Pensée of Brussels, and one of the General Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23 May, 1884.

Goldhawke (J. H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the greater number of personages mentioned in the Old and New Testaments are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.

Gorani (Giuseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with Beccaria, D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism, published anonymously, 1770; defended the French Revolution and was made a French citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.

Govett (Frank), author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessimistic reply to Sir J. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Mr. Govett rejects the consolations of religion.

Guimet (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist and philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of the inventor of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has visited most parts of the world and formed a collection of objects illustrating religions. These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he also founded a library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine museum which cost several million francs, he presented to his country, and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he began publishing Annales du Musée Guimet, in which original articles appear on Oriental Religions. He has also written many works upon his travels. He attended the banquet in connection with the International Congress of Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.

Guynemer (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy, 1852, and an anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many points of theology are discussed in alphabetical order.

Hamerling (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March, 1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Rome '66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translated Leopardis' poems '86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, 1889.

Heyse (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin, 15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many popular plays and romances, of which we specially mention The Children of the World, '73, a novel describing social and religious life of Germany at the present day, and In Paradise, 1875.

Hicks (L. E.) American geologist, author of A Critique of Design Arguments. Boston, 1883.

Hitchman (William), English physician, b. Northleach, Gloucestershire, 1819, became M.R.C.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established Freelight, and wrote a pamphlet, Fifty Years of Freethought. Died 1888.

Hoeffding (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since '83. Is absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on the newer philosophy in Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work special attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German editions have been published of his works Grundlage der humanen Ethik (Basis of Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umriss (Outlines of Psychology '87), and Ethik 1888.

Holst (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish Society for Religious Liberty.

Ignell (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought up as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated Renan's Life of Jesus, and did much to arouse opposition to orthodox Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.

Jacobsen (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede, 7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia, translating the Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his novels we may name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII. century, and Niels Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This able young writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.

Kleist (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18 Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795, quitted it in four years and took to study. Kant's Philosophy made him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide together with a lady, near Potsdam, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly known by his dramas and a collection of tales.

Letourneau (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray (Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, and has published Physiology of the Passions, '68; Biology, '75, translated into English by W. Maccall; Science and Materialism, '79; Sociology based on Ethnography, '80; and the Evolution of Marriage and the Family, '85. He has also translated Büchner's Man According to Science, Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals, Haeckel's History of Creation, Letters of a Traveller in India, and Herzen's Physiology of the Will.

Lippert (Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship, Berlin, 1881; The Universal History of Priesthoods, '83; and an important Culture History of Mankind, '86-7.

Lloyd (William Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons, London 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New Testament side by side. He has also written The Age of Pericles, and several works on Shakespeare.

Lucian, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer, and torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance can be placed. On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has been supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that piece is genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving, and an enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his account of Alexander, the false prophet.

Maglia (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June, 1859, began writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards published L'Union Republicana. He founded the Freethinking group "El Independiente" and edits El Clamor Setabense and El Pueblo Soberano. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at Rome in '85, and in '89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned to six years' imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.

disciples, whom he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averroës. Died Oct.-Nov. 931. His works were publicly burned at Seville.

Mata (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University of Madrid. Author of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851; a Treatise on Human Reason, '58-64; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68.

Mendizabal (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz, 1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid, 3 Nov. 1853.

* Meredith (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool College, he became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the claims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet of Nazareth he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels, but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889.

Miralta (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer, b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one of the writers on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Memoirs of a Poor Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament Exposed. His work on The Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has greatly encouraged civil marriages.

Moraita (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous History of Spain. In '84 he made a discourse at the University against the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his excommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students, against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the Spanish Freemasons.

Moya (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.

Nakens (José), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of El Motin, a Republican and Freethought paper of Madrid, in connection with which there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta--the Pick-axe.

Nees Von Esenbeck (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist, b. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, '31. He was leader of the free religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the political agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858.

Nyblaus (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has published some anti-Christian pamphlets.

Offen (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the Free Discussion Society. He wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848.

Palmaer (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. Author of The Last Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died at Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.

Panizza (Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a materialist work on The Philosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887.

Perez Galdos (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. Canary Islands, lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention Gloria, which has been translated into English, and La Familia de Leon Roch, 1878, in which he stoutly attacks clericalism and religious intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales, and many historical novels.