Chapter XIII: Part 13

Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799, graduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850, but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family, he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion, originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote The Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology, '67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.

Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm, 8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in his poems published under the name of "Sventröst."

Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5 Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562), and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3 March, 1604.

Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.

Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the Truthseeker.

Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20 Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the Treasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy entitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.

Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he became librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale. He has contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals, and has published important works on The Bible and Archæology, '72; Historical Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism, '78; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated into English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new direction in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary of the History of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World and of Life in Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary Psychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary History of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution, '79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.

Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social missionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol, for an article in which on "The Jew Book" he was tried for blasphemy 14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in England and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology for Atheism, '46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition Unveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer to G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45, Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.

Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of his opinions.

Sozzini. See Socinus.

Spaink (Pierre François), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862, and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen names "A. Th. Eist." and "F.R.S." Has translated Romanes' Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution.

Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.

Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July, 1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular History of the World's Development, which has gone through several editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers' Union.

Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman met Mill, Lewes and "George Eliot." His first important work was Social Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of Psychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology, '64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form part of his "Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on Education '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals, '71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86, an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State, '85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.

Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus, which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address from M. Rénan.

Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19 Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887.

Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.

Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action, translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to England, went to America, Aug. '54.

Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855, was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress, Our Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.

Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in which he criticises preceding religions.

Stanton (Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American Review notably on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.

Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.

Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in the "International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family, in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach.

Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)

Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In '59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately 2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75; and wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome, etc. He translated Büchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus réduit, La Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions, and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.

Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy, '78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.

Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology.

Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work, Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.

"Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)

Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.

Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A., '57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the Cornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, '76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics, '82, besides many literary works.

Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In '58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected in his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.

"Sterne (Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).

Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the American Freethought journals.

Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London, 20 Feb. 1822.

"Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).

Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.

Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In '67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been Minister of Education of the Colony.

Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed, '71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity, '75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884.

Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in '30, and in '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated, '35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the Zürich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines (2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874.

Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists in Sweden.

Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.

Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus, he calmly declared himself an Atheist.

Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817.

Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.

Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).

Sully Prudhomme (Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion.

Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols., '86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.

Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels.

Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion.

Swinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies.

Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in '67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin, Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My Religion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.

Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in '62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols., completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.

Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Condorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In '56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote on English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made him D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy; his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.

Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in the National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at the Lycée Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais and has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.

Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote The Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.

Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.

Taurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which is Philosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606.

Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton, 18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started "The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and started "The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with discussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on "an infidel mission" about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in The Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.

Taylor (Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.

Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms, 1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review, replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and the Critical Review when edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.

Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.

"Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo, '13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph Webb," 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same person.

Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.

Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.

Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son of Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.

Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's work on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.

Theodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.

Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626.

Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.

Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritänkaren.

Thomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he afterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including his famous "City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with other poems in '80). "Vane's Story" with other poems was issued in '81, and "A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed in '84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a volume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes "The Story of a Famous Old Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.

Thomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The Distribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward, '27, and in the Co-operative Magazine.

Thorild (Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In 1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a Sermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.

Thulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, "Realism." In '66 he published a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensée Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study, La Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of the Paris Municipal Council.

Tiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works have been translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.

Tillier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, 11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, of which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.

Tindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was induced to turn Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to Protestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.

Toland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious, which was "presented" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, Sept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning Eikon Basilike, he referred to the "suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons." For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor, in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters to Serena (1704), which, says Lange, "handles the kernel of the whole question of Materialism." In 1709 he published Adeisidænon and Origines Judaicæ. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.

Tollemache (Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles in Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling, '84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison, '85; and Mr. Romanes's Catechism, '87.

Tone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, 1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.

Topinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor of the Revue d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.

Toulmin (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.

Tournai (Simon de). See Simon.

Traina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.

Travis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and literary executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's Journal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral Freedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed to the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.

Trelawny (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son, '31; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him "World-wide liberty's lifelong lover."

Trenchard (John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he wrote Cato's Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted The Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for Taunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but La Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.

Trevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the Reasoner and National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind (Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.

Trezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a Sceptic, '78; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To the first number of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les Dieux s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.

Tridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in Le Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history Les Hébertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide, the precursor of La Libre Pensée, '66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop Dupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in Le Candide and La Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies of the Jewish religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70, he founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after the collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.

Truebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.

Truelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was secretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He published Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's complete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma and Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on Tyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In '78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment for publishing R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.

Trumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.

Tschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.

Tucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April, 1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston.

Turbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842, author of a work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts, 1875.

Turgenev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.

Turner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of William Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.

Tuuk (Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the editors of De Dageraad.

Twesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April, 1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.

Tylor (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon the subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61; Researches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture; being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of the Anthropological Society.

Tyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow, 1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he has published popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.

Tyrell (Henry). See Church.

Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of "Jacques Massé" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.

Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist."

Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and published in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.

Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.

Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of Freethought, New York, 1876.

Vacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, '46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy, '64, and La Religion, '69.

Vacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director of Le Rappel.

Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris.

Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes, 1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.

Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism; its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.

Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."

Valla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.

Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.

Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History of Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of Human Duty, '76, etc.

Van Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.

Van Effen. See Effen.

Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France under Louis XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"

Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberté de Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in '73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature, 1883-85.

Varnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt, and shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.

Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.

Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.

Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874, and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.

Vereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows his free opinions.

Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks, Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.

Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme Being.

Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris, 1869); collaborated La Libre Pensée, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup's Athéisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.

Vermersch (Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.

Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published Melanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.

Veron (Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and l'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique in the "Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliothèque Materialiste, '84; and La Morale, '84.

Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siècle. In '41 he founded the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen, '71. Died 1883.

Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.

Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his reputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.

Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of and is Jahrbücher der Gegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor at Zürich. His work on Æsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful, '46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New, '81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.

Vitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.

Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.

Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since '80 has been "sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85 editor of the Neues Freireligiöses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In '88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, '89.

Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple, which he edited.