Chapter V (7)

We must now direct our attention to the southern polar regions. Geographers and philosophers supposed that in this portion of the globe there must be some continent or very large island, which would serve, as it were, to counterbalance the immense tracts of land which, to the northward, stretched not only as near the pole, as navigation had been able to proceed, but also west and east, the whole breadth of Europe and Asia.

The second voyage of Captain Cook was planned and undertaken for the express purpose of solving the question respecting the Terra Australis which occupied the older maps. He sailed on this voyage in July 1772, having under his command two ships, particularly well adapted and fitted up for such a service, the Resolution and Adventure; he was accompanied by a select band of officers, most of whom were not only skilful and experienced navigators, but also scientific astronomers and geographers; there were also two professed astronomers, two gentlemen who were well skilled in every branch of natural history, and a landscape painter.

On the 12th of December, Captain Cook entered the loose and floating ice, in latitude 62° 10'; on the 21st he met with icebergs in latitude 67°; and by the end of the month he returned to latitude 58°. On the 26th of January in the following year, he again penetrated within the Antarctic circle, and on the 30th, had got as far as latitude 71° 16'. This was the utmost point to which he was able to penetrate; and he was so fully persuaded, not only of the impracticability of being able to sail further to the south, but also of remaining in that latitude, that he returned to the northward the very same day, deeming it, as he expresses it, a dangerous and rash enterprize to struggle with fields of ice. "I," he continues, "who had ambition not only to go farther than any one before, but as far as it was possible for man to go, was not sorry to meet with this interruption." The existence of a southern continent was thus considered by Captain Cook, and all other geographers, as disproved to an almost absolute certainty.

In this voyage Captain Cook also obtained a correct knowledge of the land discovered by La Roche in 1675, and gave to it the name of New Georgia; he discovered, too, Sandwich land, which was then supposed to be the nearest land to the South Pole; he ascertained the extent of the Archipelago, of the New Hebrides, which had been originally seen by Quiros, and superficially examined by Bougainville. New Caledonia, and many of the islands among the groupe to which he gave the name of the Friendly Islands, were also among the fruits of this voyage.

The French government had sent out an expedition, about the same time that Captain Cook sailed in quest of a southern continent, on a similar pursuit. A French navigator some time before had stated that he had discovered land, having been driven far to the south, off the Cape of Good Hope. This supposed land the expedition alluded to was also to look after. The person selected to conduct it, M. De Kerguelen, does not seem to have been well chosen or qualified for such an enterprize; for after having discovered land, situated in 49° south latitude, and 69° east longitude from Greenwich, he returned rather precipitately to France, without having explored this land, concluding very rashly, and without any sufficient grounds, that the Terra Australis was at length ascertained to exist, and its exact situation determined. He was received and treated in France as a second Columbus: but as the French court seems to have had some doubts on the extent and merit of his alleged discoveries, notwithstanding the reception which it gave him, he was sent out a second time, with two ships of war of 64 and 32 guns each, and 700 men, to complete his discovery and take possession of this new continent. But he soon ascertained, what indeed he might and ought to have ascertained in his first voyage, that what he deemed and represented to be the Terra Australis was only a dreary and inhospitable island, of small size, so very barren and useless, that it produces no tree or even shrub of any kind, and very little grass. On such an island, in such a part of the globe, no inhabitants could be looked for; but it is even almost entirely destitute of animals; and the surrounding sea is represented as not more productive than the land. The French navigator was unable to find safe anchorage in this island, though it abounded in harbours; to this miserable spot he gave his own name. It was afterwards visited by Captain Cook, in his third voyage, and also by Peyrouse.

As the southern ocean, in as high a latitude as the climate and the ice rendered accessible and safe, had been as it were swept carefully, extensively, and minutely, by Captain Cook, and some subsequent navigators, without discovering land of any considerable extent, it was naturally supposed that no southern continent or even large island existed.

In the year 1819, however, this disbelief was partly destroyed by an unexpected and singular discovery. Mr. Smith, who commanded a vessel trading between Rio Plato and Chili, was naturally desirous to shorten, as much as possible, his passage round Cape Horn. With this object in view, he ran to a higher latitude than is usual in such voyages; and in latitude 62° 30' and in longitude 60° west, he discovered land. This was in his voyage out to Chili; but as he could not then spare the time necessary to explore this land, he resolved to follow the same course on his return voyage, and ascertain its extent, nature, &c. This he accordingly did; and likewise on a subsequent voyage. "He ran in a westward direction along the coasts, either of a continent or numerous islands, for 200 or 300 miles, forming large bays, and abounding with the spermaceti whale, seals, &c. He took numerous soundings and bearings, draughts and charts of the coast." He also landed and took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and called his acquisition New South Shetland. He represents the climate as temperate, the coast mountainous, apparently uninhabited, but not destitute of vegetation, as he observed firs and pines in many places; and on the whole, the country appeared to him very much like the coast of Norway.

It may seem extraordinary that land of this extent should not have been discovered by any former navigator; but the surprise will cease, when we reflect that though Captain Cook penetrated much further to the south than the latitude of New South Shetland, yet his meridian was 45 degrees farther to the west, and that he thus left a large expanse of sea unexplored, on the parallel of 62° between that and Sandwich land, the longitude of which is 22° west. He indeed likewise reached 67° south latitude: but this was in longitude from 137° to 147° west. Now the longitude of New South Shetland being 60° west, it is evident that Captain Cook in his first attempt, left unexplored the whole extent of longitude from 28°, the longitude of Sandwich land, to 60°, the longitude of New South Shetland; and in his second attempt, he was still further from the position of this new discovered land. Peyrouse reached no higher than 60° 30' latitude, and Vancouver only to 55°. Thus we clearly see that this land lay out of the track, not only of those navigators, whose object being to get into the Pacific by the course best known, pass through the Straits of Magellan and Le Maire, or keep as near Cape Horn as possible, but also of those who were sent out expressly to search for land in a high southern latitude.

The intelligence of the discovery of New South Shetland, and that its coasts abounded in Spermaceti whales, and in seals, quickly and powerfully roused the commercial enterprise both of the British and the Americans. In the course of a short time, numerous ships of both these nations sailed to its coasts; but from their observations and experience, as well as from a survey of it which was undertaken by the orders of one of His Majesty's naval officers, commanding on the southwest coast of America, it was soon ascertained that it was a most dangerous land to approach and to continue near. Its sterility and bleak and forbidding appearance, from all the accounts published respecting it, are scarcely equalled, certainly are not surpassed, in the most inhospitable countries near the North Pole; while ships are suddenly exposed to most violent storms, from which there is little chance of escaping, and in which, during one of the seal-catching seasons, a great number were lost.

There are, however, counterbalancing advantages: the seals were, at least during the first seasons, uncommonly numerous, and taken with very little trouble or difficulty, so that a ship could obtain a full cargo in a very short time; but, in consequence of a very great number of vessels which frequented the coasts for the purpose of taking these animals, they became soon less numerous, and were captured with less ease. The skins of these seals fetched a very high price in the China market; the Chinese, especially in the more northern parts of that vast and populous empire, use these skins for various articles of their dress; and the seal skins of New South Shetland being much finer and softer than those which were obtained in any other part of the world, bore a proportionably higher price in the China market. But the English could not compete with the Americans in this lucrative trade; for in consequence of the charter of the East India Company, the English ships were obliged to bring their cargoes of skins to England; here they were sold, and as none but the East India Company could export them to China, and consequently none except the Company would purchase; they in fact had the monopoly of them, and obtained them at their own price. The English indeed might take them directly from New South Shetland to Calcutta, whence they might be exported in country ships to China; but even in this case, which was not likely to happen, as few vessels, after having been employed in catching seals off such a boisterous coast, were prepared or able to undertake a voyage to Calcutta; much unnecessary expence was incurred, additional risk undergone, and time consumed. To these disadvantages in the sale of their seal skins, the Americans were not exposed; they brought them into some of their own ports, and thence shipped them directly and immediately to China.

The last navigator whom we noticed as having added to our knowledge respecting New Holland, was Dampier, who in this portion of the globe, not only discovered the Strait that separates New Guinea from New Britain, but also surveyed the north-west coast of New Holland; and, contrary to the Dutch charts, laid down De Witt's land as a cluster of islands, and gave it as his opinion that the northern part of New Holland was separated from the lands to the southward by a strait. Scarcely any thing was added to the geography of this portion of the globe, between the last voyage of Dampier, and the first voyage of Cook. One of the principal objects of this voyage of our celebrated navigator, was to examine the coast of New Holland; and he performed this object most completely, so far as the east coast was concerned, from the 38th degree of latitude to its northern extremity; he also proved that it was separated from New Guinea, by passing through the channel, which he called after his ship, Endeavour Strait. In the year 1791, Captain Vancouver explored 110 leagues of the south-west coast, where he discovered King George's Sound, and some clusters of small islands. In the same year two vessels were dispatched from France in search of La Peyrouse; in April 1792, they made several observations on Van Dieman's Land, the south cape of which they thought was separated from the main land; they also discovered a great harbour. In the subsequent year 1793, they again made the coast of New Holland, near Lewin's Land, and they ascertained that the first discoveries had been extremely accurate in the latitudes which they had assigned to this part of it.

In consequence of the British forming a settlement at Botany Bay, much additional information was gained, not only regarding the interior of New Holland, in the vicinity of the settlement, but also regarding part of its coast: the most interesting and important discovery relative to the latter was made towards the end of the year 1797, by Mr. Bass, surgeon of His Majesty's ship Reliance. He made an excursion in an open boat to the southward of Port Jackson, as far as 40 degrees of south latitude, and visited every opening in the coast in the course of his voyage: he observed sufficient to induce him to believe that Van Dieman's Land was no part of New Holland. Soon after the return of Mr. Bass, the governor of the English colony sent out him and Captain Flinders, then employed as a lieutenant of one of His Majesty's ships on the New South Wales station, with a view to ascertain whether Mr. Bass's belief of the separation of Van Dieman's Land was well founded. They embarked on board a small-decked boat of 25 tons, built of the fir of Norfolk island. In three months they returned to Port Jackson, after having circumnavigated Van Dieman's Land, and completed the survey of its coasts. The strait that separates it from New Holland was named by the governor, Bass's Strait. The importance of this discovery is undoubted. In voyages from New Holland to the Cape of Good Hope, considerable time is gained by passing through it, instead of following the former course. In the year 1800, Captain Flinders was again sent out by the governor, to examine the coast to the northward of Port Jackson; of this nothing more was known but what the imperfect notices given of it by Captain Cook supplied. In this voyage he completely examined all the creeks and bays as far to the northward as the 25th degree of latitude, and more particularly Glasshouse and Harvey's Bays. The English government at length resolved that they would wipe off the reproach, which, as Captain Flinders observes, was not without some reason attributed to them, "that an imaginary line of more than 250 leagues of extent, in the vicinity of one of their colonies, should have been so long suffered to remain traced upon the charts, under the title of UNKNOWN COAST," and they accordingly appointed him to the command of an expedition fitted out in England for this purpose.

Before giving an account of this voyage of Captain Flinders, we shall abridge, from the Introduction prefixed to it, his clear and methodical account of the progressive discoveries which have been made on the coast of New Holland, and of what was still to be explored. He particularly dwelt on the advantages that would result from a practicable passage through Torres' Strait; if this could be discovered, it would shorten the usual route by the north of New Guinea, or the Eastern Islands, in the voyage to India and China. The immense gulf of Carpentaria was unknown, except a very small portion of its eastern side. The lands called after Arnheim and Van Dieman also required and deserved a minute investigation, especially the bays, shoals, islands, and coasts of the former, and the northern part of the latter. The north-west coast had not been examined since the time of Dampier, who was of opinion that the northern portion of New Holland was separated from the lands to the northward by a strait. The existence of such a strait, Captain Flinders completely disproved.

With respect to the south coast, at least 250 leagues were unexplored. Captain Flinders had examined with considerable care and minuteness the east coast and Van Dieman's Land; but there were still several openings which required to be better explored.

Such were the principal objects which Captain Flinders had in view in his voyage; and no person could have been found better qualified to accomplish these objects. On the 18th of July, 1801, he sailed from England in the Investigator, of 334 tons: there were on board, beside the proper and adequate complement of men, an astronomer, a naturalist, a natural history painter, a landscape painter, a gardener, and a miner. As soon as he approached the south coast of New Holland, he immediately began his examination of the coasts, islands, and inlets of that large portion of it, called Nuyts' Land; he particularly examined all that part of the coast, which lies between the limit of the discoveries of Nuyts and Vancouver, and the eastern extremity of Bass' Straits, where he met a French ship, employed on the same object. In the month of July, 1802, he left Port Jackson, whither he had gone to refit, and sailing through Torres' Straits in 36 hours, he arrived in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the latter end of the season. In the course of this part of his voyage, he examined Northumberland and Cumberland islands, and the great barrier reefs of coral rock; and every part of the eastern side of the Gulf of Carpentaria; not a cape, creek, bay, or island on this coast of the gulf escaped his notice and examination. It was his intention to have pursued the same mode of close and minute examination: "following the land so closely, that the washing of the surf upon it should be visible, and no opening nor any thing of importance escape notice;" but he was prevented by ascertaining that the vessel was in such a crazy state, that, though in fine weather she might hold together for six months longer, yet she was by no means fit for such an undertaking. After much deliberation what conduct he ought to pursue under these circumstances, as it was impossible, with such a vessel, he could at that season return to Port Jackson by the west route, in consequence of the monsoon (and the stormy weather would render the east passage equally improper) he resolved to finish the survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria. This occupied him three months: at the end of this period he was obliged, by the sickness of his crew, to sail for Timor, which he reached on the 31st of March, 1803.

As the Investigator was no longer fit for service, she was condemned. Captain Flinders resolved, as he could not finish the survey, to return to England, in order to lay his journals and charts before the Admiralty: he accordingly embarked on board the Porpoise store ship, which, in company with the Cato and Bridgwater, bound to Batavia, sailed in August, 1803. The Porpoise and Cato were wrecked on a reef of rocks nearly 800 miles from Botany Bay: most of the charts, logs, and astronomical observations were saved; but the rare plants, as well as the dried specimens, were lost or destroyed. On the 26th of August, Captain Flinders left the reef in the cutter, and after a passage of considerable danger, reached Port Jackson on the 8th of September. As he was extremely anxious to lodge his papers as soon as possible with the Lords of the Admiralty, he embarked from Port Jackson in a vessel, something less than a Gravesend passage boat, being only 29 tons burden. Even in such a vessel, Captain Flinders did not lose sight of the objects nearest his heart: he passed through Torres' Straits, examined Pandora's entrance, explored new channels among the coral reefs, examined Prince of Wales Island, crossed the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after anchoring at some islands on the western side of the gulf, directed his route to Timor: here he refitted his vessel, and then sailed for the Isle of France, where it was absolutely necessary he should touch, in order that she might undergo a repair, as she was very leaky. Though he possessed passports from the French government, he was detained at the Isle of France, under the absurd pretence that he was a spy. All his books, charts, and papers were seized; and he himself was kept a prisoner in a miserable room for nearly four months. He was afterwards removed to the garden prison, a situation not so uncomfortable and prejudicial to his health as that from which he was taken; at length, in consequence of an application from the Royal Society to the National Institute, the French government sent an order for his liberation; but it was not received, or, at least, it was not acted upon till the year 1810; for it was not till that year that Captain Flinders was permitted to leave the Isle of France: he arrived in England on the 24th of October of that year.

There are few voyages from which more important accessions to geographical knowledge have been derived, than from this voyage of Captain Flinders, especially when we reflect on the great probability that New Holland will soon rank high in population and wealth. Before his voyage, it was doubtful, whether New Holland was not divided into two great islands, by a strait passing between Bass' Straits and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Captain Flinders has put an end to all doubts on this point: he examined the coast in the closest and most accurate manner: he found indeed two great openings; these he sailed up to their termination; and, consequently, as there were no other openings, and these were mere inlets, New Holland can no longer be supposed to be divided into two great islands, but must be regarded as forming one very large one; or, rather, from its immense size, a species of continent. He made another important and singular discovery, viz. that there are either no rivers of any magnitude in New Holland, or that if there be such, they do not find their way to the sea coast. This country seems also very deficient in good and safe ports: in his survey of the south coast, he found only one. He completed the survey of the whole eastern coast; of Bass's Straits and Van Dieman's Land, observing very carefully every thing relative to the rocks, shoals, tides, winds, currents, &c. Coral reefs, which are so common in most parts of the Pacific, and which, owing their origin entirely to worms of the minutest size, gradually become extensive islands, stretch along the eastern coast of New Holland. These were examined with great care by Captain Flinders: he found that they had nearly blocked up the passage through Torres' Straits, so that it required great care and caution to pass it with safety. But one of the most important results of this voyage respects the survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria; previously the extent and bearings of this gulf were not known; but from Captain Flinders's geography we have received an accurate and full survey of it. Its extent was ascertained to be 5 1/2 degrees of longitude, and 7 degrees of latitude; and its circuit nearly 400 leagues. On the coast of this gulf he found a singular trade carried on. Sixty proas, each about the burden of 25 tons, and carrying as many men, were fitted out by the Rajah of Boni, and sent to catch a small animal which lives at the bottom of the sea, called the sea slug, or _biche de mer_. When caught, they are split, boiled, and dried in the sun, and then carried to Timorlaot, when the Chinese purchase them: 100,000 of these animals is the usual cargo of each proa, and they bring from 2000 to 4000 Spanish dollars.

Notwithstanding the English had had settlements in New Holland for upwards of 26 years, little progress had been made in exploring the interior of the country even in the immediate vicinity of Botany Bay. It was supposed that a passage across the Blue Mountains, which are within sight of that settlement, opposed insurmountable obstacles. At length, about the end of the year 1813, the Blue Mountains were crossed for the first time, by Mr. Evans, the deputy surveyor of the colony. He found a fertile and pleasant district, and the streams which took their rise in the Blue Mountains, running to the westward; to one of the most considerable of these he gave the name of Macquarrie river; the course of this river he pursued for ten days. On his return to the colony, the governor, Mr. Macquarrie ordered that a road should be made across the mountains; this extended 100 miles, and was completed in 1815. Mr. Evans soon afterwards discovered another river, which he called the Lachlan.

As it was of great consequence to trace these rivers, and likewise to examine the country to the west of the Blue Mountains more accurately, and to a greater distance than it had been done, the governor ordered two expeditions to be undertaken. Lieutenant Oxley, the surveyor-general of the colony had the command of both. It does not fall within our plan or limits to follow him in these journeys; we shall therefore confine ourselves to an outline of the result of his discoveries. He ascertained that the country in general is very unfertile: the Lachlan he traced, till it seemed to loose itself in a multitude of branches among marshy flats. "Perhaps," observes Lieutenant Oxley, "there is no river, the history of which is known, that presents so remarkable a termination as the present: its course, in a strait line from its source to its termination, exceeds 500 miles, and including its windings, it may fairly be calculated to run at least 1200 miles; during all which passage, through such a vast extent of country, it does not receive a single stream in addition to what it derives from its sources in the Eastern mountains."--"One tree, one soil, one water, and one description of bird, fish, or animal, prevails alike for ten miles, and for 100." There were, however, tracks, especially where the limestone formation prevailed, of great beauty and fertility; but these were comparatively rare and of small extent. Level, bare, sandy wastes, destitute of water, or morasses and swamps, which would not support them, formed by far the greatest part of the country through which they travelled.

The second object Lieutenant Oxley had in view was the survey of the course of the Macquarrie river; this he knew to be to the north-west of the Lachlan. In crossing from the banks of the latter in search of the former, they reached a beautiful valley; in the centre of which flowed a clear and strong rivulet. This they traced till it joined a large river, which they ascertained to be the Macquarrie. From this point to Bathurst Plains, the country was rich and beautiful.

As from the size of the Macquarrie where they fell in with it, it seemed probable that it either communicated with the sea itself or flowed into a river which did, the governor sent Lieutenant Oxley on another expedition to trace its course, and thus settle this point. For twelve days the country was rich and beautiful: the river was wide, deep, and navigable. The country then changed its character: no hill was to be seen; on all sides it was as level and uninteresting as that through which thay had traced the Lachlan in their former journey. Soon afterwards it overflowed its banks; and as the country was very flat, it spread over a vast extent. Under these circumstances, Lieutenant Oxley proceeded down it in a boat for thirty miles, till he lost sight of land and trees. About four miles farther it lost all appearance of a river; but he was not able to continue his route, and was obliged to return, without having ascertained whether this great inland lake, into which the Macquarrie fell, was a salt or fresh water lake.

On his return he crossed the highest point of the mountains which divides the waters running west from those which run into the east; the most elevated peak he calculates to be from 6000 to 7000 feet. Here he found a river rising, which flowed to the east; and following it, he arrived at the place where it fell into the ocean.

It is pretty certain from these expeditions, that no river of any size empties itself into the sea, on the northern, western, or southern coasts of New Holland. Captain Flinders and the French navigators had examined all the line of coast on the western side, except from latitude 22° to 11° south; it might therefore be supposed that the Macquarrie, after freeing itself from the inland lake to which Lieutenant Oxley had traced it, might fall into the sea, within these limits. This, however, is now proved not to be the case. In the year 1818, Lieutenant King was sent by the Board of Admiralty, to survey the unexplored coast, from the southern extremity of Terre de Witt. He began his examination at the north-west cape, in latitude 21° 45', from this to latitude 20° 30', and from longitude 114° to 118°, he found an archipelago, which he named after Dampier, as it was originally discovered by this navigator. Dampier had inferred, from a remarkable current running from the coast beyond these islands, that a great strait, or river, opened out behind them. Lieutenant King found the tide running strong in all the passages of the archipelago, but there was no appearance of a river; the coast was in general low, and beyond it he descried an extensive tract of inundated marshy country, similar to that described by Lieutenant Oxley. Cape Van Diemen, Lieutenant King ascertained to be the northern extremity of an island, near which was a deep gulf. Although we have not learnt that Lieutenant King has completed his survey, 8 or 9 degrees of latitude on the north-west coast still remaining to be explored, yet we think it may safely be inferred that no great river has its exit into the ocean from the interior of New Holland. This circumstance, added to the singular nature of the country through which Lieutenant Oxley journeyed, and the peculiar and unique character of many of its animals, seems to stamp on this portion of the globe marks which strongly and widely separate it from every other portion.

It is remarked in the Quarterly Review, that, before Captain Flinder's voyage, "the great Gulf of Carpentaria had as yet no definite outline on our nautical charts. It was the imaginary tracing of an undulating line, intended to denote the limits between land and water, without a promontory, or an island, a bay, harbour, or inlet, that was defined by shape or designated by name. This blank line was drawn and copied by one chart maker from another, without the least authority, and without the least reason to believe that any European had ever visited this wide and deeply-indented gulf; and yet, when visited, this imaginary line was found to approximate so nearly to its true form, as ascertained by survey, as to leave little doubt that some European navigator must at one time or other have examined it, though his labours have been buried, as the labours of many thousands have been before and since his time, in the mouldy archives of a jealous and selfish government."

This remark may be extended and applied to other parts of the globe beside Australasia; but it is particularly applicable to this portion of it. There can be no doubt that many islands and points of land were discovered, which were never traced in maps, even in the vague and indistinct manner in which the Gulf of Carpentaria was traced; that many discoveries were claimed to which no credit was given; and that owing to the imperfect mode formerly used to determine the longitude, some, from being laid down wrong, were afterwards claimed as entirely new discoveries.

We have stated that this remark is particularly applicable to Australasia: to the progress of geography in this division of the globe (including under that appellation, besides New Holland, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's Isles, New Caledonia, New Zealand, &c.) we are now to direct our attention; and the truth of the remark will soon appear to be confirmed in more than one instance.

One of the objects of Rogewein, a Dutch navigator, who, sailed from Amsterdam in 1721, was to re-discover Solomon's Islands, and the lands described by Quitos. In this voyage he visited New Britain, of which he has enlarged our information; and be discovered Aurora Island, and a very numerous archipelago, to which he gave the name of the Thousand Islands. Captain Carteret, who sailed from England in 1767, along with Captain Wallis, but who was separated from him in the Straits of Magellan, discovered several isles in the South Pacific, the largest of which there is little doubt is that which was visited by Mandana in 1595, and called by him Santa Cruz. In prosecuting his voyage in the track pursued by Dampier, Captain Carteret arrived on the east coast of the land named New Britain, by that celebrated navigator. This he found to consist of two islands, separated by a wide channel; to the northern island he gave the name of New Ireland.

At this period the French were prosecuting voyages of discovery in the same portion of the globe. An expedition sailed from France in 1766, commanded by M. Bougainville: he arrived within the limits of Australasia in May, 1768. Besides visiting a group of islands, named by him Navigators' Islands, but which are supposed to have been discovered by Rogewein, and a large cluster, which is also supposed to be the archipelago of the same navigator, M. Bougainville discovered a beautiful country, to which he gave the name of Louisiade: he was not able to examine this country, and as it has not been visited by subsequent navigators, it is generally believed to be an extension of the coast of Papua. After discovering some islands not far from this land, M. Bougainville directed his course to the coast of New Ireland; he afterwards examined the north coast of New Guinea.

About the same time, M. Surville, another Frenchman, in a voyage from the East Indies into the Pacific, landed on the north coast of a country east of New Guinea; he had not an opportunity of examining this land, but it seems probable that it was one of Solomon's Islands.

We have already had occasion to notice the first voyage of Captain Cook, during which he traced the eastern coast of New Holland, and ascertained that it was separated from New Guinea. In this voyage he made further additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia; for he visited New Zealand, which Tasman had discovered in 1642, but on which he did not even land. Captain Cook examined it with great care; and ascertained not only its extent, but that it was divided into two large islands, by a strait, which is called after him. During his second voyage he explored the New Hebrides, the most northern of which is supposed to be described by Quitos: Bougainville had undoubtedly sailed among them. The whole lie between the latitude of 14° 29' and 24° 4' south, and between 166° 41' and 170° 21' east longitude. After having completed his examination of these islands, he discovered an extensive country, which he called New Caledonia. In his passage from this to New Zealand he discovered several islands, and among the rest Norfolk Island. The great object of his third voyage, which was the examination of the north-west coast of America, did not afford him an opportunity of visiting for any length of time Australasia; yet he did visit it, and examined New Zealand attentively, obtaining much original and important information respecting it, and the manners, &c. of its inhabitants.

The voyages which we have hitherto noticed, were principally directed to the southern parts of Australasia. Between the years 1774 and 1776, some discoveries were made in the northern parts of it by Captain Forrest: he sailed from India in a vessel of only ten tons, with the intention of ascertaining whether a settlement could not be formed on an island near the northern promontory of Borneo. In the course of this voyage he examined the north coast of Waygiou; and after visiting several small islands, he arrived on the north coast of Papua.

The next accessions that were made to our geographical knowledge of Australasia, are derived from the voyage in search of La Peyrouse. The object of La Peyrouse's voyage was to complete the discoveries made by former navigators in the southern hemisphere: in the course of this voyage he navigated some portion of Australasia; but where he and his crew perished is not known. As the French government were naturally and very laudably anxious to ascertain his real fate, two vessels were despatched from France in the year 1791, for that purpose. In April, 1792, they arrived within the limits of Australasia: after having examined Van Diemen's Land, they sailed along an immense chain of reefs, extending upwards of 3OO miles on the east coast of New Caledonia. As Captain Cook had confined his survey to the north, they directed their attention to the south-west coast. After visiting some islands in this sea, they arrived at New Ireland, part of which they carefully explored. In 1793, after having visited New Holland, they sailed for New Zealand; and near it they discovered an island which lies near the eastern limit of Australasia: to this they gave the name of Recherche. The New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and New Britain, were also visited and examined; near the coast of the last they discovered several mountainous islands. Beside the accessions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia which we derived from this voyage, it is particularly valuable "on account of the illustrations of the natural history of the different countries, and the accuracy with which the astronomical observations were made." It is worthy of remark that the two ships lost nearly half their men; whereas, British navigators have been out as long, in a climate and circumstances as unfavourable to health, and have scarcely lost a single man.

At the beginning of this century, the French government planned a voyage of discovery, the chief object of which was to explore the seas of Australasia. Those parts of New Holland which were entirely unknown, or but imperfectly ascertained, were to be examined; the coast of New Guinea to be surveyed, principally in the search of a strait which was supposed to divide it into two parts; a passage by Endeavour Straits to the eastern point of the Gulf of Carpentaria was to be attempted; and then the expedition was to sail to Cape Northwest. Besides these objects in Australasia, the Indian Ocean was to be navigated.

Two vessels, the Geographe and Naturaliste, sailed on this expedition in October, 1800; but they did not by their discoveries add much that was important to the geography of Australasia. They indeed have made known to future navigators, reefs and shoals on the coast of New Holland; have fixed more accurately, or for the first time, some latitudes and longitudes belonging to this and other parts of Australasia, and have traced some small rivers in New Holland. They also confirmed the accuracy and justice of preceding observations in several points; particularly relative to the singular fineness of the weather, and serenity of the heavens in these seas.

Their greatest discovery undoubtedly consisted in a great archipelago, which they named after Bonaparte: the islands that composed it were in general small; some volcanic or basaltic; others sandy. After examining these, they were obliged to return to Timor, in consequence of the sickness of their crews. After they were recovered, they returned to the grand object of their expedition, which, though interesting and important to the navigator, or to the minute researches of the geographer, presents nothing that requires to be noticed in this place.

Such is the sum of the additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia which has resulted from the voyages of discovery during the last one hundred years. The great outline, and most of the subordinate parts, are filled up; and little remains to be discovered or ascertained which can greatly alter our maps, as they are at present drawn. Additions, however, will gradually be made; errors will be corrected; a stronger and clearer light will be thrown on obscure points. Much of this will be done by the accidental discoveries and observations of the many ships which are constantly sailing from England to New Holland; or which trade from the latter country to New Zealand or other parts of Australasia, to India, or to China. By means of these voyages, additions have already been made to our knowledge, especially of New Zealand; and its inhabitants are beginning to feel and acknowledge the benefits which must always be derived from the intercourse of civilized people with savages.

Polynesia, extending from the Pelew Isles on the west, to the Isle of All Saints on the north-east, and the Sandwich Isles in the east, and having for its other boundaries the latitude of 20° north, and of 50° south, near the latter of which it joins Australasia, is the only remaining division of the globe which remains to come under our cognizance, as having been explored by maritime expeditions; and as it consists entirely of groups of small islands, we shall not be detained long in tracing the discoveries which have been made in these seas.

The Pelew Islands, one of the divisions of Polynesia, though they probably had been seen, and perhaps visited by Europeans before 1783, were certainly first made completely known to them at this period, in consequence of the shipwreck of Captain Wilson on them. The Sandwich Isles, the next group, have been discovered within the last century by Captain Cook, on his last voyage. The Marquesas, discovered by Mandana, were visited by Captain Cook in 1774, by the French in 1789, and particularly and carefully examined during the missionary voyage of Captain Wilson in 1797. Captain Wallis, who sailed with Captain Carteret in 1766, but was afterwards separated from him in his course across the South Pacific, discovered several islands, particularly Otaheite; to this and the neighbouring islands the name of Society Isles was given. Such are the most important discoveries that have been made in Polynesia during the last century; but besides these, other discoveries of less importance have been made, either by navigators who have sailed expressly for the purpose, as Kotzebue, &c., or by accident, while crossing this immense ocean. In consequence of the advances which the Sandwich Islands have made in civilization, commerce, and the arts, there is considerable intercourse with them, especially by the Americans; and their voyages to them, and from thence to China, whither they carry the sandal wood, &c. which they obtain there, as well as their voyages from the north-west coast of America with furs to China, must soon detect any isles that may still be unknown in this part of the Pacific Ocean.

Although, therefore, much remains yet to be accomplished by maritime expeditions, towards the extension and correction of our geographical knowledge, so far as the bearings of the coast, and the latitudes and longitudes of various places are concerned, there seems no room for what may properly and strictly be called discovery, at least of any thing but small and scattered islands.

It is otherwise with the accessions which land expeditions may still make to geographical knowledge; for though within these one hundred years the European foot has trodden where it never trod before, and though our geographical knowledge of the interior of Africa, Asia, and America, has been, rendered within that period not only more extensive, but also more accurate and minute than it previously was, yet much remains to be done and known.

In giving a short and rapid sketch of the progress of discovery, so far as it has been accomplished by land expeditions during the period alluded to, we are naturally led to divide what we have to say according to the three great portions of the globe which have been the objects of these expeditions, viz. Africa, Asia, and America.

1. Africa. This country has always presented most formidable obstacles to the progress of discovery: its immense and trackless deserts, its burning and fatal climate, its barbarous and treacherous inhabitants, have united to keep a very large portion of it from the intercourse, and even the approach of European travellers. Even its northern parts, which are most accessible to Europe, and which for 2000 years have been occasionally visited by Europeans, are guarded by the cruel jealousy of its inhabitants; or, if that is overcome, advances to any very great distance from the coast are effectively impeded by natives still more savage, or by waterless and foodless deserts.

The west coast of Africa, ever since it was ascertained that slaves, ivory, gold dust, gums, &c. could be obtained there, has been eagerly colonized by Europeans; and though these colonies have now existed for upwards of three hundred years, and though the same love of gain which founded them must have directed a powerful wish on those interior countries from which these precious articles of traffic were brought, yet such have been the difficulties, and dangers, and dread, that the most enthusiastic traveller, and the most determined lover of gain, have scarcely penetrated beyond the very frontier of the coast. If we turn to the east coast, still less has been done to explore the interior from that side; the nature, bearings, &c. of the coast itself are not accurately known; and accessions to our knowledge respecting it have been the result rather of accident than of a settled plan, or of any expedition with that view. The Cape of Good Hope has now been an European settlement nearly two hundred years: the inhabitants in that part of Africa, though of course barbarians, are neither so formidable for their craft and cruelty, and strength, nor so implacable in their hatred of strangers, as the inhabitants of the north and of the interior of Africa; and yet to what a short distance from the Cape has even a solitary European traveller ever reached!

But though a very great deal remains to be accomplished before Africa will cease to present an immense void in its interior, in our maps, and still more remains to be accomplished before we can become acquainted with the manners, &c. of its inhabitants, and its produce and manufactures, yet the last century, and what has passed of the present, have witnessed many bold and successful enterprizes to extend our geographical knowledge of this quarter of the globe.

As the sovereigns of the northern shores of Africa were, from various causes and circumstances, always in implacable hostility with one another, and as, besides this obstacle to advances into Africa from this side, it was well known that the Great Desert spread itself an almost impassable barrier to any very great progress by the north into the interior, it was not to be expected that any attempts to penetrate this quarter of the globe by this route would be made. On the other hand, the Europeans had various settlements on the western coast: on this coast there were many large rivers, which apparently ran far into the interior; these rivers, therefore, naturally seemed the most expeditious, safe, and easy routes, by which the interior might, at least to a short distance from the shore, be penetrated.

But it was very long before the Senegal, one of the chief of these rivers, was traced higher than the falls of Felu; or the Gambia, another river of note and magnitude, than those of Baraconda. In the year 1723, Captain Stebbs, who was employed by the Royal African Company, succeeded in going up this river as far as the flats of Tenda. Soon afterwards, some information respecting the interior of Africa, especially respecting Bonda, (which is supposed to be the Bondou of Park, in the upper Senegal,) was received through an African prince, who was taken prisoner, and carried as a slave to America.

All the information which had been drawn from these, and other sources, respecting the interior, was collected and published by Moore, the superintendent of the African Company's settlements on the Gambia; but though the particulars regarding the manners, &c. of the inhabitants are curious, yet this work adds not much to our geographical knowledge of the interior of this part of the world.

In the year 1788, the African Institution was formed: its object was to send persons properly qualified to make discoveries in the interior of Africa. The first person engaged by them was Mr. Ledyard; and, from all accounts of him, no person could have been better qualified for such an arduous enterprise: he was strong, healthy, active, intelligent, inquisitive, observant, and undaunted; full of zeal, and sanguine of success; and, at the same time, open, kind, and insinuating in his looks and manners. At Cairo he prepared himself for his undertaking, by visiting the slave market, in order to converse with the merchants of the various caravans, and learn all the particulars connected with his proposed journey, and the countries from which they came. But be proceeded no farther than Cairo: here he was seized with an illness, occasioned or aggravated by the delay in the caravans setting out for Sennaar, which proved fatal.

Mr Lucas was the next person employed by the African Institution. In October, 1788, he arrived at Tripoli, from whence he set out with two shereefs for Fezzan, by the way of Mescerata. On the fourth day after his departure, he reached Lebida, on the sea coast, the Leptis Magna of the Romans. He found, on his arrival at Mescerata, that he should not be able to procure the number of camels necessary to convey his goods to Fezzan; and was obliged to abandon his enterprize. From the information which he derived, at Mescerata, confirmed as it was by what the Association had learnt from the narrative of a native of Morocco, the geography of Africa was extended from Fezzan, across the eastern division of the Desert, to Bornou, Cashna, and the Niger.

In a year or two after the return of Mr. Lucas, the African Association, who were indefatigable in endeavouring to obtain information from all sources, learnt some interesting and original circumstances from an Arab. This person described a large empire on the banks of the Niger, in the capital of which, Housa, he had resided two years: this city he rather vaguely and inconsistently described as equalling London and Cairo in extent and population. As it was necessary to scrutinize the truth and consistency of his narrative, what he related was at first received with caution and doubt, but an incidental circumstance seemed to prove him worthy of credit; for in describing the manner in which pottery was manufactured at Housa, which he did by imitating the actions of those who made it, it was remarked that he actually described the ancient Grecian wheel.

In order to learn whether the accounts of this man were true and accurate, the African Institution sent out Major Houghton: he was instructed to ascertain the course, and, if possible, the rise and termination of the Niger; to visit Tombuctoo and Housa, and to return by the Desert. Accordingly he sailed up the Gambia to Pisania, and thence he proceeded to Medina, the capital of the Mandingo kingdom. His course from this city was north-east, which led him beyond the limit of European discovery, to the uninhabited frontier which separates Bondou and Mandingo. After some time spent in endeavouring to ingratiate himself with the king of the latter country, but in vain, he resolved to proceed into Bambouk. On arriving at Firbanna, the capital, he was hospitably treated by the king. Here be formed a plan to go with a merchant to Tombuctoo; but on his way he was robbed, and either perished of hunger, or was murdered: the exact particulars are not known. To Major Houghton we are indebted for our first knowledge of the kingdom of Bondou; and for the names of several cities on the Niger, as well as the course of that river.