Chapter I: Preface (1)

It has been felt that in the study of English History, to the ordinary student and teacher, there are great difficulties in the way of consulting the numerous standard and other excellent works, on the subjects dealt with in this volume. Many have not sufficient leisure, and many are unable to make use of the facilities for study and research offered by our great national and provincial libraries and museums. And, to most, the prohibitive cost of a representative collection of these standard works is an effectual bar to the acquisition of a personal collection.

An acquaintance with these subjects is necessary to an intelligent appreciation of the life history and development of our nation, and of the conditions of life of our ancestors, and this work has been undertaken for students and teachers with regard to these matters, with the hope that, by its means, the path of study will be illuminated, and the interest shown in the study of history correspondingly increased.

Too often, in the past, has history been taught as a series of dry lessons on facts and dates, and although in late years there has been a great improvement in this respect, to many the living facts around us, as bearing on our history, in our churches, our historic buildings, our museums, and our national collections, are still disregarded. What eloquent tongues they have, and yet, on what deaf ears do their voices fall!

Mr. Fairholt, in his well-known work on “Costume in England,” says: “A knowledge of costume is, in some degree, inseparable from a right knowledge of history. We can scarcely read its events without, in some measure, picturing in the mind’s eye the appearance of the actors.”

What is true of costume, which includes, of course, civil, military, and ecclesiastical costume, is equally true of architecture and other matters associated with the daily lives of our forefathers.

How they lived and died, how they worked, how they dressed, how and where they worshipped God, and the influences brought to bear upon them by the Church, must be realized as factors in the development of the nation.

It is hoped that this work may prove useful to the student, to the pupils in our schools and colleges, and to teachers who have not been able to make a special study of these things.

Several plans of arranging the subject-matter have suggested themselves, and the writer has thought--though it is open, of course, to criticism--that the work would be most usefully and most easily consulted by arranging it under the heads of our historic periods. It will be readily understood that this is merely an arbitrary arrangement, and that there must be overlapping at times. The aim has been to make each section as complete as possible in the given space, and yet to avoid tedious details. To experts the food may seem very light, but it is to the average student and teacher, to whom the subjects are new, that the work must appeal.

Every effort has been made to secure accuracy and truthfulness, both in the matter and in the six hundred and eighty drawings which illustrate it.

Very many works have been consulted, and, as _all the illustrations are from authentic and contemporary sources_, it is hoped that the usefulness of the work will be very considerable.

The writer wishes to express his great obligation to the following writers and books, whom he has laid under contribution:--

Greenwell’s _British Barrows_,
Dawkin’s _Early Man in Britain_,
Evans’s _Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain_,
Strutt’s _Horda_,
Grose’s _Military Antiquities_,
Wallis Budge’s _Roman Antiquities at Chesters_,
Jewitt’s _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_,
Fairholt’s _Costume in England_,
Mrs. Ashdown’s _British Costume during Nineteen Centuries_,
Planche’s _Cyclopædia of Costume and History of British Costume_,
Cutt’s _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_,
Barnard’s _Companion to English History, Middle Ages_,
Traill’s _Social England_,
Green’s _Short History_ (Illustrated Edition),
Parker’s various works on _Gothic Architecture_,
Rickman’s _Gothic Architecture_,
Boutell’s _Monumental Brasses of England_,
Suffling’s _English Church Brasses_,
Macklin’s _Brasses of England_,
Ashdown’s _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_,
Hewitt’s _Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe_,
Boutell’s _Arms and Armour_,
Fox-Davies’s _Complete Guide to Heraldry_,
Boutell’s _English Heraldry_,
Bloom’s _English Seals_,
Abbot Gasquet’s _English Monastic Life_,
Commander Robinson’s _British Fleet_,
Oman’s _History of the Art of War_,
Fowkes’s _Bayeux Tapestry_,
Gardiner’s _History of England_,
The _Journals of the British Archæological Association_, and of
various County Associations.

The writer, too, wishes to thank the Library Committee of the City of London Corporation for permission to make drawings of objects in the Guildhall Museum, and Mrs. Ashdown for permission to make use of illustrations in her “British Costume.”

HENRY W. DONALD.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

THE STONE AGE. (Plate 1) 7

THE BRONZE AGE. (Plate 2) 9

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS. (Plate 3) 11

THE ROMAN WALL. (Plate 4) 13

ROMAN POTTERY, ETC. (Plate 5) 17

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON. (Plate 6) 19

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN. (Plate 7) 21

ROMAN ARMS, ETC. (Plate 8) 23

SAXON WEAPONS. (Plate 9) 25

SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460-A.D. 1066. (Plates 10-11) 27

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 12) 31

SAXON CUSTOMS. (Plate 13) 33

SAXON FARMING. (Plate 14) 35

SAXON ANTIQUITIES. (Plate 15) 37

DANISH VESSELS, ETC. (Plate 16) 39

NORMAN COSTUMES. (Plate 17) 41

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR. (Plate 18) 43

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY. (Plate 19) 46

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 20) 51

LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 21) 53

NORMAN CASTLES. (Plate 22) 55

NORMAN SEALS AND COINS. (Plate 23) 59

THE JOUST AND THE TOURNAMENT. (Plate 24) 61

ENGLISH ARCHERS. (Plate 25) 63

EARLY CANNON. (Plate 26) 67

A FIFTEENTH CENTURY SHIP. (Plate 27) 71

BRASSES. (Plate 28) 73

HERALDRY. (Plate 29) 78

THE TUDOR NAVY. (Plate 30) 83

PLANTAGENET COSTUME. (Plates 31-32) 86

MAIL ARMOUR. (Plate 33) 93

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. (Plates 34-35) 98

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR. (Plate 36) 103

LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIODS.

Male Costumes. (Plate 37) 107

Female Costumes. (Plate 38) 113

Plate Armour. (Plate 39) 115

Decorated Architecture. (Plates 40-41) 119

TUDOR PERIOD.

Male Costumes. (Plate 42) 126

Female Costumes. (Plate 43) 131

Plate Armour. (Plate 44) 136

Perpendicular Architecture. (Plates 45-46) 141

STUART PERIOD (TO WILLIAM III.).

Male Costumes. (Plate 47) 144

Female Costumes. (Plates 48-49) 151

Arms and Armour.--To end of Charles II. (Plate 50) 155

ANNE, GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II.

Male Costumes. (Plate 51) 159

Female Costumes. (Plate 52) 163

GEORGE III.

Male Costumes. (Plate 53) 165

Female Costumes. (Plate 54) 168

THE MONASTIC ORDERS. (Plate 55) 173

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY. (Plate 56) 174

THE FRIARS AND CANONS. (Plate 57) 177

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS. (Plate 58) 181

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS. (Plate 59) 185

PILGRIMS. (Plate 60) 189

THE STONE AGE.

_The Flint Weapons of Prehistoric Man in Britain._

When Britain was joined to the continent of Europe (at the time when the mammoth lived), it was inhabited by the _Palæolithic_ or _Ancient Stone men_. They were ignorant of the use of metals, and used implements of bone and of rudely chipped stone and flint, which they did not know how to fasten to handles. These implements and weapons, of a different type from those of later periods, are found in the river beds of drifts, and these early people are spoken of as the “Drift men.”

Cave-dwelling Palæolithic men succeeded these. Their weapons were still very rude, but they made handles and fixed them to the flints, so forming arrows, lances or javelins, and axes.

These were followed by a race called _Neolithic_ men, or men of the _New Stone Age_. Their stone implements were better shaped, more highly finished, were often ground smooth, and even polished. They also made a rude kind of pottery. These men were, doubtless, of the race called _Iberians_.

(Fig. 1): Flint hand-hammer or axe found in Gray’s Inn Lane.
This was the earliest form, roughly chipped into shape, with
unsharpened edges. (Figs. 2 and 3): A dagger in the British
Museum (front and side views). The dagger is one of the
commonest weapons of the Stone Age, being simple in form and
easy of construction. (Fig. 4): A javelin head; a simple,
elongated splinter of flint, shaped to a small stem, which
was inserted in the end of a shaft and fastened by means of
ligaments. (Figs. 5 and 6): A stone celt (pronounced selt)
or axe of the simplest form. This is ground, probably by the
use of sand and water into a regular and sharp edge. (Fig.
7): A flint flake, probably used as a scraper. (Fig. 8): A
stemmed arrow-head. (Fig. 9): A barbed arrow-head (a later
development). (Fig. 10): A lozenge-shaped arrow-head. (Fig.
11): A polished stone axe, fixed in a stag’s horn socket.
(Fig. 12): A perforated hammer found at Scarborough. (Figs.
13 and 14): A perforated axe (two views) found in Yorkshire.
(Both Figs. 12 and 13 show a very high degree of skill in the
shaping of the form, in the drilling, and in general finish.)
(Fig. 15): A polished celt fixed in its original handle, found
in Cumberland. (Fig. 16): A flint chisel-shaped tool. (Fig.
17): A flint borer, used for making holes in wood, bone, or
stone, found in the Yorkshire Wolds.]

THE BRONZE AGE.

The Iberians were succeeded by the Celts, who conquered, and probably intermarried with, the former.

They had a knowledge of the use of metals, and employed copper first for the manufacture of their weapons and tools. Then they learned that, by mixing tin with copper, a harder metal was obtained, which we call bronze, and this period is, consequently, called the _Bronze Age_. The early bronze weapons were of the same form as the flint weapons, for probably the latter were used as “patterns” for forming the mould. Later, in the case of the celt, flanges were formed at the side, and, finally, a socketed celt was made, showing a considerable skill in its manufacture. “The knowledge of bronze must have affected the warfare of the time in the same way as the introduction of gunpowder affected the warfare of the Middle Ages.” It has been estimated that the Bronze Age commenced in Britain about 1500 B.C.

(Fig. 1): A bronze spear head--Later Celtic--in the British
Museum. It is probable that the flint spear-head continued in
use into the Bronze Age, and that the spear-head with a socket
was not invented until socketed celts were made. (Fig. 2): An
ornamental bronze celt or axe found in Suffolk. The simpler
form of the celt has been improved upon by the addition of
flanges. (Figs. 3 and 4) show how they were probably fixed in
handles. (Fig. 5): A bronze knife dagger found in the Isle of
Wight (British Museum). (Fig. 6): A bronze arrow-head. (Fig.
7): A bronze socketed celt. (Fig. 8): The same, with the
probable method of fastening to a handle. (Fig. 9): A bronze
cauldron found in Ireland. (Fig. 10): A late Celtic Helmet,
ornamented and showing generally in its structure a very
advanced skill in manufacture; found in the Thames; now in
the British Museum. (Fig. 11): A bronze dagger in the British
Museum. (Fig. 12): A bronze spear-head (elongated form), found
at Stanwick in Yorkshire; now in the British Museum. Both the
spear heads in Figs. 1 and 12 tend towards a leaf form. (Fig.
13): A bronze sword, narrow and leaf-shaped, in the Guildhall
Museum, London; showing rivet holes. The sword of the Bronze
Age is remarkable for the beauty of its form. The average
length of the blade was about two feet, the handle being made
of horn or wood, split and rivetted on either, side. The sword
was probably encased in a scabbard of leather, wood or bronze.]

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

Neolithic men (of the Later Stone Age) buried their dead in the caves which they had used for dwellings, or in stone chambers, probably representing the huts in which they lived. Each of these was used as a vault, common to the family or tribe, for they are found containing skeletons of all ages. The dead were buried in the tomb as they died, in a contracted or crouching position, laid upon their sides, probably due to their sleeping in that position, and not at full length on a bed. Implements of various kinds, arrow heads, celts and pottery, were frequently placed in the tombs, and were probably intended for the use of the dead. The tombs were then covered with stones and earth, forming mounds (also known as barrows and tumuli), which were usually long and oval in plan.

Domestic animals were slaughtered, and a feast was made after the interment in honour of the dead.

In the Bronze Age, there was a striking change in the custom of burial, probably the sign of the introduction of a new faith. The dead were burned on a funeral pile, and with them were burned their belongings--the various articles and implements of daily use--and the burnt remains were gathered up with the calcined bones and ashes and placed in an urn. Sometimes this urn was placed upright, and at other times it was inverted over the ashes.

As in former times, a mound was carefully raised, covering the urn and its contents, and the memory of the dead was preserved by periodic feasts, after each of which earth or stone was added to the top of the mound, each feast being represented by a layer of the broken and burnt bones of the animals consumed. These barrows of the Bronze Age were generally circular in plan.

Cremation did not, however, altogether abolish the older practice of burying. It is evident that both customs were carried on simultaneously. Hundreds of these mounds have been carefully opened at various times and the contents investigated, and, in almost every case, earthen-ware vessels of various forms and sizes have been found. It is entirely to these grave mounds that we are indebted for the examples of prehistoric pottery that are preserved in our museums.

There are four classes of pottery of these early times:--

1. Sepulchral or Cinerary Urns, which have been made for,
and have contained or been inverted over, calcined human
bones.

2. Drinking Cups, which are supposed to have contained some
liquid to be placed in the grave.

3. Food vessels (so called), which are supposed to have
contained an offering of food, and which are more usually
found with unburnt bodies than along with interments by
cremation.

4. Immolation Urns (or Incense Cups), very small vessels
found only with burnt bones, and usually containing bones
and ashes also, placed in the mouths of, or close by, the
larger cinerary urns. It has been suggested that these were
simply small urns, intended to receive the ashes of the
infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of its mother. They
are also known as incense cups, and are supposed by some to
have been used to carry the sacred fire with which to light
the funeral pile, or as censers in the funeral ceremonies.

These vessels differ much in size and ornamentation, and in the quality of the clay from which they are formed.

In the examination of barrows, the spot where the funeral pyre has been made can often be detected by the burnt soil there. It is considered probable that, while the body was burning, the clay urn was placed on the funeral fire and then baked.

“Drinking Cups” are usually burnt much harder than the other vessels.

Most of the vessels are decorated in a rude fashion with lines or figures, probably drawn by a pointed instrument or comb whilst the clay was soft.

They were made by hand, and are often very uneven and crudely formed.

(Fig. 1): Food vessel of the prevailing type, ornamented with
dots and lines, forming saw-like patterns around it. (From
Greenwell’s _British Barrows_.) (Fig. 2): Immolation urn or
incense cup, covered with a pattern. (British Museum.) (Fig.
3): Food vessel of a rather uncommon type, of good form and
elaborately ornamented. (From Greenwell’s _British Barrows_.)
(Fig. 4): A large drinking cup, the outer surface being
almost covered with ornament, formed by the point of a sharp
instrument (found in a barrow at East Kennet). (Fig. 5):
Drinking cup, found in a barrow near Goodmanham, ornamented
with patterns formed with lines. (From Greenwell’s _British
Barrows_.)]

THE ROMAN WALL.

Much difference of opinion has been expressed between archæologists as to who built the Roman Wall, it being severally attributed to both Hadrian and Severus. A recent writer of authority says: “No one really knows who built the Roman Wall, and the evidence now available is, in the present writer’s opinion, wholly insufficient to enable us to decide the difficult problem.... A commonsense and probable view is that Hadrian caused the vallum (earthen rampart), which may have been there before his time, to be supplemented by walls and forts, built of stone, in such extremely exposed and commanding positions as we find at or near Borcovicus (Homesteads), and that, about 86 years after the Emperor left Britain, Severus ordered these to be repaired, and the whole of the Roman fortifications to be built of stone, and the wall to be carried across from sea to sea.” It stretches from Wallsend, near Newcastle, to Carlisle. A section of its general structure is shown in Pl. 7, Fig. 11. It was very strong, and consisted of a ditch on the north side, about 15 ft. deep, and then a broad stone wall about 18 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. South of the ditch was a broad road, and next to that a rampart or earthen wall. In some parts, however, there were two roads made, parallel to one another.

At fairly regular intervals along the wall were fortified military “stations,” variously computed at from 18 to 23 in number.

Between them, at intervals of about a mile, were rectangular towers, called “mile castles,” and smaller towers or “turrets” were placed about four to the mile between these.

The _Stations_ were small, rectangular towns, the inhabitants of which lived probably under martial law. They varied in extent from one to six acres, were always strongly fortified with walls six to nine feet thick, surrounded by a ditch. Each Station had, at least, four gateways, one on each side, and its area was crossed by two main streets, which bisected each other at right angles.

The larger Stations were provided with a _Forum_, serving as a marketplace and a place for public assembly; a _Pretorium_, or residence for the Commandant; baths, barracks, and numerous smaller dwellings for the minor officials and others.

The _Mile Castles_ were rectangular in form, and measured about sixty feet by fifty feet. The Wall formed the northern wall of the Castle, and each had two gates, north and south.

The _Turrets_ were also rectangular, but much smaller than the Mile Castles, measuring about twelve feet by ten feet, and had walls nearly three feet thick. They served the purpose of look-out towers.

The Wall required a garrison of from 10,000 to 12,000 soldiers to man it, and these were of many nationalities, being drawn from different parts of the Roman Empire. Borcovicus, one of the Stations, was garrisoned for about 200 years by a cohort of 1,000 Tungrian (German) Infantry. Other cohorts consisted of Astures (Spaniards), Batavians (Dutch), Gauls, Dalmatians, Moors, and Thracians.

It must be remembered that the soldiers themselves built the Wall and the various structures on it, and kept the masonry in repair, as the numerous inscribed wall tablets testify (Figs. 1 and 2).

After the Romans left Britain, the Wall was used for many centuries as a convenient quarry, with ready-prepared stones, by neighbouring landowners and farmers, and many farmhouses, walls and outhouses in the vicinity of the Wall are built entirely of stones from it.

During excavations on the sites of the Stations, many Roman remains--altars, ornaments, coins, utensils, etc.--have been found, particularly through the public-spirited work carried on by Mr. Clayton, of Chesters.

(Fig. 1): A wall tablet, sculptured in relief, with the
figure of a boar, the badge of the 20th Legion. The tablet is
20 in. in length, and was found at Vindolana (Chesterholm).
(Fig. 2): Another tablet, inscribed with a record of the
building of a portion of the Wall, 24 paces long, by the
Thruponian Centuria; from the Wall at Procolitia. (Fig. 3):
An altar, dedicated to the god Mihr, or Mithras, by Litorius
Pacatianus, a consular beneficiary, on behalf of himself and
his family; found in the temple of Mithras, at Borcovicus.
(Mihr was a form of the Sun-god, who was worshipped in Persia
in very early times, and about 100 B.C. the worship of this
deity was adopted by the Romans.) (Fig. 4): Small plan of
Procolitia (Carranburgh), probably the seventh Station on the
Wall, from east to west. The northern rampart is formed by
the Roman Wall. Procolitia was about 143 yards long and 118
yards wide, measuring about 3½ acres, and was garrisoned by
the 1st Batavian Cohort (Dutch). (Fig. 5): Plan of Cilurnum
(Chesters), the sixth Station on the Wall from the east. It
was 186 yards by 137 yards, and measured about 5½ acres.
The Roman Wall does not, in this instance, coincide with
the northern wall of the Station. The walls, surrounded by
a ditch, are about five feet thick, and the corners are
rounded off. It was garrisoned by the 2nd Ala of the Asturians
(Spanish), a famous cavalry regiment. The Stations had usually
four gates, but Cilurnum has six.]

ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.

(_In the Guildhall Museum, London._)

“After the Roman occupation of Britain, glass and pottery were made here in large quantities, so that the importation of glass, which was carried on at first, ceased to be necessary.”

_Samian ware_, which was a red glazed ware, was used ordinarily throughout the western half of the Roman Empire. It was manufactured first in Etruria, but afterwards its manufacture was imitated in Gaul. Very little of the genuine Samian ware from Etruria found its way into Britain, but the Gaulish Samian ware was imported in large quantities, and was used throughout the province.

The finer specimens are decorated with design in low relief, of a pictorial character, and the ware was of very good quality, for, 1,500 years after its manufacture, it preserves its colours and its lustre perfectly.

_Castor ware_, a native product, was made at Castor (Durobrivae), near the River Nen, and includes small vases of rusty copper or slate colour, with white ornament in low relief. “Castor ware is not Roman in character, but rather a local survival of late Celtic art.”

(Fig. 1): A Roman tablet of wood. This was covered with a thin
coating of wax, upon which the writing was done with a stylus
of metal or bone. When the inscription was no longer needed, a
hot iron was held over the surface, and a new surface formed
on the wax. (Fig. 2): A Roman stylus of iron. (Fig. 3): A
Roman amphora. (Fig. 4): An ornamented vase of Cologne ware.
(Fig. 5): A bowl of Cologne ware. (Fig. 6): An ewer or water
bottle, with indented mouth. (Fig. 7): A deep bowl of Roman
pottery. (Fig. 8): A cinerary urn of grey ware for containing
the ashes of the dead. (Fig. 9): A decorated urn of Cologne
ware. (Fig. 10): A vase of Castor ware, red, with black glazed
neck ornaments, decorated with pinkish-white slip. (Fig. 11):
A Roman glass hemispherical bowl. (Fig. 12): A drinking cup of
thick Samian ware, 3¾ in. high.]

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.

(_Guildhall Museum._)

The Roman influence in Britain was directed to the civilizing of the inhabitants. It gave the people better conditions of life; it guaranteed protection against the tyrannies of petty chieftains; and it gave to them the resources of Roman civilisation. The Roman remains that are to be found in our museums, unearthed after centuries of oblivion, show how definite was the influence of the Romans in the comforts and necessities of daily life.

“Keys and steelyards, roofing tiles and hairpins, glass bottles and spoons, statues and bells, represent wants and comforts strange to the ‘savage and shivering Britons,’ dressed in skins, whom earlier writers knew.” The manufacture of glass, chiefly beads, was carried on at Glastonbury in Roman times, but most of the glass found is Roman in character. The large green jars which were used for containing the ashes of the dead were generally made here, but the best specimens came probably from Gaul, where the manufacture of glass was carried on to a considerable extent.

(Fig. 1): A square bottle of green glass, found in a grave
with cinerary urns. (Fig. 2): An unguentarium, or bottle for
unguents, perfumes and other toilet requisites, of Roman
glass. (Fig. 3): A Roman lamp of earthen-ware. The wick was
inserted in the spout, and the central hole was for the
purpose of feeding the lamp. (Fig. 4): Another Roman lamp,
viewed from above. (Fig. 5): A Roman pole-axe, with expanded
blade, oval shaft-hole, and pointed projection behind, 9 in.
long. (Figs. 6 and 7): Two forms of Roman keys of bronze.
(Fig. 8): A Roman shoe or buskin, with ten large holes stamped
out on each side. (Fig. 9): An axe with crescent-shaped blade
and tang for handle. (Fig. 10): A Roman spoon of copper (5 in.
long). (Fig. 11): A Roman steelyard of bronze, with hooks and
rings. (Fig. 12): A sacrificial knife (7¼ in. long). (Fig.
13): A Roman iron knife with ornamented bone handle.]

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.

Roman architecture in Britain, judging from the remains of buildings, was generally of an inferior description, for Britain was a remote and half-civilised province, and little attention appears to have been paid to make the buildings very ornate.

There are two principal varieties of masonry employed in their construction.

The first, which is very characteristic, consists of layers of irregularly shaped stones and flat tiles embedded in mortar, generally arranged in alternate layers of tiles and stones in mortar, forming a kind of concrete (Pl. 7, Fig. 3). The Mint wall at Lincoln, the Jewry wall at Leicester, and the walls at Richborough and Colchester are built in this manner.

The other variety consists of walls formed of regular courses, with wide joints of outer facings of square stones or ashlars, the interior spaces being filled with a rubble embedded in mortar. The blocks, which were of hewn sandstone, were about 8 in. by 10 in. on the face, and as much as 22 in. long in the bed. The whole rests on a course of larger foundation stones (Pl. 7, Figs. 1 and 2).

Roman mortar may generally be distinguished by the fact that it was mixed with powdered brick, and it is extremely hard. It is often easier to break the tile or stone than the mortar, and this hardness arises largely from the fact that the Romans always burnt the lime on the spot, and used it hot and fresh, for on the freshness of the lime the strength of the mortar largely depends. The walls of Burgh Castle, Suffolk, and Richborough, Kent, are among the most perfect Roman walls in England.

There are vestiges of Roman towns and villas throughout the country, but they consist of foundations only. The upper story of these Roman houses was usually of wood, and all the innumerable Roman towns and villas of which foundations have been discovered bear marks of destruction by violence, fire having been usually the agent of destruction.

(Fig. 1): Section of Roman masonry, showing the outer facing
of regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and
mortar. (Fig. 2): View of outside of wall. (Fig. 3): Roman
arch at Colchester Castle, Hampshire, showing alternate layers
of tiles or flat bricks and stones. (Figs. 4, 5 and 6):
Fragments of Roman ornamental mouldings built in at Hexham.
Roman building material is often used again in other buildings
near the site of the Roman Station, as at Colchester Castle
(Essex), St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, and St. Alban’s
Abbey (Herts.). (Fig. 7): Basement of Station on the Roman
Wall. (Fig. 8): Arch of Roman gate at Lincoln. It was the
north gate of the Roman city of Lindum, and still forms the
principal entrance into the city from the north. There was
a smaller arch on either side, but only the one on the east
remains. It appears to have been without ornament of any
kind. (Fig. 9): A stone capital, probably from the portico
of a temple, found at Cilurnum (Chesters). It is elaborately
sculptured with acanthus, is 17 inches in height, with a
diameter, at its widest part, of 18 inches. (Fig. 10): A
portion of the Roman Wall passing over a hill. The Roman Wall
consistently passed in a straight direction over the country,
and only swerved from a straight line to take, in the route,
the boldest elevations. (Fig. 11): Section of the Wall in
Northumberland. (_a_) Ditch of the Wall; (_b_) the stone wall;
(_c_) the military way; (_d_) the ditch of the vallum; (_e_)
the vallum (of earth).]

ROMAN ARMS, Etc.

(Fig. 1): A Roman galley (from Pompeii). (Fig. 2): A Roman
Eagle. This was mounted on a pole and carried before the
Legion. The soldiers rallied round it and fought for its
honour. It corresponded with the regimental flags of our
time. (Fig. 3): A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the
shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder
belt passing over the left shoulder, so that the sword
hung on the _right_ side, a custom which was possible on
account of the shortness of the blade. The length was about
twenty-two inches. The blade was straight, of uniform width,
double-edged, and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form
the point. (Fig. 4): A short sword or sword dagger. (Fig. 5):
Scabbard of the same. (Fig. 6): A Roman Centurion, with an
oval shield, such as was generally carried by horse soldiers.
The body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of back and
breast plates, strapped together at the sides, and fastened by
broad belts passing over the shoulders. At the lower part of
the cuirass were two bands of leather, one showing underneath
the other, the edges of both being tagged or scalloped.
Below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt,
reaching nearly to the knee. A military cloak or mantle was
picturesquely draped over the shoulder. Metal greaves covered
the shins, and sandals, which were often highly ornamented,
covered the feet. (Fig. 7): A Roman laminated cuirass worn
by the heavily armed troops. It consisted of lames or plates
of steel encircling the body, with curved lames passing over
the shoulders, and several lames hanging vertically over the
lower part of the trunk. They were sewn or rivetted to a
tightly-fitting leather garment. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Roman
helmets, all fitted with neck pieces to guard the neck--Figs.
8 and 9 with cheek pieces, hinged and fastening beneath the
chin. (Fig. 11): Another form of shield, differing entirely
from that in Fig. 6. “It is elongated and convex oblong,
somewhat resembling a hollow watercourse tile.” It was carried
by the legionaries, and was about 2 ft. 6 in. long. It was
strengthened, at the top and bottom only, or all round, with
additional bands of metal. With this form of shield, the
well-known testudo or tortoise formation was made. (Fig. 12):
A Roman sandal of leather.]

SAXON WEAPONS.

The Saxon arms were the spear, the axe, the sword, the dagger, the long-bow, and the arrow.

The defensive armour consisted of helmet, shield, and byrnie.

The _Spear_ was the chief weapon of the Saxons. It was of two forms: (1) 9 or 10 ft. long, for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon, and (2) about 6 ft. long, for use as a javelin or throwing spear. When the latter was used, it was generally carried in pairs.

The spear, or, rather, the spear-head is always found in Saxon graves, as it was buried with its owner. The shaft was generally of ash.

The _Axe_ was a very characteristic weapon of the Saxon and kindred races, but it is very seldom found in graves. There were several forms, particularly a long, tapering blade (Fig. 6) and a broader blade (Fig. 7).

Sometimes the axe-head was mounted on a short handle, and at other times on a long shaft, to form a pole-axe, as shown in the Bayeux tapestry.

The _Sword_ was essentially the cavalry weapon, and was the weapon of the upper classes, no person below the rank of Thane carrying it.

The earliest swords which have been found have no quillon or cross guard. The sword was usually about 3 ft. long, the blade being 30 in. long and about 2 in. wide near the hilt. It was double-edged, and tapered slightly towards the point. It usually had a wooden scabbard, and was often ornamented with gold and precious stones on the hilt.

The _dagger_ or knife was a very general weapon, and has been found in many graves. It varies considerably in size. The soldier probably carved his food with the same weapon with which he stabbed his enemy.

The _long-bow_ was not in general use among the Saxons. Our knowledge of it, and of arrows also, is mainly from MSS. It is a disputed point whether the English used the bow at Hastings, for only one archer is depicted on the English side.

For defensive purposes, the soldier wore a _helmet_ of metal, or of leather strengthened with metal bands and rims, and he carried a _shield_. The latter was of wood, and was circular or oval in form. The centre was formed of metal, and was called a _boss_ or _umbo_. As the shield was buried with a warrior, many umbos have been found in the graves, the wooden portion of the shield having decayed.

In early Saxon times, a protective garment called a _byrnie_ was worn by the leaders. It may have been mailed or quilted and padded. In later times, when the nation was in a more prosperous condition, the use of this garment probably became much more general. At the time of the Norman conquest, there was very little difference in arms and equipment between the Normans and Saxons, on account of the intercourse between the two Courts.

(Fig. 1): A Saxon spear-head, 10½ in. long, with a socket
for the shaft, found in Southwark. (Guildhall Museum, London.)
(Fig. 2, 3 and 4): Saxon spear-heads, from MSS. The lateral
projections from the shaft were probably guards, to prevent
the shaft being severed by a sword cut. (Fig. 5): A spear-head
of different form. (Fig. 6): A Saxon taper axe-head, 3½
in. wide and 6½ in. deep, found in the Thames. (Guildhall
Museum, London.) (Fig. 7): Another and broader form of
axe-head. (Fig. 8): A Saxon sword from an 8th century MS.
(Figs. 9 and 10): Sword handles, found in Cambridgeshire.
(Fig. 11): Umbo of Saxon shield. (Fig. 12): Saxon dagger or
knife, with ornamental wooden handle. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15):
Saxon arrow-heads. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon helmets. (Fig.
18): Saxon bow, from a MS.]

SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460-A.D. 1066.

The main sources from which we obtain our knowledge of Saxon Costume are the illuminated MSS. remaining to us. The earliest MS. we have was written A.D. 720, about 200 years after the Saxon Conquest. Of this long period we have no reliable record.

We know, however, that on their first appearance in Britain, they were not so advanced in civilisation as the inhabitants, who had gained a considerable advantage, in this respect, from the Roman occupation. The only reliable source from which information can be gained of this period is in the tumuli or graves. In these have been found weapons and many personal ornaments of a rich character.

_Saxon Male Costume._

A kind of shirt, reaching to the knee, worn next to the skin, was the universal, and, in the case of the humblest, the only garment, and it was always made of linen. Over this was worn a _tunica_, which was generally short, but, in the case of persons of high rank, it was worn longer. It fitted closely around the neck, and was cut open in front, being also often open at the sides from the hips to the hem. Sleeves were worn to this garment, and for many years were worn rucked upon the fore-arm in a very peculiar manner, probably so that the sleeves could be drawn down over the hands in cold weather. The hem was often decorated with embroidered work.

A short cloak, or mantle, was generally worn over the tunica, fastened by a fibula or brooch upon the right shoulder or in the centre of the chest. In the case of a person of high degree, a larger cloak was also wrapped around the figure.

The head was generally uncovered, except in time of war. The hair was worn long, reaching down to the shoulders, parted carefully in the centre, and tucked behind the ears. When the head was covered, a cap of the Phrygian shape (Fig. 8) was worn. Persons of distinction, like the members of the Witan, wore a sugar-loaf shaped cap.

The beard was worn either round or long and flowing. In the latter case, it was divided in the centre like a fork, and was called the “bifid” beard.

The breeches were tight to the leg, and sometimes wide at the bottom, reaching to the middle of the thigh.

Stockings were worn, either long enough to join the breeches or short, reaching nearly to the knee. The rustic frequently wore no stockings.

Civilians often bound strips of coloured cloth, and soldiers strips of leather, around their stockings, forming what is called _cross-gartering_.

Their shoes were generally low, and had an opening up the instep.

_Female Costume._

The female costume was also very simple, and consisted of a long, tight-sleeved garment, the _gunna_ or gown, reaching to the feet, with a tunic over this, reaching to the knees. The tunica was girdled at the waist, and had wide sleeves extending to the elbow.

A wide mantle, a characteristic feature of the costume of both men and women, covered the upper part of the body, and a head-rail or hood consisting of a piece of material adjusted over the head, was always worn.

When making a journey, a large travelling cloak was also worn.

No illustration shows the complete arrangement of the hair, but, as the women of Continental nations at this period wore it in long plaits, we may conclude that the same fashion was followed here; but the hair was always covered. A kirtle was also probably worn, corresponding in form to the garment now known as a “princess petticoat.”

_Military Costume._

There was but little difference between the civil and military costume of the men. In MSS., soldiers are often represented with no other weapon than a shield or spear, or an axe or a bow with arrows, and attired in ordinary costume. Occasionally, one is represented wearing a kind of cuirass formed of scales, made of overlapping slices of horn sewn upon coarse linen.

During the reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold II., owing to the constant intercourse between the English and the Norman Courts, the English adopted many of the customs and much of the costume of the Normans, so that, among the upper and military classes, at any rate, when William of Normandy invaded England, the members of the two opposing armies were armed and attired in a very similar manner.

(Fig. 1): A Saxon rustic, wearing only a solitary garment,
with a pointed cap which has a comb, and shoes. (Cott. MS.,
Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 2): A Saxon lady, attired in (1) the
gunna, (2) the tunica, (3) the mantle, (4) the head-rail.
(Harl. MS., 2,908.) (Fig. 3): A Saxon, dressed in (1) the
tunica, (2) the mantle, (3) breeches, with cross-gartered
stockings, and shoes, and (4) a banded Phrygian cap. (After
Mrs. Ashdown.) (Fig. 4): Saxon, showing the bifid beard and
the arrangement of the hair. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.)
(Fig. 5): An English Freeman, wearing a tunica, with short
stockings and shoes, and armed with sword, spear, helmet,
and shield. (From a MS.) (Fig. 6): A Saxon soldier, wearing
a tunica covered with a mantle, stockings, and shoes, with
spurs. (Note the manner in which the mantle is fastened on
the right shoulder.) He is armed with a spear, and has his
head covered with a conical helmet. As is pointed out above,
the military costume did not differ from the civil costume,
except as regards the helmet and the arms. (Figs. 7 to 12):
Saxon head-dresses. (Fig. 7): A form of the square helmet.
(Fig. 8): A Phrygian-shaped cap of leather, bound with metal;
the bifid beard is also shown again. (Fig. 9): Another form of
the square helmet, with a kind of crest or comb. (Fig. 10):
A pointed helmet of simple form. (Fig. 11): A pointed hat
serrated along the back like a cock’s comb. (Fig. 12): The
commonest form of helmet, a conical cap with a rim, probably
of metal. (The other form of beard is shown in this figure.)
(Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon shoes, from MSS. (Figs. 16 and
17): Saxon crowns, from MSS.]

(Fig. 1): A Saxon monarch represented as seated on a throne,
wearing a square crown, and holding a sceptre in his right
hand. He is attired in a richly embroidered tunica and a
mantle of ample proportions, gathered up with a brooch on
the left shoulder. His stockings are cross-gartered and
ornamented at the knees and in the lozenges formed by the
gartering. (Cott. MS., Tiberius Cvi.) (Fig. 2): A fiddler,
wearing the tunica, long stockings and shoes. (MS., Tib. Cvi.)
(Fig. 3): A gleeman or juggler, attired similarly to the
fiddler. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4): A husbandman, engaged
in digging. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 5): A blacksmith,
working at the anvil. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 6):
A Saxon king, with a bifid beard, on the seat of judgment,
crowned and attired in a tunica, covered with a short mantle,
which is fastened in the centre of the chest by a brooch of
rectangular form. (Fig. 7): A Saxon noble, with long hair and
a bifid beard, holding a sword of characteristic Saxon form.
He is wearing an ornamented tunica reaching to the ankles,
and over it a voluminous mantle. His head is covered with a
conical helmet. The rucking of the sleeve on the fore-arm is
plainly shown. (Figs. 6 and 7 from a MS., after Strutt.) (Fig.
8): A Saxon horn-blower, attired similarly to the fiddler
and gleeman (Figs. 2 and 3), from the same MS. (Fig. 9): A
carpenter at work with an axe. (From a MS., after Strutt.)
(Note.--In Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9, all the heads are bare.)
(Figs. 10 to 14): Saxon personal ornaments, buckle, rings,
etc., found in tumuli.]

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

Buildings erected from about 500 A.D. to 1050 A.D. are called Anglo-Saxon, or simply Saxon, in their style.

The Romans built in stone and brick, but the English, when they conquered Britain, razed the Roman buildings to the ground, and built their own structures of wood.

It is interesting to note that the Saxon word for “build” was “getimbrian,” to construct of wood.

From the middle of the 5th century, for nearly 700 years, until the time when the Norman Castle arose, well-nigh every building of architectural merit was in some way or other connected with the Church.

The English were essentially workers in wood, and profoundly ignorant of masonry. The churches that sprang up all over England after the conversion of the country to Christianity were, no doubt, of wood, and even in the 9th and 10th centuries we hear of “the worm-eaten walls of cathedrals.”

They were decorated internally with paintings in various bright colours, and the ornamentation was of metal work, bronze or the precious metals.

Before the end of the 7th century, stone churches were built at York, Ripon and Hexham, the latter being largely built of materials from the Roman Wall, which passes within a short distance of the place, and Roman inscribed slabs have been used in forming the roof of the crypt.

Bede tells us that Benedict crossed the sea to Gaul, and carried back with him masons to build churches of stone, “after the manner of the Romans that he loved,” at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, about 680 A.D. Each of these churches contains portions which are, without doubt, from their rude construction, parts of the original fabrics of Benedict. Anglo-Saxon stone churches were small, rectangular or cruciform in shape, and without aisles.

A lofty tower, without buttresses, stands at the west end, or at the intersection of the nave and transepts. The walls were usually of rubble or small stones, of very irregular shape, covered with “rough cast” or plaster. The kind of masonry termed “herring-bone” is often used, and Roman bricks, taken from the ruins of earlier buildings, seem to have been freely used.

It is probable that the sides of the towers terminated in acutely pointed gables, from which the roof is carried up, as at Sompting Church, in Sussex.

The towers were without staircases, the different storeys being reached by means of ladders.

The old church at Bradford, in Wiltshire, is one of the most perfect specimens of the Anglo-Saxon class. It is probably the small, original church of the Abbey, built by Adhelm, in the 8th century (A.D. 705).

It is constructed of Bath stone, and it is considered, on account of the fineness of the building, that there may have been a certain amount of later restoration.

In the 9th century, many churches were destroyed by the Danes, and Canute rebuilt many churches which his father and his followers had destroyed. But, for a period before the year 1000 A.D., the building of churches stopped on account of the expected millenium. After that date, when the hopes and fears of the people had proved groundless, the building of churches commenced again with renewed vigour.

(Fig. 1): The Anglo-Saxon tower of Earl’s Barton Church,
Northants. At the angles, there are “quoins,” or
corner-stones, formed of long stones set upright, alternately
with others laid horizontally, and technically known as
“long and short work.” The surface of the walls is also
divided up by “pilaster strips,” which are an imitation in
stone of wooden construction, and are evidently intended
to bind together the rude masonry of the walls. It is “the
design of a carpenter executed by a mason.” The parapet is
comparatively recent in construction. (Fig. 2): Tower arch of
Anglo-Saxon character at Barnack, Northants. Barnack was one
of the places where the old church was burnt by the Danes, in
their raid through that part of the country, and rebuilt by
order of Canute after the settlement of the Danes. The impost
mouldings (_b_) appear to have been suggested by a pile of
boards overlapping. (Fig. 3): An enlargement of the belfry
window (_a_, Fig. 1). Double windows are usually round-headed
or triangular-headed. The lights or single windows are not
separated by a stone moulding, but by a kind of shaft or
“baluster,” set in the middle of the wall, and supporting the
impost. (Fig. 4): Belfry window in the tower of Deerhurst
Church (1050 A.D.). The windows are triangular-headed, the
head being formed of two straight stones placed obliquely,
and meeting at a point. (Fig. 5): A window at Caversfield,
Bucks, with small opening and very wide “splay.” This window
is splayed, or widened out, both outside and inside, the
window itself being set in the middle of the wall, so that the
wicker-work or oiled parchment, that did duty as a glass, was
protected from the weather. (Fig. 6): Section of Anglo-Saxon
wall, which consisted of two rows of fairly regular stones,
the intervening space being filled with irregularly shaped
stones, embedded in mortar, the latter comprising nearly half
the substance of the wall. The layer of stones in the interior
of the building was generally plastered over. (Fig. 7): An
Anglo-Saxon triangular-headed doorway. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10):
Different forms of Anglo-Saxon balusters.]

SAXON CUSTOMS.

At meal-times the company sat down in the hall, the master, mistress, and honoured guests taking their places at a “high” table placed on a dais at the upper end of the apartment. Dinner was generally served either at noon or at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon.

The walls were decorated with coloured and embroidered curtains, for English ladies and their maidens were famed for their skill with the needle in embroidery and decorative needlework. The tables consisted of boards laid upon trestles, which could be easily removed when, the meal being over, the ladies retired to the bower and the men settled down to drinking.

Sometimes the tables were bare, at other times covered with a table-cloth. Some MSS. show a circular table arranged for the meal. On the table appear the round cakes which served the Saxons as bread, also dishes containing meat, fish, and other food. A few spoons and razor-shaped knives, and drinking vessels of varying sizes and shapes, were also placed upon the table.

While the meal was in progress, wandering minstrels played on their instruments and sang; jugglers and conjurers delighted their patrons with feats of balancing and sleight-of-hand; while others danced and postured, or exhibited the feats of dancing bears and other animals that they led about.

(Fig. 1): A dinner party standing at a long table. (After
Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. v. (Fig. 2): A dinner party seated
around a circular table with embroidered curtains behind them,
and serving men waiting upon them. (After Strutt.) Cott. MS.
Tiberius Cvi. (Fig. 3): A Saxon bed. (After Strutt.) MS.,
Claud. B. iv. An apartment called the bower or bur was used
chiefly by the women and children for sleeping and dwelling
in. Sometimes there were recesses in the wall, covered by
curtains, and in these the beds were placed. The bed furniture
consisted of bolster, pillows, coverlets, and sheets, and, as
far as can be gathered from the MSS., the sheets were wrapped
about the naked body. (Fig. 4): A dancing girl with musicians.
(After Strutt.) Cott. MS., Cleopatra C. viii. In MSS., women
are represented almost invariably with the head covered by a
hood or head-veil even when they have retired to rest (Fig.
3), and we may assume that it was considered disgraceful for
a woman to appear in public with the head bare. When women
are represented with the head uncovered they are people
whose calling was considered more or less of a questionable
character, as dancers, strolling players, etc. (Fig. 5):
A labourer threshing corn with a flail. (From a MS. after
Strutt.)]

SAXON FARMING.

Both these figures are taken from an Old English calendar of the eleventh century (after Strutt). Cott. MS., Julius A. vi.

This calendar is arranged as in a modern almanack, with a page to each month and a line to each day. At the foot of each page there is a drawing, typical of the work carried on during that month.

(Fig. 1): _January_. This month was called by the English,
when heathen, “Wolf-monath,” because the wolves were most
troublesome at this period of the year. When the English
became Christians it was called “Aefter-Yule,” i.e.,
After-Christmas. Here there is a ploughing scene. Four oxen
yoked together in couples are drawing a plough of a very
solid-looking type. (In those days horses were not employed
in farm work.) A farm-hand, bare-headed, bare-footed, and
wearing only a single garment, is goading the oxen with a
sharp-pointed ox-goad, similar to a long spear in appearance.
A man in superior attire is guiding the plough, while another
is scattering seed as the plough passes. A good representation
of the plough of that period is shown here. (Fig. 2):
_August_. This month was called by the English “Arn-moneth”
or “Barn-moneth,” i.e., “harvest-month.” This drawing gives
a representation of a farm wagon of good construction, and
of the costumes of the workers, who appear to be of at least
two grades--some bare-footed, wearing a single garment,
while others have better-cut garments, and wear shoes and
stockings in addition. At the head of a party is a man with
a spear in his right hand, blowing a horn, who may be either
superintending the work or may be the “advance guard” of a
hunting party entering the field. The implements, sickles, and
forks appear to be very similar to those in use at the present
time.]

SAXON ANTIQUITIES.