Chapter III: Preface (3)

In 1338 there existed breech-loading guns, with one or more movable chambers, to facilitate loading, but, even then, the fire was very slow; “three shots an hour was fair practice for a big bombard.” It is not certain when wheeled carriages were introduced, though mention is made of two-wheeled bombard carriages in 1376; but it must be remembered that the gun at first was looked upon as a substitute for the balista and other war machines employed in the siege of a fortified place. Its value as an effective and movable weapon on the battlefield was not realised for some time.

The powder was fired at first by the insertion of a red-hot wire, but this was often very dangerous to the gunners, because the gun was so liable to burst. James II. of Scotland was killed by the bursting of a gun at the siege of Roxburgh in 1460. It became the custom, in the case of large bombards, for a small train of powder to be laid from the ground leading to the touchhole. The gunners fired the train, and then hastily betook themselves to a place of safety.

The earliest known representation of a gun in England is contained in a MS., “De Officiis Regum,” at Christ Church, Oxford, of the time of Edward II. (1326). It shows a knight in armour, firing a short, primitive weapon, shaped something like a vase, and loaded with an incendiary arrow--that is, one charged with an inflammable substance. Firearms of this type were evidently very small, as only 2 lb. of gunpowder was provided for firing forty-eight arrows.

From the beginning, contrivances had been made to resist the recoil of the gun when it was fired; heavy timbers, etc., were packed up against the breach to prevent the gun from flying backwards, but this plan often brought about the bursting of the gun. About the middle of the 15th century, trunnions (small cylinders of solid metal projecting from the sides, at right angles to the axis of the gun) were formed with the gun, and by means of these the recoil of the gun could be transferred to the carriage, and the pivoting of the gun up and down on the trunnions made the laying and sighting an easier task.

Stone cannon shot were employed until 1520, and, when it was considered necessary to use very heavy projectiles, correspondingly enormous guns had to be built. Mons Meg, a well-known gun in Edinburgh Castle, of this large type, is a wrought-iron gun of the 15th century. It is built of iron bars and external rings, with a calibre of 20 inches, and it fired a shot weighing 350 lbs.

Bronze guns, of a great size, were cast in 1468 at Constantinople, and one of them is now in the Rotunda at Woolwich. It was actually used in warfare against the English at the Dardanelles, in 1807. To show the destructive power of such a large piece of ordnance, even though a crude and ancient construction, it may be mentioned that the stone shot, weighing 700 lbs., which was fired from it against the English fleet, cut the mainmast of the British flagship in two, and another killed and wounded sixty men. These old 15th century guns in the battle altogether accounted for six of our men-of-war damaged and 126 men killed and wounded. The gun at Woolwich is in two pieces screwed together. The front part has a calibre of 25 inches for the reception of the shot, and a rear portion, forming a powder chamber, 10 inches in diameter. The whole gun weighs nearly 18¾ tons, and was presented to Queen Victoria by the Sultan of Turkey.

Late in the 15th century, guns began to be more regularly employed on the battlefield. In the 16th century, the extremely large guns were discarded, and small, wrought-iron guns were made, this change being due to the use of cast-iron shot, which was as destructive as the more bulky stone shot formerly used.

In 1521 the first bronze gun was cast in England, cast-iron cannon being made also in 1540, by foreign workmen, introduced into this country by Henry VIII. to teach the English the art. The first foundry was at Uckfield, in Sussex, and Sussex iron was used, smelted with charcoal.

The small gun of this period was made very long, and a specimen is to be found in Dover Castle. It is known as Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket Pistol, and is 24½ feet long, with a bore of 4¾ inches. It was cast in 1544, and was presented to Henry VIII. by Charles V.

Generally speaking, the English were much behind other nations in the use of artillery until the end of the 18th century. The quality of the gunpowder used in the early days of the cannon was very poor. The ingredients were often mixed on the spot at the time of loading, and the powder burnt slowly, with but little strength, and naturally varied from round to round. When the more fiercely-burning granulated powder was introduced into England, in the middle of the 15th century, it was often too strong for the larger pieces of that date, and could only be used for small firearms for more than a century afterwards.

In the 17th century, bronze and cast-iron guns were strengthened, and were more adapted to the use of grained powder, and, at the same time, more energy and greater range were obtained.

(Fig. 1): Bombard or mortar of a very early date. (From a MS.)
(Fig. 2): Vase-shaped bombard of a date posterior to the reign
of Henry IV. It is fastened to a wooden bed or trough, which
rests on a movable pivot in a stout square timber frame. (From
a MS.) (Fig. 3): A soldier with a hand-gun fitted to a stock.
(From a treatise, “De Re Militari,” printed 1472.) (Fig. 4):
An early gun, in a primitive gun-mounting. It is supported on
a massive timber framing at each side, while the flat breech
is resting against a strong wooden support, driven into the
ground, to prevent recoil. (From Mallet’s “Construction of
Artillery.”) (Fig. 5): A gun as used during the chief part
of the 15th century. It is fixed on the swivel principle,
being suspended between the branches of an immense fork of
iron. The elevation or depression of the gun was effected by
means of a large iron bar, in the form of a scythe, standing
in a vertical position. The whole thing is fixed on an iron
plate fastened on a massive bed of oak. (Fig. 6): A hand-gun
of the reign of Edward IV., fired by means of a match. (From
Roy. MS., 15 E. iv.) (Fig. 7): A gun called a Peterara, of
the time of Edward IV., in the Rotunda at Woolwich, made of
bars of iron laid longitudinally, and bound together with iron
hoops. The powder chamber is seen, with the handle to raise
it, and there is a locking arrangement, so that it cannot be
blown out when the gun is discharged. It has trunnions, and is
fastened into the metal frame, which supports it on the wooden
carriage. (Fig. 8): A cannon of the 15th century, more of the
form of the mortar, supported in a wooden framework. (From
Roy. MS., 14 E. iv.)]

A 15th CENTURY SHIP.

This engraving, taken from Rouse’s MS. ‘Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick’ (British Museum, Julius E. iv.), of the latter part of the 15th century (1485) gives a very clear representation of a ship and its boat. The Earl is setting out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In the foreground, we see him, with his pilgrim’s staff in hand, stepping into the boat which is to carry him to his ship, lying at anchor in the harbour. The costume of the sailors is illustrated by the men in the boat. The vessel is a ship of burden, but such a one as kings and great personages had equipped for their own use, resembling an ordinary merchant ship in all essentials, but fitted and furnished with more than usual convenience and sumptuousness. In Earl Richard’s ship, the sail is emblazoned with his arms, and the pennon, besides the red cross of England, has his badges of the bear and ragged staff. The ragged staff also appears on the castle at the masthead.

The castle, which all ships of this age had at the stern, is, in this case, roofed in and handsomely ornamented, and, no doubt, formed the state apartment of the Earl.

There is also a castle at the head of the ship, known as the forecastle, though it is not very plainly shown in the drawing.

It consists of a raised platform; the round-headed entrance to the cabin beneath it is seen in the picture; the two bulwarks also, which protect it at the sides, are visible, though their meaning is not at first sight obvious.

Incidentally, also, are shown the costumes of the men-at-arms, with the small, round, close-fitting cap, and the various forms of shafted weapons. No one is in armour.

Mr. W. Laird Clowes, in “Social England,” describing this picture, says: “The ship is clincher-built (_i.e._, the planks overlap one another), with a rudder and roofed stern-cabin or round-house. In the bulwarks of the waist are apertures (not portholes), through which cannon are pointed. The mainmast has shrouds, a top and one large square sail. The mizen is much smaller, and has one sail, which is reefed. The top is ornamented with the Earl’s device, a ragged staff. From above it floats what in the bill (still preserved) of Seburg (painter)” and Ray (tailor) is described as “a grete stremour of forty yards length, and seven yardes in brede, with a grete Bear and Gryfon holding a ragged staff, poudrid full of ragged staves and a grete Crosse of St. George.”

BRASSES.

As many references have been made in this work to “Brasses,” and a number of the illustrations of armour and costumes are taken from them, it is fitting that a section should be devoted to so important a series of national records.

Monumental Brasses are plates of brass, embedded in stone slabs, which have been placed over graves in the floors of our churches and cathedrals.

Their use began early in the thirteenth century, and took the place of the carved stone slabs, which had, up to this time, served as sepulchral monuments. Their value is as great as their interest, for they represent very accurately, and with the weight of contemporary authority, the costumes and armour of our ancestors.

They are found from the reign of Edward I. down to the time of Cromwell, and may be seen in many churches throughout the length and breadth of the land. There are between three and four thousand that are known to exist at the present time, these forming, however, only a small proportion of the number originally existing. At the Reformation, particularly in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and during the time of Cromwell, when the fanatical Puritans ravaged our churches and cathedrals, many thousands were torn up and sold as old metal; while during the misguided “restorations” of many of our churches very large numbers have disappeared or have been destroyed. In most cases where the brasses remain they are in excellent condition, notwithstanding the fact that they have been trodden over by generations of worshippers. On account of the great hardness of the metal of which they are composed, they are almost as fresh and “sharp” now as when they left the hands of the engravers.

There is an additional advantage which the brass possesses over the stone monument, and that is that the brass is found as a memorial of members of _every_ class of society--the knight, the noble, the bishop, the abbot, the priest, the nun, the lord of the manor, the judge, the lawyer, the University don, the merchant, the wool-stapler, the yeoman, women of every rank, and even the schoolboy, have their brasses.

In speaking of their value as historical records, Mr. Macklin says: “Brasses give a complete pictorial history of the use and development of armour, dress, and ecclesiastical vestments from the thirteenth to the end of the seventeenth century.... All these (members of every class of society) we see, not in fancy sketches, but in actual contemporary portraits.” Perhaps one of the greatest values of the brass is that it is a great and authentic record of _middle-class costume_ during the Middle Ages.

Light, too, is thrown by them upon the social conditions and customs of the people, for example, when, during the Wars of the Roses, practically every noble was ranged under one or other of the rival banners, we find there was a great _increase_ in the number of brasses of the middle classes, showing that in the midst of civil strife not only were they unaffected to any appreciable degree, but that the property and wealth of the middle and trading classes were actually on the increase.

The _material_ of which the brasses were made consisted of 60 parts of copper, 30 of zinc, and 10 of lead and tin. This gave a very hard alloy, which would stand very hard usage. It was called _latten_ or _laton_, and until the reign of Elizabeth was manufactured exclusively in Flanders and Germany--particularly at Cologne, whence they were often termed _Cullen_ plates.

They were imported into England in rectangular plates of the required thickness. When the plates were manufactured in England, they were very much thinner, and consequently more liable to injury; so that though they are not nearly so old as the earlier brasses, they are yet in a much worse condition.

In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries brasses were manufactured in great quantities, and the work gave employment to many people. It is probable that the engravers worked in guilds established in London, Norwich, Ipswich, and Bristol.

The figure was drawn (generally in a recumbent position, with the hands in the attitude of prayer) upon the flat brass plate, and then the lines of the armour, the folds of the drapery, and the features, etc., were deeply cut into the metal.

After these lines had been engraved, the whole figure was cut out of the plate just as a child cuts out a figure from a picture.

A brass consisted of the following parts:

(1) The figure or figures; (2) heraldic devices and armorial bearings on shields; (3) mottoes or epitaphs; (4) other subsidiary figures or ornaments (angels, canopies, etc.).

In the English brass each of these elements was cut out separately and placed in position upon a stone slab. The outline was then marked round each, the brasses were lifted off, and the stone cut away in the portions thus marked out, to a depth equal to the thickness of the brass. The plates were then placed in position in this stone matrix, the surfaces of the brass being level with the surface of the stone, and each piece was fastened down by means of metal screws.

In a number of cases, part or even the whole of the brasses on a slab have disappeared, but the empty matrix clearly shows the general form of the missing parts. (Fig. 1.)

We have in England a few magnificent brasses of a different kind that were manufactured and engraved entirely in Flanders or North Germany, and they are known as Flemish brasses. The great difference between the English and Flemish brasses is that in the former the figures were cut out of the rectangular sheets of metal, and the lines of the drawing were bold and few in number as was compatible with clearness; whereas in the latter the brass was kept in a rectangular form, and the whole plate was engraved as the plate of a picture might be. The figures were incised upon a background which was entirely filled in with diapered ornaments and suitable heraldic devices and patterns, while the inscription was engraved around the edge of the plate.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the inscriptions on all brasses were in Norman French; in the fifteenth century they were in Latin; and in the sixteenth century in English.

In the reigns of Edward I., II., III., and Richard II., the brasses rose to their highest quality and magnificence. The figures were usually life-sized; the lines were deeply and boldly cut, and there was an absence of “shading,” the brass being usually a pure, outline, incised drawing.

In the reign of Edward II., architectural canopies were often introduced (Fig. 1), and then the figures were consequently made less than life-size. At first only knights and ladies were represented, but in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., members of the great middle classes, which were increasing in power, wealth, and public influence, were included.

From the time of Henry IV. to Richard III. the brasses were not of so high an order, and at the latter part of the period they began to deteriorate in quality and size.

The Tudor period may be called the decadent period of brasses, for the drawings were often disproportionate and lightly cut, the figures crude, and the plates thin. There is often an excess of “shading” in them which detracts from the beautiful simplicity of the drawing. The practice of laying down these brasses, probably through these very causes, began to decay, the last known being laid in 1773 A.D.

Copies of brasses, or _rubbings_, are made in a very simple and interesting manner by taking a sheet of white lining paper (plain wallpaper), laying it upon the brass, and carefully rubbing over it with a piece of shoemaker’s heel-ball. The flat portions of the brass “catch” the heel-ball during the process, while the incised lines are left white, and if care be taken that the paper does not shift, a very faithful copy of the brass can be made. The rubbing should be continued until a deep black tone is obtained, for the heel-ball does not smear on the paper.

Most clergymen are proud of the brasses in their churches, and readily give permission for rubbings to be taken from them if a courteous application be made.

Brasses are not scattered at random throughout the country. They are met with most frequently in the eastern and home counties. Probably this is because these parts are nearest to Flanders, and the cost of transporting the sheets of brass far inland would be a considerable addition to their cost.

(For those who wish to pursue this subject, Macklin’s _Brasses of England_ (Methuen) and Suffling’s _English Church Brasses_ (Upcott Gill) will be found most useful, as in addition to other matter they contain a register of all brasses known in the British Isles.)

(Fig. 1): The despoiled slab of Bishop Beaumont of Durham,
about 1335 A.D., showing the matrix for the brass in the slab,
and also the form of a canopy brass. The place where the
inscription was fixed is shown in the white band just inside
the edge. (Fig. 2): The brass of a Notary (name lost), about
1475 A.D., in St. Mary Tower Church, Ipswich. “Notaries wore a
plain gown, with an ink-horn and pen-case suspended from the
belt, and a scarf and cap on the left shoulder.” (Macklin.)
(Fig. 3): The brass of Dame Elizabeth Harvey, Benedictine
Abbess of Elstow, Bedfordshire, about 1525 A.D. Figs. 2 and 3
show the actual appearance of “rubbings” of brasses.]

HERALDRY.

Heraldry has been called the “shorthand of history,” and “the critical desire for accuracy, which fortunately seems to have been the keynote of research” during recent times, necessitates an inquiry into the history and practice of Heraldry, which played such an important part in the life of the Middle Ages.

It is not believed that the Normans at the Conquest bore any “arms” on their shields. There are certain markings shown on the shields in the Bayeux Tapestry, but they were probably bands and bosses used for the purpose of strengthening them.

As a system, heraldry was not organised until the twelfth or thirteenth century. It was probably introduced into England from France, as all the terms used in the practice are French.

The two great factors in the extensive and almost universal practice of heraldry were the tournaments and jousts, and the Crusades. All the sovereigns of Europe, and particularly the Kings of England, encouraged the former, because of the excellent practice in the use of arms and the rigorous training they gave.

Clothed, as the combatants were, in their armour, their features concealed within the heaumes or helmets, it became a necessity for them to bear some distinctive marks or devices, either as “crests” on their helmets or as armorial bearings or “arms” upon their shields, their surcoats, their pennons and banners.

The retainers of a knight followed their master, and rallied around him, recognising him by these features, and their battle cry became, in many cases, the family motto, and has so remained until this day.

At first the crest, which was of large size, was made of leather, but later on it was made of wood or steel. Originally the devices upon the shields were few and simple, and consisted of bands fastened to the shields in various positions (Figs. 1 to 18) to strengthen them. These were termed “honourable ordinaries.” When the surface of the shield was coloured, these bands would be coloured differently. As the custom of bearing these devices became more universal, and the number of knights increased, it became necessary to add many others and to modify and differentiate in many ways the existing ones. The simplest “arms” are consequently held to be the most honourable, as they imply greater antiquity. Many devices were granted and borne in recognition of feats of arms or of important duties performed, as, in later days, the Douglas family were privileged to bear on their shield a heart (later on surmounted by a crown), in commemoration of the fact that a Douglas had the honour of bearing the heart of Robert Bruce to the Holy Land. (Fig. 21.) Often, after the performance of a particularly heroic deed on the battlefield, knights were rewarded by being granted the right to wear some suitable commemorative device upon their shields. These had a similar significance to the V.C. or D.S.O. awarded nowadays, with the additional advantage that they were hereditary.

In the Crusades, which formed the other great factor in the growth and practice of heraldry, it became necessary to distinguish the knights of different nations from one another. The English wore a white cross on the right shoulder of their cloaks. Similarly the French wore a red one, the Flemings a green one, and the warriors from the Roman States two keys crossed as in a St. Andrew’s cross or Saltire.

As a special inducement to the warriors of the West, the Pope promised that any soldier, whatever his rank or station, who slew an infidel in battle, should be declared noble, and be at liberty to adopt any device he might choose as a memento of the part he had taken in the Wars of the Cross. Hence, many devices connected with the Holy Land and the Crusades were introduced into and remain in heraldry--_e.g._, the scalloped shell, the palmer’s staff, bezants (gold coins of Byzantium), water bougets (leathern water-bottles), crescents, stars, scimitars, Saracens’ heads, and the numerous forms of the cross. Probably from the same source came such mythical creatures as the dragon, the wyvern, and the cockatrice.

In time, the arms of knights became hereditary. A man, on the death of his father, received proudly his father’s sword and his shield, and appreciated the dignity of thus being associated with the honourable achievements of his parent.

Before this practice had become general, a young knight commenced his knightly career with a perfectly plain (argent) shield, and he _achieved_ or won the right to bear devices upon it; hence the arms which were displayed on it were called his _achievements_. The whole surface of the shield was called “the field” because he performed his deeds, recorded on the shield, on the “field of battle.”

Sometimes a knight adopted arms representing his name--_e.g._, the arms of Lucy were “three luce or pike”; the family of Colthurst had “a colt” as crest. These were called “canting arms,” and were obviously not granted for any feat of daring. Symbolism played a prominent part in the selection of arms and crests, for kings and leaders displayed on their shields lions and eagles--the emblems of courage and power and kingly authority. The castle was an emblem of stability, and this device was also granted to knights who successfully defended or reduced a castle.

The followers of knights and nobles adopted the habit of wearing a device called a _badge_, taken from the arms of their lord, and they wore costumes of the chief colours of his shield. These were called liveries, and from this is derived the modern custom of the liveries of men-servants. Most famous of these liveries were the Plantagenets--scarlet and white; the Lancastrians--blue and white; the Yorkists--blue and crimson; the Tudors--white and green. The common people, at the time when heraldry was most generally practised, were quite illiterate, but everyone could read and understand the devices of heraldry.

Among the most famous badges worn by retainers were the _Planta genista_, or broom plant of the Plantagenets, and the roses, red and white, of the Lancastrians and Yorkists. The Tudor family fittingly adopted as a badge a double rose, consisting of a white rose within a red one, to signify the union of the two great families. Village inns were named after a prominent device borne upon the shield of the local lord of the manor, and in this way we get such names as the Red Lion, the Blue Boar, the White Hart, the Rose and Crown, etc.

Many knights were spoken of by their badges--_e.g._, Henry Tudor speaks to his followers of “the wretched, bloody, and usurping boar,” meaning Richard III., one of whose badges was the boar.

The surcoat, or sleeveless coat, was adopted, worn over the armour, to lessen the discomfort caused by the sun’s rays striking directly on the armour. It became a magnificent garment of velvet or silk, elaborately embroidered with the armorial bearings in silk and gold (hence the origin of the word “coat-of-arms”).

This garment still survives in the Tabard of the Royal Heralds, on which are embroidered the arms of the sovereign.

During the reigns of Edward III. and Henry V., owing to the French Wars and their effect upon the martial population of England, heraldry was practised most extensively and had its noblest application, but during the reign of that butterfly king, Richard II., it reached its most fantastic heights.

After the reign of Edward IV., the value and importance attached to the correct practice of heraldry declined, for during the Wars of the Roses many noble families became exterminated, and Henry VII. ennobled many of the upper middle classes to take their places. To this, and the profuse creation of knights’ bannerets or baronets by James I., may be attributed the gradual decline of heraldry, and the ridiculous grants of arms made in the Georgian period contributed still further to that effect.

The various tinctures (or colours), metals, and furs are
represented by lines, etc., in black-and-white drawings.
(Figs. 1 to 8): Showing those most commonly in use. (1):
Gold (or). (2): Silver (argent). (3): Red (gules). (4): Blue
(azure). (5): Black (sable). (6): Green (vert). (7): Ermine.
(8): Vair. Nos. 1 and 2 are metals, 3-6 colours, 7 and 8
furs. The heraldic names are given in brackets. (Figs. 9 to
18): Honorouble ordinaries (bands upon the shields). (9): A
chief. (10): A pale. (11): A fess. (12): A bend dexter. (13):
A bend sinister. (14): A chevron. (15): A cross. (16): A
saltire or St. Andrew’s cross. (17): A pile. (18): A bordure.
The shields were also divided or “parted” into differently
coloured portions by lines following the position of these
ordinaries--_e.g._ (Fig. 19): Shows a shield “parted per pale”
(see 10.) (Fig. 20): “Parted per chevron” (see 14). (Fig. 20):
Also shows the different portions of a shield--A, the chief; B,
the base; C, the dexter (right) side; D, the sinister (left)
side; E, the dexter chief; F. the sinister chief. (Fig. 21):
Arms of the Douglas family. (Fig. 22): A lion rampant--typical
of animals borne upon the shield. (Fig. 23): A castle--typical
of inanimate objects. (Fig. 24): The banner of the Knights
Templars, the renowned _Beauseant_, black above and white
below, to denote that while fierce to their foes they were
gracious to their friends. (Fig. 25): Badge of Henry VIII.,
typifying the union of England (the rose) with Spain (the
pomegranate) in the persons of Henry and Katherine of Aragon.
(Fig. 26): A Tabard from a brass of 1444. The arms: Argent,
a chevron between three crosses patée sable. (In describing
a coat of arms, the colour of the shield or field is always
given first, in this case being argent or white.) (Fig. 27):
Crest of the Duke of Hamilton, “an oak tree covered with
golden acorns, the trunk being cut transversely by a frame
saw, on the blade of which is inscribed the word ‘_Through_’.”
This commemorates the fact that an ancestor of the Duke of
Hamilton, when fleeing before his enemies, was pursued closely
into a wood, accompanied only by a faithful retainer. He
bribed two woodcutters, who were sawing the trunk of an oak
tree, to let him and his servant take their places. Soon after
the fugitives had commenced sawing, their pursuers came up
and questioned them (thinking them to be woodcutters) as to
the whereabouts of the men they were pursuing. The servant,
frightened, began to falter, but Hambledon sternly bade him go
on with his sawing and cut “through.” After reaching a place
of safety, Sir Gilbert de Hambledon adopted the above crest
and motto, and they have continued in the family to this day.
(Fig. 28): “Shield for Peace” of the Black Prince, described
heraldically as “sable, three ostrich feathers, two and one,
the quill of each passing through a scroll argent.” The Black
Prince was, according to Mr. Fox-Davies, probably so called
on account of black being his livery colour, and that his own
retainers and followers wore the livery of black. (Fig. 29):
Badge of Richard II.--a white hart. (Fig. 30): Upper part of a
heraldic achievement. Over the shield is placed an esquire’s
helmet surmounted by a crest upon a torse or wreath, with a
lambrequin or mantling between the wreath and the helmet.
The _torse_, representing two twisted silken scarves, was
worn to hide the junction of the crest with the helmet. It
must consist of six links alternatively of metal and colour
(the livery colours of the arms). The mantling was a “little
mantle” depending from the crown of the helmet and hanging
over the back of the neck as a protection against heat. In
the course of a fight it would become rent and slashed. Hence
it has become the custom to make it very ragged as a sign of
honour. (Fig. 31): Crest of William Earl of Salisbury, c.
1344, from his seal.]

THE TUDOR NAVY.

Henry VII. founded the first English permanent dockyard at Portsmouth, and built in 1495 the first dry dock in England. During his reign 85 vessels at least were added to the Navy, some being purchased, some taken as prizes, and others (about 46) built.

The first great ship in mediæval times was the _Great Harry_, built by Henry VII. in 1488, and costing £14,000; but up to this time vessels had no portholes from which the guns could be fired.

This was the invention of a ship-builder of Brest, named Descharges, in 1500, and by its adoption, guns could be fired from the lower decks. The early portholes, however, were so small that the guns could consequently only be worked in one direction. This did not matter very much, as it was usual, on account of the difficulties of loading, only to fire the guns once or twice, and then to run alongside the enemy and board him.

In 1515 the great English man-of-war, _Harry Grace à Dieu_, was built by Henry VIII. She had two decks, and carried 14 heavy guns on the lower deck, 12 on the upper deck, and 46 other guns arranged in different quarters of the vessel--a total of 72 guns. The heavy guns weighed from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs., and gave the English ships a distinct advantage over their less heavily armed enemies.

She had four masts and a bowsprit, all square rigged. There were two sails on each of the first and second masts (“foer” and “mayne”), and a lateen sail on each of the other two masts (“mayne mizzen” and “bonaventure”).

The _Harry_ was estimated at 1,000 or 1,500 tons, the system of measuring a ship at the time being to estimate how many tons or tun casks of wine she could carry.

The other ships of war built in this reign were constructed on similar lines to the _Harry_, but on a smaller scale. At this time the larger ships of the Navy were divided into two classes, “ships” and “galliasses,” the latter being huge galleys propelled by sweeps or large oars.

As progress was made, the height of the fore-castles was lowered, and the keels of these ships were covered with a lead sheathing. In the reign of Elizabeth there was a considerable improvement in the general construction of the vessels. They were not made of large size, but under the direction of Sir John Hawkins they were built on longer keels, with finer lines and lower superstructures than before, and on account of these improvements they were capable of carrying more sail and sailing more swiftly. The sides of ships were painted black and white or green and white or timber colour. Figureheads (lions or dragons) at the bows and the Royal Arms in gold and colours at the stern were used to decorate them. It is interesting to note that the cooking galley was solidly built of bricks and mortar upon the gravel ballast down in the hold.

The large vessels continued to have four masts, and the armament was the same as in the reign of Henry VIII., the largest guns, “great ordnance,” being 12 feet long, with a bore of 8½ inches, and an extreme range of about one mile. The largest ships had from 40 to 60 of these “great ordnance,” and there were also provided for each ship 200 arquebuses or cross-bows, 40 longbows, and 180 sheaves of arrows.

It had been the custom for many years to carry a great many soldiers in each ship, in addition to the crew of sailors. The _Great Harry_ carried “soldiers 349, marines 301, and gunners 50.” The soldiers consisted of musketeers and archers, allotted to each ship under their own officers. The captain was not selected for his skill as a sailor; in fact, he was also the King’s Master of the Horse and a soldier by profession.

The actual handling of the ship was left to the Master. At the end of the sixteenth century the war vessels no longer carried soldiers, the sailors being trained to fight and sail the ships themselves. In the reign of Elizabeth, too, the custom of putting landsmen in command was modified, and seamen-captains, such as Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, commanded some of the fighting ships of the Royal Navy.

After any special service on which the vessels had been engaged was completed, the ships were laid up, the captains retired to private life, and the seamen, who were paid by the week or the month, were discharged; only a small body of officers and men, ship-keepers, being retained to take charge of the vessel in harbour.

It is interesting to find that the following was the pay of some of the various ranks of the Navy about 1588:

Admiral, from £3 6s. 8d. to 15s. per day; Captain, 2s. 6d. per day. All the other ranks were paid by the month: Lieutenant (one only on each ship), £3; Master, £1 to £3 2s. 6d.; Preacher, £2 to £3; Boatswain, 13s. 9d. to £1 10s.; Master Carpenter, 17s. 6d. to £1 5s.; Surgeon, £1; Cook, 13s. 9d. to 17s. 6d.; Sailor, 10s. (In the time of Henry VIII. the sailor only received 5s. per month.) As an instance of the religious feeling that existed in those times, the Preachers said prayers twice a day, “and there was, besides, the singing of a psalm at watch setting, a very old custom in the English sea service.”

With regard to the clothing of the sailors, Edward IV. is said to have provided “jackets,” probably a kind of uniform, and the practice was continued by Henry VII. Henry VIII. also, as long as he had ample funds (from his late father’s treasury), clothed the sailors in the Tudor colours (white and green), cloth being worn by the sailors and damask and satin, by the officers.

Sailors were allowed a gallon of beer a day, as water was not carried on men-of-war until the middle of the seventeenth century.

Henry VIII. is said to have “refashioned the Navy in the direction of shipbuilding, armament, and administration. He may be said to have created it, since from his reign it has been recognised as the special national arm.” In Elizabeth’s time the standing strength of the Navy was about 2,000 to 3,000 men.

(Fig. 1): The _Ann Gallant_, a man-of-war constructed in the
reign of Henry VIII. (1546). The lofty forecastle and poop
were still found in the ships of this reign. Vessels were now
built “carrel” fashion, _i.e._, with the planks laid edge to
edge, instead of “clincher” built, where the planks overlap
one another; for it was considered that the former style of
building gave greater strength. (Fig. 2): An Elizabethan
man-of-war. The St. George’s Cross, which was the national
flag, and was only permitted to men-of-war, is carried at the
main-top, while the Tudor flag of green and white is carried
at the stern. Fighting tops will be seen on all the masts; the
high poop is very noticeable, while the forecastle has almost
disappeared.]

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

During the Plantagenet period, for the first times the effigies of English sovereigns give authentic representation of regal costume in form and colour (having been painted to imitate the actual clothing).

The Royal Robes of Henry II., Richard I., and John consist of (1) an undergarment with close-fitting sleeves; (2) a tunic-like garment with loose sleeves, called a _dalmatica_, which is girded round the waist by a belt; (3) a mantle, richly embroidered, covering all. The costume of the nobles was similar in form and style to these, stockings and chausses being worn, and the habit of “cross-gartering” the leg from the toe to above the knee was continued; but during the reigns of these soverigns, splendour of appearance was studied rather than quaintness of shape.

The costume of ladies consisted of (1) an under robe with sleeves, close-fitting at the wrist; (2) a loose garment, like the dalmatica, but without sleeves; (3) a mantle. A head-dress, called the _wimple_, was worn. This consisted of a piece of silk or linen passing under the chin, with the ends gathered overhead, and was first mentioned in the reign of John. It was worn with a veil hanging down by the sides of the face and over the back of the head.

A purse to hold money for the giving of alms was suspended from the girdle. It is worthy of note that the general costume of nuns at the present day is, in all but colour, the usual dress of women of the thirteenth century.

The dress of the lower classes did not vary much from that of the preceding period. It consisted of a plain tunic, strong boots, and a hood or hat for the head, with coarsely made gloves without separate fingers. A cap called a _coif_, fitting close to the head and fastened under the chin, was often worn by men of all classes.

During the reign of Henry III. the general costume of men consisted of the tunic, open in front to the waist, chausses or stockings and drawers. Mantles and cloaks were only used for State or for travelling, the materials used for these being very rich.

A garment called a _super-totus_ (over-all), acting as an overcoat, was commonly worn. It consisted of a circular piece of cloth with a hole in the centre, through which the head was passed, and to it was often attached a hood or _capuchon_, which became very popular and held its own for about 300 years.

The costumes of women and of ordinary citizens were essentially the same as in the preceding reigns, but the hair of the ladies was gathered up into a network or caul of gold and silver filigree, instead of being arranged in plaits.

Edward I. dressed in a very plain manner, differing little from an ordinary citizen, and consequently there was little extravagance of dress in his reign. The ladies, however, wore their garments unconfined at the waist, very full, and with long trains.

On account of their extravagance in this respect, they were very much satirised by contemporary writers. They also wore a very ugly form of the wimple. There was no change in the dress of the lower classes excepting that a kind of smock frock, made generally of canvas or fustian, was worn by both sexes. Edward II., with his favourites, Gaveston and the Despensers, made the Court “a wild debauch of costume and foppish eccentricities.”

The costume of ladies changed very little during this reign, but the practice of wearing the head uncovered became more general.

In the costume of men, the greatest change was the displacement of the loose tunic or dalmatica by a garment called the _côte-hardi_, fitting tightly from the neck to the waist, with a skirt below.

The hood or capuchon was modified by the tail or point at the back, being extended until it reached to the waist, this tail being often wound round the neck in cold weather as a kind of muffler.

A similar kind of hood was also in use, covering the head and shoulders and reaching to the elbow.

In this reign a new source of authentic information is available in the brasses which are found in our churches. They are very well preserved, and show the details of costume very clearly and accurately. For this reason they are invaluable.

Edward III. has been called “the King who taught the English people how to dress,” and it is worthy of note that the costumes worn during his reign followed the lines of the body itself.

The use of the côti-hardi increased. It was often made of very expensive materials, and long narrow strips of white cloth called _tippets_ were added to the sleeves, reaching from the elbow to the knee.

Many garments were parti-coloured, _i.e._, one side was one colour and the other side of another colour. It is interesting to note that black came into use as a mourning colour during the fourteenth century. A mantle was worn by men over the côti-hardi, reaching to the ankles and fastened on the right shoulder by several buttons, while the hood was fastened to the mantle. In this reign the chausses were made like trunk hose, and fitted tightly to the limbs. Pointed shoes were worn, and a curious form of hat with turned-up brim and tall feathers was introduced. The lower class of labourers dressed as their fancy guided them, so that all the fashions of preceding reigns may be recognised in their attire.

The ladies dressed very sumptuously during the reign of Edward III. An innovation in their costume was a kind of spencer or waistcoat, faced and bordered with fur, to which sometimes sleeves reaching to the waist were worn. The côti-hardi was also adopted as a feminine garment.

In the reign of Richard II. the costumes were ever changing, the King himself being the greatest fop, and extravagances in form and sumptuousness of material was carried to a remarkable excess. Holinshed says “he had one cote which he caused to be made for him of gold and (precious) stones, valued at 30,000 marks” (a mark being 13s. 4d.).

The famous portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey is a fine example of the dress of an extravagant King of that time. The fashion of embroidering the dress with heraldic devices, family badges, initials, and mottoes became common during this period. The edges of the garments were also cut and scalloped, very richly decorated, and often set with precious stones.

The servants of the nobility were sumptuously attired, and there was universal extravagance throughout the nation. So extreme was the dress of the courtiers that it was said to be difficult to distinguish the sex of the wearer if the face were turned away. Costumes were not only worn wide and flowing, but they sometimes went to the other extreme, the garments being worn very short and tight-fitting.

The shoes were made with very long points called _crackowes_ (so named from Cracow, in Poland). Sometimes the points were so long that they were fastened to the knee by chains of gold and silver.

Ladies’ dresses in this reign did not differ much from those of Edward III.’s, but tippets were discarded, and the dresses were ornamented, like the men’s, with heraldic devices, initials, etc.

Chaucer has given us the best information regarding the costumes of the different grades of English society during this reign.

The upper classes wore a short _jupon_, or tight-fitting vest, parti-coloured, with narrow waist belt and tight sleeves. A loose body garment, with full-hanging scalloped sleeves, was also worn. Over all was worn a great gown, trailing on the ground, with full, long sleeves and a high collar fitting tightly under the chin. Both hoods and felt caps were worn, and a peculiar variety of the latter was in fashion formed of strips arranged in fan fashion.

The hair of the men was worn long, and was curled with great care. The beard was forked, and the moustaches were long and drooping.

The lower orders varied little in their dress from that of the reign of Edward III.

(Fig. 1): A nobleman of the thirteenth century. (MS. Bod.
Auct. D., iv. 17.) A good example of the costume of the
nobility of the time. The dalmatica is plainly shown, open
up the front. In the MS. it is red, decorated with groups
of spots, with a white lining. The mantle is blue; the long
gloves are green. Red chausses are worn on the legs, with a
cross-gartering of gold from the toes upwards. The hat is
blue, and a small portion of the knickers is also shown. (Fig.
2): The hood or capuchon, with a long tail as worn in the
reign of Edward II. (Fig. 3): Costume of a man in the reign
of Edward III., from the brass of Robert Braunche, 1364, at
King’s Lynn. He is dressed in the plain costume of the period,
while a hat with a feather is worn over the hood. (Figs. 4 and
5): Hats of the time of Edward III., probably made of white
felt, with coloured turned-up brims and long feathers. (Fig.
6): Costume of a youth in Early Plantagenet times. He wears
an ornamental tippet round the neck, with a plain, bordered
tunic, tight at the waist, and closed all round. He also
wears chausses and high boots. (Fig. 7): Costume of a lady
in the reign of Henry III., from Matthew Paris’s “Lives of
the Offas.” (Cotton MS., Nero D 1.) The dress is very simple,
there is an absence of ornament or decoration, and the gown
is loose, falling to the feet in ample folds. (Figs. 8 and
9): Hoods at the time of Edward II. (Fig. 8): Shows the hood,
closely fitting to the head and neck, with the point that
usually hangs down drawn up over the head. (Fig 9): Shows the
long tail of the hood wound around the head. (Figs. 10 and
11): The ordinary costume of the labouring classes during the
time of Edward II. (Royal MS., 14 E 3.) The man wears a long
gown, buttoned from the neck to the waist, with loose hanging
sleeves below the elbow, showing the tight sleeve of the time.
The head and shoulders are covered by a hood hanging down. The
shoes reach to the ankle, are slightly ornamented, and have
pointed toes. The woman carries a distaff, and wears a hood or
kerchief swathed round the head and knotted at the side. She
has a wide, short gown, which, being caught up under the arm,
shows the under garment and high buttoned boots. (Fig 12):
Bronze figure of a daughter of Edward III., from his tomb in
Westminster Abbey (1377). She wears a dress, however, which
was in vogue twenty years earlier. The hair is arranged in
square plaits at the sides of the head. There is an absence
of any decorative material round the low-cut neck, and she
has vertical front pockets in her tightly fitting gown, with
long streamers hanging from the arms down to the feet. (Figs.
13 and 14): Two methods of “doing the hair” in the time of
Edward I. (Fig. 14): Shows the hair enclosed in a caul or net,
and is spoken of as “the reticulated head-dress.” (Fig. 15):
Head-dress from the Braunche Brass. (King’s Lynn, 1354.) (Fig.
16): The Coif.]

(Fig. 1): Bronze figure of Lionel Duke of Clarence (a son of
Edward III.), from the tomb of the latter in Westminster Abbey
(1377). It illustrates the ordinary costume of a gentleman
at the end of the fourteenth century. He is attired in the
côti-hardi or jupon, fastened down the front with buttons,
and wears an ornamented girdle around the hips, while a
large, full mantle reaches down to the ankles. The chausses
are very similar in appearance to trunk hose, and fit tightly
to the limbs; while the beard is forked after the fashion of
the period. (Fig 2): Brass of Joan, Lady de Cobham, 1320, at
Cobham, Kent. She wears a kind of wimple under the chin called
the _gorget_ (which copies a part of the knightly armour of
the period), with a couvre-chef over the head falling on
to the shoulders, completing the head-dress. She wears an
under garment with tight-fitting sleeves, which are closely
buttoned to the wrist, and a loose robe with loose sleeves
terminating below the elbow. (Fig 3): A fop of the reign
of Richard II., when the fashion of “cutting” the mantles in
patterns reached a very absurd limit. The sleeves are cut
at the edges into a number of acanthus-like lobes, and are
lined with another colour. The robe has a high collar, is
very full, and hangs in loose folds to the ground. The shoes,
which are elaborately pierced and cut, are of the long-toed
variety known as “crackowes,” and the point of the toe is
fastened to the leg below the knee. He also carries a long
purse or bag suspended from the girdle. (Harl. MS., 1319.)
(Fig. 4): Costume of the early part of Edward III.’s reign.
A semi-military dress with a breastplate worn under the
côte-hardi. A very characteristic feature of the costume is
formed by the tippets--long strips of white cloth, which are
fastened to the arms above the elbow. (MS. 17 E vi.) (Fig.
5): Costume of a labourer of the better class of the time of
Edward III. The tail of the hood is worn around the head.
(Fig 6): Costume of a nobleman in the reign of Richard II.,
probably representing one of his royal uncles. (Royal MS., 20
B vi.) It shows another extravagant dress of the period. The
gown is abbreviated to the hips; the sleeves are wide, and
the chausses are tight-fitting to the limbs; while the shoes
have long pointed toes. He wears a jewelled circlet around the
forehead. (Figs. 7, 8, 9): Costumes of ladies in the reign of
Richard II. (Fig. 7): Shows the sideless garment faced with
fur, terminating in long, full skirts worn over the kirtle (or
loose gown). (Fig. 9): Shows a lady with the outer sleeveless
garment, so long as to be gathered up and carried under the
arm. (Figs. 10, 11, 12): Various forms of head-dresses of men
of the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 13): A singular kind of hood
covering the head and shoulders, reaching to the elbows, and
having pointed ends spreading out at each side. This was worn
in the time of Edward III.]

MAIL ARMOUR.

Pure mail armour, _i.e._, armour worn without additional defence over the mail but the heaume, was in use from 1150 A.D. to 1300 A.D., but its use was finally discontinued about 1350 A.D.

There were several kinds of mail, and different ways of representing it on effigies, brasses, etc., _viz._:

(_a_) Mail apparently formed of rings or _mailles_, sewn on
to a leather garment by the edge only, and arranged so that
one ring overlapped the next.

(_b_) Mail formed of rows of rings sewn on strips of linen
or leather, the strips being then applied to the garment.

(_c_) Mail formed of rings interlocked with each other
(chain mail).