Chapter IV: Preface (4)

(_d_) Mail called “banded mail,” in which double lines
separated each row of links.

(_e_) Armour formed of rings or small discs of metal sewn
flat all over the garment.

Another similar kind of armour was formed of scales or overlapping plates of leather or metal, fastened to a leather or linen foundation.

The chain mail or armour formed of interlacing rings was finally adopted throughout Western Europe, being copied from that of the Saracens in the Crusades.

We have not many contemporary illustrations of the armour and knightly apparel in the period between the Norman Conquest and the Edwardian era.

There are but few illuminated MSS.; sepulchral monuments are not numerous, and the valuable series of monumental brasses had not begun.

The plaited or mail shirt of the Early Norman was superseded by a stout, quilted tunic, also called the _hauberk_, reaching to the knees and with short sleeves, and a _coif_ or hood of mail on the head.

Frequently a metal breastplate or _plastron-de-fer_, and a steel cap or _chapel-de-fer_, were worn under the mail. Sometimes over the coif a close-fitting iron helmet was worn. The hauberk sleeves were lengthened, covering the hands as mittens or fingerless gloves of strong leather strengthened by mail or pieces of metal.

The legs were covered with long leggings or trews of mail called _chausses_, protecting all the lower limbs from the thighs to the toes. In the twelfth century the chain mail was made very light, like that of the Saracens. It was made of steel rings, connected with each other, without being fastened to the leather garment worn underneath--similar, in fact, to the ordinary steel purse. On account of it great cost, this mail was not worn by the common soldiers. Beneath the mail hauberk, as an additional defence, and to relieve the pressure of the mail, a quilted tunic was worn, known as a _haketon_, or a _gambeson_.

The haketon was made of buckram, stuffed with cotton-wool and quilted. The gambeson was a sleeved tunic, of stout, coarse linen, stuffed with flax or wool, and sewn longitudinally.

In the reign of Richard I., the close-fitting helmet was superseded by the _Heaume_, great helm or tilting helmet. It was large enough to put easily over the head, and long enough to rest on the shoulders.

It was at first nearly cylindrical, and generally had a flat top. There were openings in front to allow the wearer to see and breathe. During the mail period, no heaume is represented with a movable visor.

In monumental effigies and brasses, a knight is often represented with his heaume under his head as a pillow, and it was the custom actually to use it for that purpose when resting after a day’s journey or fighting.

The heaume was only put on when actual fighting in battle or in the lists was about to commence. At other times, it was carried at the saddle-bow, and, lest it should be dropped or struck off when on the head, it was fastened to the body armour by a chain, passing through a ring in front. Towards the close of the twelfth century the use of armorial bearings was introduced.

Each knight assumed a device, which was exclusively used by him, by which he was recognised, and which became hereditary in his family. This device was usually displayed on the shield, and on the surcoat, when the use of that garment was adopted.

The form of the shield was changed from that of a kite to that of a “heater,” or flat-iron. It was also made much smaller.

The arms of the knight were the sword, the lance, the mace, the battle-axe, the military flail, and the martel. The sword belt, slung over the shoulder in Norman times, was now fastened around the waist or hips. The sword varied little in form from that of Norman times.

The lance was never used as a javelin, but was made strong, generally of uniform thickness, and varied in length. The head was very broad, and without barbs.

All knights had a pointed or swallow-tailed pennon fastened to the lance; but nobles who brought a number of retainers to battle displayed a square banner on the lance. These knights were called _Bannerets_.

Foot soldiers were armed with the cross-bow--a formidable weapon with which short, stout missiles, called bolts or quarrels, were shot--the long-bow, the halberd, the bill, the guisarme (all shafted weapons), and the sling. In time, the chausses were cut into two pieces at the knees; the lower part, corresponding with the modern stocking, protected the leg, and the upper portion protected the thigh. In order to protect the knee, a knee-cap, or _genouillière_ of cuir bouilli, was fastened over it.

The sleeves of the hauberk were similarly cut into two parts at the elbow, and elbow caps, or _coudières_, of leather came into use over the elbow joint.

At the end of the 12th century, a flowing surcoat of linen or silk was worn over the armour. This generally bore the same heraldic device as the shield, and its use was probably to lessen the effect of the sun’s rays upon the mail. At first, this surcoat had no sleeve, but in the second half of the 13th century sleeves were added to it, and at the same time the hauberk was shortened.

About 1270, the mailed mittens were divided into fingers, and the helmet was rounded at the top.

The spurs consisted of single spikes, and were called “pryck” spurs.

(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington, in Trumpington
Church, Cambridge, 1289. The head rests on the Heaume, which
is of large size. The latter is fastened to a rope around the
waist, by means of a chain. The knight is represented with
his legs crossed. It was thought at one time that this showed
that the knight had taken part in the Crusades, but it is
now considered by some that he was probably a benefactor to
the church. Others think that it was merely a device of the
engraver to lessen the stiff appearance of the figure. All
the features of mail armour to which attention has already
been directed, may easily be seen in this figure, and the
knees are covered by genouillières (probably of cuir bouilli),
which are the first pieces of additional armour worn over the
mail. It will be noticed in this plate that there are four
ways in which mail armour is represented, viz., in Figs. 1,
2, and 3, 5, and 9. (Fig. 2): Head of the effigy of William
Earl of Pembroke, which shows very clearly the way in which
the _coif de mailles_ was secured to the head, and lapped
round the face, being fastened to the left side, near the
temple, by a strap and buckle. (Fig. 3): Head of an effigy in
Pershore Church, Worcestershire, in which the lappet of the
_coif_ is represented as unloosed. (Fig. 4): A great heaume
of the 13th century, found at Eynesford Castle, Kent. The
ring at the bottom is for the attachment of the heaume to
the body armour. (Fig. 5): The heads of a group of soldiers,
from the Painted Chamber at Westminster. In this will be seen
the great diversity of equipment found among knights. In the
rear are shown two banners and a pennon. (Fig. 6): Heaume at
Staunton, Notts., 1312. On the top is seen the staple for
affixing the crest to the heaume. (Fig. 7): The heaume of
Richard I., taken from his Great Seal, showing a fan-shaped
ornament at the top, with a lion painted upon the crown.
(Fig. 8): Soldiers in a boat, engaged in siege operations.
One has a staff sling, which is apparently charged with some
combustibles. The archer is also discharging either a bag of
quick-lime or some combustible. The slingers were generally
bare-headed, and wore no body armour. The archer wears a coif
of mail or leather on his head, and a sleeveless hauberk on
his body. The third soldier carries a pole-axe, a sword, and a
spear. (Fig. 9): Head from the brass of Sir John D’Abernoun,
in Stoke D’Abernoun Church, Surrey, 1277. This is the earliest
known example of brass. The chain mail is represented in
great detail, every link being shown. Fig. A is a portion
of the mail enlarged. (Fig. 10): A spear with pennon, from
the same brass. (Fig. 11): A martel-de-fer, which was used
for breaking or dragging off the rings of the hauberk, and
opening a passage for other deadly weapons. (Fig. 12): A
guisarme, a powerful, scythe-shaped, shafted weapon, used by
foot soldiers. (Fig. 13): A banner, such as was carried by
Knights Bannerets, who must have a following of at least fifty
men-at-arms before they were qualified to carry this.]

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

_The Transition._--At the close of the Norman period, the quality of the masonry was very good, and the workmen had learnt how to economise their materials. The improvement continued until the work reached a high degree of perfection. The mouldings, the ornament, the sculpture, and all other details are of a lighter style, and more highly finished. The architecture that remains of this period is aptly termed “Transitional.” The transition, from the round-arched Norman style, with its heavy and massive appearance, and its strongly-marked horizontal lines, to the graceful Early English style, with its prominent vertical lines, is very gradual, and the first step in this direction was the introduction to general use of the pointed arch. This is considered the most characteristic element of Gothic architecture--its ever-increasing use permitting the slenderness of proportion, lightness, and loftiness of effect to be carried out to a marvellous extent.

Professor Freeman has traced the adoption of the pointed arch in Western Europe to influence of Saracenic architecture, which was extended in the West through the Crusades.

In the early examples, the features and general characteristics of the buildings are, in the main, the same as in the Norman style, but with the pointed arch employed in place of the round-headed one.

_Gothic Architecture._--This term was originally applied to the mediæval styles at the time of the Renaissance. It was given as a term of contempt when it was the fashion to write Latin and to expect it to become the universal language.

English Gothic is usually divided into three periods or styles, viz.: Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, prevailing (approximately) during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries respectively, although there was no strict division between them.

_Early English_ Reigns of Richard I., John and Henry III. (A.D. 1189-1272).--The characteristics of this style as compared with the Norman are, “the comparative lightness of the structures, the long, narrow, lancet-shaped, pointed windows, the boldly projecting buttresses and pinnacles, the acute pitch of the roof, and generally the variety, the beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of the ornaments.”

Internally, we have pointed arches, supported on slender and lofty pillars. When the style had become fully established, the builders appear to have revelled in it even to exuberance and excess.

Church building had received a severe check in the reign of John, during the interdict of 16 years that rested upon the kingdom, but soon after the accession of Henry III., who was himself an enthusiast, architecture revived and developed very rapidly.

One of the chief characteristics of the Early English styles consists in the _mouldings_, in which a new principle was embodied. This was the idea of obtaining effective combinations of light and shade by means of “undercutting.” Such a combination of projecting rounds and deep hollows would present to the eye the appearance of alternate bands of light and shade, the depths of the hollows causing them to appear almost black.

The most characteristic ornament of this style is the “_dog-tooth_” or “_tooth_” ornament. (Pl. 34, Figs. 9 and 11.) It consists of a series of flowers, each of the four petals, bent backwards, the division between the petals being placed in the middle of the sides of the pyramid thus formed.

A very striking peculiarity is the foliage used in sculpture, which is technically known as “_stiff-leaf foliage_,” though the stiffness is in the stems rather than in the leaves. The latter take the form of a conventional three-lobed foliage. (Pl. 35, Fig. 1.) It copied no individual leaf, “though it has all the essential qualities of Nature.” Its use gives great richness of effect to the building, and is supposed to have been developed by gradual change from the Classical Orders, chiefly from the Ionic Volute.

The _Crocket_ was also introduced as a new feature in this style. It is an ornament used to decorate the edges of the architectural units, and is supposed to be derived from the crook of a bishop’s pastoral staff. In fine Early English work the Abacus (Pl. 35, Fig. 1A) is circular, and is deeply undercut.

The _Pillars_ are usually round or octagonal. They are built of large blocks of dressed stone, and so differ from the Norman pillars, which consisted of rubble with a facing of stone. In the more important buildings they are formed of four or more slender shafts of Purbeck marble, which are placed around a large circular column of stone, and their dark colour causes them to “stand out” against the paler central stone pier.

The _Arches_ vary in form from a very blunt to a very sharp point, but they are generally acutely pointed, and are often richly moulded, as in Westminster Abbey. The mouldings, however, are the safest guide to the style, as the form of the pointed arch largely depends on convenience. As a rule, they are generally more acutely pointed in the cathedrals and large churches, whilst they are broader in small churches.

The _Windows_ in earlier examples are plain, long, and narrow, with acutely pointed heads. They are frequently spoken of as “lancet-shaped.”

The earliest form is that of a single light, with arched head and without moulding of any kind, external or internal. (Pl. 34, Fig. 1.) Windows of four lights are occasionally met with, but generally they consist of three, five, or seven lights, rising in height to the central one. They are often included under an arched moulding called a “dripstone.” (Pl. 34, Figs. 2, 3, 4A.)

Square-headed windows are not uncommon, but sometimes in these cases there is an arch or a dripstone in the form of an arch over the window.

When two lights were combined under one arch, a blank space called a “tympanum” was left between the heads of the lights and the arch; but in time this space began to be pierced with another small light, generally in the form of a circle, a trefoil, or a quatrefoil, which both relieved the blank space and admitted more light. (Pl. 34, Fig. 3.) When this is done in the stone work, it is called _plate tracery_, and from this is developed the window tracery of later times.

The Normans were doubtful about their skill in making ceilings of stone to cover large spaces, and consequently they generally built timber roofs. Over small spaces, however, they erected stone ceilings or “vaults,” which were quite plain. In this period the vaults are distinguished by having ribs in the angles of the groins, with carved masses of foliage in stone, called bosses, at the intersection of the ribs. (Pl. 34, Fig. 5.)

The _Buttresses_ (Pl. 35, Figs. 4, 5, and 6), instead of being merely flat strips of masonry, slightly projecting from the wall, as in the Norman Period, have now a bold projection, generally diminished upwards by stages, and terminate in a plain slope or a gable. By the use of this form of buttress it was possible to reduce the thickness of the wall. The corner of the building had a pair of buttresses at right angles to the wall, as if each wall had been continued beyond the point of junction--never one buttress placed diagonally, as in subsequent periods.

_Flying Buttresses_ at this period became prominent features in large buildings. They are arches springing from the wall buttresses to the walls, and they carry off the weight and consequent “thrust” of the roof, over the central space, obliquely down to the external buttress, and so down to the ground.

The _Roof_ was formed of timber, and was covered with the material most easily procurable in the district. A thatch of straw or reeds was probably the most common; shingles were procured where oak was plentiful, and slabs of stone and slate or tiles where they were obtainable. Lead was generally used only on very important buildings.

Spires were also often constructed of timber, and where the framework has become warped and twisted by the weather, we have a grotesque appearance, as in the twisted spire of Chesterfield.

(Fig. 1): Simple lancet window. (Fig. 2): A triple-lancet
window from Warmington, in Northants (about A.D. 1230). The
lights are placed under an arch or dripstone with the “eye”
solid. (Fig. 3): A window of two lights, with a quatrefoil
of plate tracery in the head, and a dripstone, terminated by
the characteristic ornament called a “mask” or a “buckle,”
from Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire (about A.D. 1240). (Fig.
4): Five lancet windows under one arch, with the spandrils
pierced, forming what are called the “eyes” of the window,
from Irthlingborough, Northants (about A.D. 1280). (Fig. 5):
Early English vault, groined, with moulded ribs on the groins
only, from Salisbury Cathedral (about A.D. 1240). (Fig. 6):
Pointed arch in the porch, from Barnack, Northants (about
A.D. 1250). (Fig. 7): A trefoil-arched doorway. (Fig. 8):
Characteristic Early English moulding (in section). (Fig.
9): “Dog-tooth” ornament in profile, showing how the name
probably arose. (Fig. 10): A transitional tower and spire,
from St. Denis, Sleaford, Lincolnshire. It shows a band of
interlaced, round-headed arches, while in the belfry light it
exhibits the pointed arch. The four corners are filled up with
half-pyramids inclining from the angles. This angle-pyramid,
which marks the transition from the square form of the tower
to the pointed form of the spire, is known as the _broach_,
and the “broach-spire” is quite the characteristic form
assumed by the early stone spires in England. (Fig. 11):
“Dog-tooth” ornament, front view. (Fig. 12): Door with
“shouldered” arch, from Lutton, Huntingdonshire (about A.D.
1200).]

(Fig. 1): Capitals in Lincoln Cathedral (A.D. 1220), showing
the moulded abacus (A) with undercutting, “stiff-leaf”
foliage, and the “dog-tooth” ornament used between the shafts.
(Fig. 2): Transitional Norman capital, at Oakham Castle,
Rutland (built between A.D. 1165 and 1191). An excellent
specimen of transitional work, retaining a good deal of the
Norman character, but late and rich. (Fig. 3): Moulded capital
in the form of a plain bell reversed, from Westminster Abbey
(A.D. 1250). (Figs. 4, 5, 6): Buttresses. (Fig. 7): Flying
buttresses, from Westminster Abbey. (Figs. 8 and 9): Plans of
Early English columns.]

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

Arms and armour, with all the accompaniments of chivalry, during the fourteenth century reached a pitch of great splendour. The French Wars and the extravagance of costume at the Courts of Edward III. and Richard II. encouraged this. From the constant use of armour in the wars and in the tournament, many modifications were found necessary to render it more comfortable and also more thoroughly protective. Towards the end of the thirteenth century additions had been made to the mail for the latter purpose, and this practice was continued in the fourteenth century by the addition of pieces of “plate” or sheet steel, until in the early part of the fifteenth century, knights were clothed in complete suits of plate armour.

The change was, however, very gradual, and the evolution may be best traced by considering it as taking place in certain fairly definite stages. The following is the usual division adopted:

_1st Period_: c. 1300 A.D.--c. 1325 A.D. _2nd Period_: c. 1325 A.D.--c. 1335 A.D. _3rd Period_: c. 1335 A.D.--c. 1360 A.D. _4th Period_: c. 1360 A.D.--c. 1405 A.D. _5th or Transition Period_: c. 1405 A.D.--c. 1410 A.D.

_1st Period_: c. 1300 A.D.--c. 1325 A.D. During this period the mail armour remained practically the same, but steel plates were fastened by straps (1) over the back of the upper arm and the front of the fore-arm (the parts most exposed to a blow); (2) over the shins (_jambarts_) and continued over the front of the feet as a series of metal plates riveted to one another, called _sollerets_; (3) in front of the shoulders and to protect the armpits (_roundles_.)

Gauntlets or armoured gloves (with separate fingers) were introduced about this time.

The surcoat was worn shorter and with less fulness about the body.

_2nd Period_: c. 1325 A.D.--c. 1335 A.D. The surcoat was superseded by a garment called a _cyclas_, which was slit open and laced up at the sides, and was much shorter in front than behind. (See Fig. 1, Pl. 36.) It thus shows the escalloped and fringed border of a padded garment or _gambeson_ worn between the cyclas and the mail hauberk, while below the mail was worn another padded garment--the _haketon_.

The whole must have formed a very cumbersome combination. The plates on the arms were enlarged so as to form cylinders, encasing the limbs, opening with a hinge at one side and fastening with buckle and strap or rivets at the other side. Those covering the fore-arm were worn under the sleeve of the hauberk, which was often cut off below the elbow.

Plates were still worn on the knees, legs, and feet.

The _Basinet_, a comparatively light and close-fitting helmet, was worn without a mail coif beneath it; but to protect the neck a kind of tippet of mail called the _camail_ was fastened by laces to the basinet, and hung down over the breast, back, and shoulders. The basinet was open at the face or had a movable face-piece (_visor_ or _ventaille_). In battle it was worn with the face-piece, but for the tournament the visor was removed and the heaume or great helmet, with its crest and mantling, placed over it.

The shield was small and of the “heater” shape, and “pryck” spurs gave place to spurs with rowels.

_3rd Period_: c. 1335 A.D.--c. 1360 A.D. Splinted armour, _i.e._, armour consisting of small overlapping plates (like the shell of a lobster), was introduced, and a garment called the _pourpoint_ (like a haketon, but made of finer material, faced with silk or ornamented with needlework) was worn over the hauberk.

The surcoat was again worn, shortened to the knee and shaped to fit the body closely above the waist. The armorial bearings of the wearer were embroidered in silks upon it.

It must be remembered that there was no uniform--in the modern sense--for knights and men-at-arms, but each dressed as he liked; and there was consequently a great variety of arms and armour in a single troop.

_4th or Camail Period_: c. 1360 A.D.--c. 1405 A.D. This is called the camail period because by this time the custom of wearing the camail had become universal. The legs and arms were now entirely encased in plates of armour, with sollerets on the feet, which were acutely pointed at the toes in imitation of the prevailing civil fashion. The hauberk was shortened to the middle of the thigh, was sleeveless, and was worn over a globular breastplate. Roundles disappeared from the shoulders and elbows, and laminated plates took their place, giving freer movement to the limbs.

The sleeveless surcoat was now called the _jupon_. It fitted tightly over the hauberk, and was slightly shorter than it, so that the lower edge of the hauberk showed behind it. The jupon was made of a rich material, blazoned with the arms of the wearer, and was escalloped along the bottom edge.

The long, straight sword, with decorated hilt and scabbard, was hung on the left side from a richly ornamented belt, and on the right side was suspended a small, pointed dagger called the _misericorde_.

After 1380 the basinet was made shorter, but the great heaume still continued to be worn, often being strengthened by an additional plate on the left side, where the wearer was likely to receive blows.

The sculptured effigy of the Black Prince on his tomb at Canterbury is a typical representation of a knight of the camail period.

_5th or Transition Period_: c. 1405 A.D.--c. 1410 A.D. There are a few examples of knights clothed entirely in plate armour, with the exception of the basinet and camail, and this is therefore called the Transition Period leading to the time of the complete adoption of plate armour.

(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir John Creke, in Westley Waterless
Church, Cambridgeshire, 1325. It shows a pointed and fluted
basinet with the camail of “banded mail” fastened to it. The
hauberk, also of banded mail, is seen just above the knees,
and the legs and arms are covered with the same kind of
armour. The roundles, taking the form of lions’ faces, are
seen at the shoulders and elbow. The upper arms are covered
with plates over the mail, and the fore-arm covered in the
same way with plates, which pass under the short sleeves of
the hauberk. The cyclas is seen to be loose, girded at the
waist, and shorter in front than behind. Under it is shown
the escalloped edge of the gambeson; beneath that the pointed
ending of the hauberk, and under that again the folds of
the haketon may be seen reaching to the knee-caps. Jamberts
or shin pieces cover the shins, and are continued to cover
the feet as sollerets. (Fig. 2): A heaume or great helmet,
worn in the tournament over the basinet and resting upon
the shoulders (1375). (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6): Shafted weapons
of the period. (Fig. 3): A bill, also called a fauchard or
guisarme, of the time of Richard II. (From a MS.) (Figs. 4
and 5): Pikes. (Fig. 6): A pole-axe (the voulge). (Fig. 7):
A knight wearing a gambeson, from the monumental effigy of
Sir Robert Shurland, c. 1300 (after _Ashdown_). (Fig. 8): A
heaume, from the brass of Sir Hugh Hastings, 1347 A.D. It
shows the _mantling_, or little mantle, hanging over the back
of the helmet, the crest, and the _torse_, or wreath, hiding
the junction of the crest with the helmet. (Fig. 9): A piece
of armour, showing the “splints” or small overlapping plates
in the elbow joint. (Fig. 10): A basinet, showing the loops
by which the camail is fastened to it. (Fig. 11): Heaume and
crest of Sir Geoffrey Luterell, from the Luterell Psalter,
1345 A.D. It has a round top, a movable visor, and a crest
on which are displayed the wearer’s “arms.” (Fig. 12): A
“snout-nosed” basinet with movable visor or ventaille of the
time of Richard II., with the visor raised. (Fig. 13): The
same with the visor lowered, as on the battlefield. (Fig.
14): The brass of Sir Robert Symborne, in Little Horkesley
Church, Essex, 1391 A.D., showing the arms and armour of
a knight of the camail period. The head is covered with a
conical basinet (without a face-piece), to which the camail
of chain mail is fastened. The lower edge of the hauberk is
shown below the close-fitting, sleeveless jupon which covers
the body. The arms, legs, and feet are covered with plate
armour, and the laminated plates which superseded roundles are
seen at the shoulders and elbows. The hands are protected by
gauntlets, and the knight is armed with long, straight sword
and misericorde. (Fig. 15): A mace, from a MS., c. 1350.]

LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIODS.

MALE COSTUMES.

The effigies of King Henry IV. and his Queen at Canterbury are some of the most splendid of our royal effigies, uniting richness, grandeur, and simplicity. The King’s crown is particularly remarkable for its magnificence (Fig. 1.) Since there had been very great extravagance in costume during the reign of Richard II., when he came to the throne Henry revived the sumptuary laws of his predecessors regulating the quality of the clothing to be worn by the various classes of his subjects.

Four years after that, all slashing and cutting of garments into various devices was forbidden; but the people were very fond of display, and perfect disregard was shown by all classes of the community to any of these laws. A notable decoration that appeared in this reign was the collar of SS. Various accounts of its origin have been given, but the most probable one is that S is the initial letter of Henry’s motto, “Souveraine,” which he had borne while Earl of Derby.

The houppelande of Richard’s reign, with its high collar, huge sleeves, and full skirt, was still worn, and is always depicted scarlet in MSS. The “bag sleeves” came into fashion during this reign. They were of great size and fulness, but gathered at the wrist and at the shoulders.

In the reign of Henry V. little change was made in costume, for the minds of men were occupied with more serious matters in the war with France.

Long and short gowns with large sleeves, either sweeping and indented at the edge or of the “bag sleeve” variety, were the common upper garments of all classes.

In some instances small bells were worn, fastened to a baldric or belt passing diagonally like a sash across the body from the shoulder to the waist.

Beards were not worn much during this reign, and moustaches were only partially worn, for the fashion was to be clean shaven, and the hair was cut close above the ears.

At the commencement of Henry V.’s reign the colour of the surcoat was again changed to white.

Henry VI. was invariably plain in his dress, and we are told that he refused to wear the long-pointed shoes worn by the gentry. It is an interesting reflection on the unsettled condition of the country in the unfortunate reign of this King that the costumes were numerous and diverse, being “a curious mixture of the costumes of preceding reigns.”

The most remarkable feature of the fifteenth century was the more common use of caps and hats of fantastic shapes and the change of form of the capuchon or hood into a regularly formed crown, with a thick roll, having a long tippet attached to it and trailing on the ground or tucked into the girdle. (Fig. _2a_.)

A single feather is sometimes worn in the cap. (Fig. 5.) Long, tight hose and short boots or buskins, and shoes with high fronts and backs that turned over each way, were worn, all with long toes.

The gown or jacket begins to be cut even around the shoulders, instead of being made high up the neck.

The face was still closely shaven.

The state mantles of the King and nobles were made of velvet and lined with white damask or satin.

Legal and other official habits consisted of long, full gowns, girdled round the waist and trimmed and lined with fur, according to the rank of the wearer.

During the reigns of Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III., a very characteristic style of costume begins to come into vogue. The store from which we draw our knowledge--the brasses, effigies, and illuminated MSS.--is a very extensive one, and owing to the invention of printing and the use of the wood block for illustration, we have still another source of information.

A very important feature of the costumes of this time was the excellent fit of the garments. As Mrs. Ashdown says, in her _British Costume_, “Broadly speaking, it had been perfectly possible for a dressmaker to cut out and complete any garment worn by men up to that period; after the reign of Edward IV. the era of the tailor began.”

In Edward’s reign the jackets and doublets were cut shorter than ever, the sleeves slit so as to show the large, loose white shirts, and the shoulders were padded with moss or flock.

Men wore the hair long, and had hats of cloth a quarter of an ell or more in height, and all wore most sumptuous chains of gold. Shoes with long, pointed toes, some as much as two feet long, called _poulaines_, were also worn.

Sumptuary laws were again enacted in this reign against people who dressed beyond their social position, and both the wearers and the tailors and shoemakers were subject to fines for transgressing them.

In the reign of Richard III., gentlemen began to wear the long gowns and more sober costumes that distinguished the reign of Henry VII. The costumes of the nobility generally consisted of hose or long stockings tied by _points_ or laces to the doublet, which was open in front, about half-way down the breast, showing a stomacher or vest, over which it was laced like a peasant’s bodice.

Over the doublet was worn a long or a short gown, according to fancy and circumstances, the former hanging loose, the latter full of pleats before and behind, plain at the sides and girdled tightly about the waist.

Small caps or “_bonets_” of various shapes were worn. Boots reaching to the middle of the thigh are frequently seen in the illuminations of the period.

The hair was worn very bushy behind and at the sides. (Fig. 9.)

Very rich materials were used for the garments of nobles and others.

The costumes of the lower classes during this period followed the more sober costumes of this and preceding periods, the materials being coarse and the cut simple.

The costumes of the retainers of the nobility imitated those of their masters, and were very often made of rich materials and in the extreme fashion.

(Fig. 1) The Crown of Henry IV., from his effigy in
Canterbury Cathedral, 1422. It is of beautiful proportion
and workmanship. (Fig. 2): Brass of Ralph Segrym, M.P.,
Mayor, 1449, St. John’s Church, Maddermarket, Norwich. This
is a good example of civilian costume of the time, the baggy
sleeves being very typical. The cloak is fur-lined, and has
a fur collar, fastening with three buttons on the right
shoulder. (Fig. 2_a_): Head-dress of the period, composed
of a thick roll of stuff encircling the head like a turban,
having a quantity of cloth attached to its inner edge which
covers one side, while on the other side a broad band or
becca of the same material hangs down to the ground. (Harl.
MS., 2,278.) (Fig. 3): Male costume of Henry IV.’s reign.
(Harl. MS., 2,332.) The sleeves of the gown are very wide,
and are gathered tight around the wrist. The gown or tunic
reaches only to the knee, where it is scalloped in the form
of leaves. Tight hose and boots reaching above the ankle
complete the costume. The hair is parted in the front and is
curled at the sides. (Fig. 4): An Exquisite of the reign of
Edward IV., wearing a characteristic peaked cap of the time,
called a _bycocket_, with a black crown and a white brim. His
short, green jacket has wide sleeves edged with ermine, and
his chausses are red. (Fig. 5): A hat of the time of Henry
VI., from Gough’s _Sepulchral Monuments_. (Fig. 5_a_): Head
of Duke of Bedford, from a portrait of the time of Henry VI.,
showing the peculiar way in which the hair was worn in this
and the preceding reign. (Fig. 6): Figure of Richard, Duke of
Gloucester, afterward Richard III. (From the Royal MS., 15 E.
4.) He is attired in the most fashionable dress of the day.
His red hat has a gold band and jewelled buttons to secure
the feathers. His crimson jacket is furred with deep red, is
very short, and is gathered in close folds behind, the sleeves
being extremely long. He wears the Garter around his left leg;
his hose are blue, and he has the fashionable long-pointed
shoe and the clog or patten over it. (Fig. 7): Another form of
the bycocket hat. (Fig. 8): Hat of black cloth with the long
pendant twisted around the neck. (Harl. MS., 4,379.) (Fig. 9):
Costume of the time of Edward IV. (Royal MS., 15 E. ii.)]

FEMALE COSTUMES.

Little change was made in the costumes of ladies during these periods, but there was a more wonderful variety in the head-dresses--many of them striking and even picturesque--than during any other century of English history. In the early part of this period the _crespine_ or golden net caul, into which the hair was gathered (Fig. 12), partly covered by a veil, was very common. The côte-hardi was still very popular, but many ladies wore the full outer garment or mantle, called the _houppelande_, buttoned high up to the neck, with wide sleeves, and reaching down to the feet. (Fig. 4.)

Long-trained gowns were also worn, with stomachers, trimmed with fur and velvet, and these displaced the super-tunic. Fur was very extensively used by all classes, to the great disgust and contempt of some contemporary writers.

Sumptuary laws passed in the reign of Henry IV. prohibited “the wearing of furs of ermine, lettice, pure minivers, or grey,” by the wives of esquires, unless they were noble themselves or their husbands held the office of Mayor of certain towns.

In the reign of Henry VI. the previous fashions were continued, with numerous fantastic additions. Towards the end of the reign, short-waisted gowns were worn, girded tightly at the waist, with enormous trains and with turn-over collars of fur or velvet coming to a point in front. Sleeves were worn of all descriptions.

The different varieties of head-dresses were known as (1) the _turban_, (2) the _horned_ head-dress, (3) the _heart-shaped_ head-dress, and (4) the _forked_ head-dress.

_The Turban Head-dress_ (Fig. 7) was in fashion for some time, even continuing until the next century, and was probably based upon the Turkish turban.

It consisted of a light framework of wire, covered with silk or other rich material.

_The Horned Head-dress_ (Fig. 6) was probably the most grotesque form of head-dress worn in this reign. The cauls at the side of the head were made very large, and horns, from which depended the veil, extended horizontally on either side of the head. This came in for very severe condemnation and satire by the writers of the time, being compared to the horns of the snail, of the unicorn, of the hart, and even of the devil himself.

The horns were worn so large that in some places “it was judged necessary to enlarge the doors of the apartments,” and when entering a room the wearers had “to turn aside and stoop.”

_The Heart-shaped Head-dress_ (Fig. 9) was formed by the cauls being made higher, so that the pad resting on them was pushed upward at the sides, and the head-dress assumed the shape of a heart.

_The Forked Head-dress_ (Fig. 10) was a variation of the horned head-dress, in which the horns were placed vertically instead of horizontally.

The costumes of the reigns of the Yorkist Kings are very amply illustrated from the numerous effigies, brasses, and MSS., and from the newly invented wood blocks used in the new art of printing.

The ladies’ costumes of the reign of Edward IV. were modifications of those worn in the reign of Henry VI., but they were very splendid and most extravagant. The fashion of wearing tails to the gowns fell into disuse, and in their room borders of velvet or fur were substituted. The gowns were exceedingly short-waisted, and the dress was cut very low at the neck.

_The Steeple Head-dress_ (Fig. 11), nicknamed “the chimney pot,” came into use during this reign. It was conical or pyramidal in form, and was generally about three-quarters of an ell in height. It was placed on the head at an angle of about 45 degrees from the vertical, and in order to lessen the tension on the head, a kind of framework of wire netting was worn under it. To the apex was affixed a veil, often of fine texture, sometimes reaching to the ground.

Another peculiar form of head-dress was known as the _Butterfly Head-dress_ (Fig. 8), introduced about 1470 A.D. It appears to have been a modification of the steeple head-dress, the cone being truncated, with wires arranged about it, to which wings of gauze veiling were affixed.

With this head-dress the hair was worn tightly drawn back from the forehead.

The ladies of the middle class did not adopt these extravagant fashions. They wore caps of cloth “with two wings at the side like apes’ ears.”

By the sumptuary laws, wives of persons whose income was less than £40 a year were forbidden to wear girdles ornamented with gold and silver work, or any “corse of silk” made out of the realm, or any coverchief exceeding a certain price, or the furs of certain animals.

(Fig. 1): Joice, Lady Tiptoft, from the brass in Enfield
Church, Middlesex, 1446 A.D. She is shown wearing a horned
head-dress of very moderate proportions and very elaborately
made. She wears a côte-hardi and gown trimmed richly with
ermine. The brass, which is one of the finest of the kind
in England, shows the armorial bearings upon the cloak
also. (Fig. 2): Head-dress of a lady in the reign of Henry
VI., with a veil or kerchief attached to it. (Harl. MS.,
6,431.) (Fig. 3): Head-dress of a lady in the reign of Henry
V., from the effigy of Catherine, Countess of Suffolk,
showing the golden caul at the sides of the head. (Fig. 4):
Female costume of the reign of Henry V., showing the horned
head-dress covered with a kerchief, the short waist, and
the gown with very wide trailing sleeves and high collar
called the houppelande. (Fig. 5): Brass of Margaret, wife of
William Cheyne, 1419 A.D., at Hever, in Kent, showing the
horned head-dress, the close-fitting dress, and the mantle
fastened across the bosom. (Fig. 6): Horned head-dress of
the fifteenth century, from the effigy of Beatrice, Countess
of Arundel, in the church at Arundel. This is considered
to be the finest illustration of the horned head-dress in
existence. (Fig. 7): A turban head-dress. (Harl. MS., 2,278.)
(Fig. 8): Butterfly head-dress, from the brass of Lady Say,
in Broxbourne Church, Herts, 1473 A.D. (Fig. 9): Heart-shaped
head-dress. (Froissart’s Chronicles, Harl. MS., 4,379.) (Fig.
10): A forked head-dress with small hanging veil. (Harl. MS.,
2,278.) (Fig. 11): Female costume of the reign of Edward IV.,
showing the steeple head-dress, with kerchief fastened to the
apex. The gown is very full, and both it and the train are
edged with ermine. The turn-over collar is also shown, and the
square-shaped under garment with lacing. (Harl. MS., 4,379.)
(Fig. 12): Head of a lady, from a brass at Sawtrey, Hants,
1404 A.D., showing the _crespine_ or golden net caul worn by
ladies of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, with a small
veil hanging down by the side of the face.]

PLATE ARMOUR.

The various modifications in plate armour were such as were found necessary for greater ease or for more perfect protection, and were of a progressive character. In order to prevent confusion it is customary to divide this period of 200 years into five lesser periods, the first three being roughly coincident with the Lancastrian and Yorkist Periods, the remaining two with the Tudor Period.

1st Period: 1410--1430. 2nd Period: 1430--1450. 3rd Period: 1450--1500.

_1st Period_: 1410--1450. This is also known as the surcoatless period, as the polished breast and back plates were worn without any textile covering.

Before the Hundred Years’ War had broken, out again in the reign of Henry V.--just before Agincourt--the types of armour had completely changed. Knights gave up the use of the camail and jupon, and were clothed in complete armour. Additional protections were placed in front of the armpits, as _roundles_ or _pallettes_, resembling small shields, and fan-shaped plates were placed at the elbow joints. The basinet was made much more globular in form, and a piece of plate called the _gorget_ or neck-piece took the place of the camail to connect the basinet with the body armour. The lower part of the basinet, protecting the chin, was called the _beaver_ (“I saw young Harry with his _beaver_ on.” H. IV., Pt. 1), and was fastened by rivets to the upper part near the temples. The basinet now rested on the gorget, and was so arranged that the head could be turned to right and left.

The breastplate was of globular form, and there was a corresponding plate over the back. From the waist to the middle of the thigh, a series of narrow, flexible, horizontal overlapping bands or plates of steel, called _taces_ or _tassets_, fastened to a lining of leather, were worn.

They thus formed a kind of armoured kilt or short steel petticoat. The sword-belt was narrow, and was worn diagonally over the taces, and the general form of the sword remained unaltered. The misericorde continued to be worn on the right side. The hauberk was sometimes worn under the plate armour, for the lower edge is sometimes shown in effigies and brasses. All the details of the above description are shown in Fig. 1.

_2nd Period_: 1430-1450. This is sometimes called the Tabard Period, as a new variety of short surcoat called a _tabard_ was worn with short sleeves over the armour, bearing the heraldic devices of the wearer, emblazoned down the front and also on each sleeve.

The chief characteristic of the period with regard to the actual armour was the system of adding strengthening or _reinforcing_ pieces of plate to the armour.

Over the flanks on each side, depending from the taces, a small plate, varying in shape, called a tuille, was appended. It was fastened by strings and allowed free movement of the limbs.

The _sollerets_ or feet coverings became longer, and plates like those on the shell of a lobster were added to the gauntlets to cover and protect the backs of the hands.

Additional plates varying in size and form, were fixed to the elbows and shoulders on the ordinary armour.

It is interesting to note that the right arm and shoulder were accoutred so as to interfere as little as possible with the action when fighting; while the left side and bridle arm were more fully protected with additional defensive armour. Large reinforcing plates called _pauldrons_ extended over the shoulders, sometimes being made with a kind of standing collar to protect the neck from a direct stroke.

One of the finest specimens of the armour of this period is that on the splendid bronze effigy of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. (Figs. 2 and 3.)

The brilliant artist and archæologist, Charles Stothard, when making drawings of the figure, found to his great delight that it was movable, and that the armour on the back was represented and finished as perfectly as on the front.

_3rd Period_: 1450-1500. During this period the practice of reinforcing the armour continued, and great modifications were made in the existing pieces. The armour became more extravagant in form, dimensions and adornment.

Enormous fan-like elbow pieces were worn, and the pauldrons or shoulder pieces were very large.

This period includes the Wars of the Roses, and is, therefore, of considerable interest. It has been said that, before this time, arms and armour were European rather than English, but in this period, for the first time since the Norman Conquest, England was cut off from the rest of Europe, and was free to develop along her own lines.

Distinguishing and party badges, collars and devices were freely worn, and incorporated with the arms during this period. The salade, a light helmet, was principally worn in the Wars of the Roses.

The horses of knights in the tournament and on the battlefield were sometimes as heavily armed as the riders. The horse’s head was protected by a _chanfrein_, or face-piece, and movable plates of steel, forming the _crinet_, covered the mane, while burnished shields or plates of metal were fixed on the breast.

The weight of armour was so great that, when a knight was unhorsed, he was utterly helpless, and at the mercy of his opponent, as it was impossible for him to rise without assistance, and the victor had only the trouble of coolly selecting the best chink in the junctures in the armour in which to insert his sword or his dagger. As James I. afterwards said of armour, owing to its general cumbersomeness, “It was an admirable defence, as it hindered a man from being hurt himself or of hurting others.”

(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir John Lysle, Thruxton Church, Hampshire,
1407 A.D. This is the earliest example of complete plate
armour in existence in England, but the brass was probably
made ten years after that date. (1) Gorget; (2) Beaver; (3)
Roundles; (4) Taces (8 in number); (5) Fanshaped _coudières_.
(Fig. 2): Front view of bronze effigy of Richard Beauchamp, K.
G., Earl of Warwick, from his tomb in the Beauchamp Chapel,
Warwick. The Earl died 1439 A.D., and the effigy was executed
in 1453. The following points will be noted: (1) The head
is bare, and rests on a crested helm; (2) the breastplate
shoulder-guards are reinforced, the _pauldrons_ having low,
upright neck defences; (3) the _coudières_, or elbow pieces,
are large, and of the same size on both arms; (4) there are
five taces, showing a skirt of mail beneath them, and there
are two large _tuilles_. (Fig. 3): Back view of the same.
(Fig. 4): A skull cap of steel, called a _casquetel_, with
large ear-pieces, of the reign of Edward IV. (Fig. 5): Basinet
of the reign of Henry V. (Fig. 6): Basinet from the Register
Book of St. Albans, A.D. 1417. It rises to a point, upon which
is placed a hollow tube to receive the _panache_, or crest
of feathers, and has a movable visor. (Fig. 7): Salade with
movable visor. (Fig. 8): Round salade with a jewelled plume.
(From Rouse’s Life of the Earl of Warwick.) (Fig. 9): Effigy
of Sir Thomas Peyton, in Isleham Church, Cambridgeshire, of
the reign of Richard III. The grotesque form of the enormous
fan-like elbow-pieces and the large _pauldrons_ reinforcing
the shoulder armour are particularly noticeable. (Fig. 10):
Figure of Sir Robert Wingfield in complete armour, from a
painted window in East Herling Church, Norfolk, executed
between 1461 and 1480. He wears a tabard, with his “arms”
blazoned on the front and on each sleeve.]

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

A.D. 1300 to 1377. Reigns of Edward I., II., and III.

The transition from the Early English, or Lancet style, to the Decorated was much more gradual than from Norman to Early English, so gradual that it is impossible to draw a line where one style ceases and another begins. There can be no doubt that in some parts of the kingdom, Early English was in use at the same time that, in other districts, the Decorated style was becoming general, and thus the terms adopted to denote the different periods must not be taken as definite or as commencing or closing at any particular date, but merely as indicating the broad classification of the styles and details, and for associating them with particular reigns for convenience of study. The divisions are arbitrary, but very convenient in practice. Structurally, there was not a great change in the buildings, but there was a more harmonious relation and development of all the architectural features in walls, piers, buttresses, windows, etc., both with regard to their size and their enrichment, and it was because of this general use of ornament or enrichment that it is called the Decorated Period. “It rivals the preceding style in chasteness and elegance, while it surpasses it in richness.”

Great progress was made in the reign of Edward I., and the Decorated work exhibits the most complete and perfect development of the Gothic arch, which in the Early English was not fully matured, and in the Perpendicular began to decline.

It is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details.

_Windows._--The most distinctive features of the Decorated style are its large windows and its mouldings. The windows are the chief glory of the 14th century Gothic. They vary very considerably in size, in form and in intricacy.

As the window arches became broader, mullions or vertical bars of masonry were required for their support, dividing the windows into lights, and the upper portions of these mullions were developed into tracery, forming circles, trefoils, or other geometric figures, and, afterwards, flowing lines.

It has been shown how the grouping of lancet-shaped windows and the piercing of the space above them, under the arched dripstone, had produced “plate tracery.” As the piercings became larger, narrow and irregularly shaped surfaces of stone were left. These were pierced, and the intervening piers of stone came to be shaped like the mullions; in fact, became a continuation of the mullions. This development, which was reached before the middle of the 13th century, is called “bar tracery.” At first, this bar tracery was plain; then “cusps” (Pl. 40, Fig. 5), or projecting points, were introduced on the inner edge of the mullions, and added greatly to the rich effects. The earliest Decorated windows have tracery on a purely geometric basis. Exeter Cathedral is considered the best typical example of the early part of this style, and the existing windows were constructed at the end of the 13th century. The Chapter-houses at York and Southwell are other rich examples. Windows with flowing tracery are, in general, later than those with geometrical patterns, though they are sometimes contemporaneous in the same building.