Chapter I (2)

In the evening we were joined by a fine, bold, soldier-looking man, who was on a visit, and who was Sheikh of Battus, (a mountain, mentioned in a former page), inhabited during a few months in the year by shepherds, and those who go there to gather in their harvest. This person and myself became great friends, and from our conversation being chiefly in pantomime, we afforded no little amusement to the rest of the party. He invited us to go and hunt on his mountain, promising me a truly Arab present, viz. a young wolf and fox. He told us that a thousand years ago the Christians established themselves on his mountain, but were unable to remain there more than forty days; an evident proof of their inferiority to his tribe, which was commanded by one of his ancestors, and which then lived on Battus, though they have since become wanderers. My new acquaintance was elegantly armed, having an embroidered belt, silver scabbarded sword, and well mounted pistols. He had received a wound in his arm in the mountain wars (when his tribe resisted the Bashaw), and imagined this to be the cause of a cough which at times troubled him. He was not well pleased with our laughing at his way of accounting for his complaint.

All the dogs here being white, the liver-coloured pointers which had followed us from the Consulate caused the women and children to fly on their approach, from the idea that they were wolves.

There are many Jews living in these mountains, whose dwellings are much cleaner and better excavated than those of the Arabs, and are also neatly whitewashed. These people, as in Tripoli, are the only handicraftsmen, and seem here to be rather better treated than elsewhere.

It rained very hard this night, and was very cold; but under shelter of our tent we kept ourselves warm and dry. From the village we had observed a mountain called Tekoot طكوت, to bear south 23° west.

Wednesday, February 10th.—At 7.10. A.M. we left Beni abbās, and went on for the Castle of Gharian, or Gusser Turk قسرطيرك. After having proceeded over the plain, and reached the mountains that rise from it, we climbed a steep peak, and making our way along a sharp ledge on its top, again ascended to the mountain of Tekoot, the principal of the range. From this point we took the bearings of the following remarkable objects: Beni abbās, north 33° east. Gusser Turk, south 35° west. A mountain called Meroobi, south 55° east, and another mountain, west 5° south, distant about twenty-five miles, inhabited at this time by a rebel tribe under a chief called Kalēefa. Owing to the height of the spot on which we stood, we found it difficult to distinguish many objects, which from the plain had appeared very conspicuous. Unfortunately, before we ascended this mountain we had broken our Barometer, and were thence unable to ascertain its precise elevation. Here is the tomb of a Marāboot, whose sanctity is the subject of many extraordinary stories.

It was from hence that the Arabs, when they declared war against the Bashaw (which formerly happened very frequently), announced their rising to their allies and neighbouring tribes, by signals of a fire at night, and a smoke by day. Three poor Arabs followed us up the mountain, pointing out to us the most remarkable surrounding objects: they gathered for us some small black berries from a low thorny tree, with yellow flowers, which they called Dummagh ظمّاح or “brains,” and which had an astringent taste, somewhat resembling that of a ripe sloe, but the fruit was much smaller. They told us that the Arabs of Gharian always spoke with gratitude of the English Consul, who had once persuaded the Bashaw not to increase their tribute, as he intended.

At noon we arrived at a cluster of nests called El Guasem القاسو about six miles from Beni abbās: all the habitations of this place are of the same kind as those already described; we, however, found a small uninhabited shed above ground, situated at the foot of a little turret, where we deposited our goods, and determined on passing the night. From the inscriptions which we found in this building, it must be about 150 years old. The present Bashaw, his father, grand and great grandfather, had all slept in the smoky corner, of which we now took possession. The turret itself is constructed in a mode common to many others in these mountains. At about half way down one of the subterranean passages, a hole is cut upwards in an awkward way through the rock into the first floor of the turret, which is even with the ground, and perfectly dark, except where here and there a small stone is pushed out to make way for the muzzle of a musket. From this floor is an ascent to one, two, or three stories, by means of pieces of stick placed in the walls. Each floor consists of branches of trees, most alarmingly elastic, and the door of entrance from one to the other is a small hole, through which a person has to force himself upwards. All these military buildings manifest a noble contempt of architectural skill, or neatness. On the side of a small hill near the village are caves of some magnitude, from which good millstones are procured. At this place we fared as we did the evening before, though the Chowse had a most vociferous conversation with the Sheikh before he could get any barley for the horses. We were well sheltered, and sufficiently warm, for we had a good fire in the centre of the hut, and slept at one end of it, while our people and the Chowse’s mare occupied the other. It rained very hard all night.

Thursday, February 11th.—At 7 A.M. we started, after making the Sheikh a present, and wound along amongst the mountains in the direction of the castle. Tekoot, bearing north three miles, we discovered a Roman building in the form of a tomb, or perhaps a very large altar; it was about twelve feet square, standing on two or three broad steps, which seem to have had a neat cornice. From the present appearance of the ruins, the original building must have been ten or twelve feet in height. We could discern no inscription. Our road hence was once more over very difficult passes, from which we expected to have had a delightful view, but the mountains, to our great regret, became obscured by a thick mist.

These mountains separated into a deep romantic valley, which appeared to run immediately down to the desert. The tops were in a very superior state of cultivation; figs, olives, and vines flourishing on every spot which had sufficient earth to nourish them. We observed many of the trees ornamented with the skulls of horses, camels, or sheep, to protect the tree and its fruit from being blasted by the “Evil Eye.” At two we came to the castle, an immense ill-constructed building of rough stones, having a turret at each corner, an open court, and stalls for horses, embrasures for cannon (closed up with mud), and here and there a loophole for musketry. There are five or six six-pounders upset, and honeycombed, to make a show; but I conceive the Bashaw would find no one daring enough to fire them. The key of the castle (which is never used but by the Kaid when he comes to collect tribute for the Bey, to whom Gharian belongs), is kept by a neighbouring Sheikh. Our Chowse was here of great importance, for being in the service of the Bey, all the Arabs came to kiss his hands, and bring him presents, and he consequently assumed a very dignified and solemn demeanour. At night one of our camel boys, who had the office of porter assigned to him, brought the key of the gate to the Chowse, and reported all right. We were informed very seriously, that the room in which we slept was haunted by a Ghole, and several devils, in consequence of some prisoners having had their throats cut there a short time before.

Friday, February 12th.—Our porter had been so very careful over night, that we were half an hour unlocking, unbarring, and unbolting, before we could get out. Mr. Ritchie and myself then sallied forth, he to botanize, and I with my gun in search of animals called Gundy قندي. After lying down flat in the rain for three or four hours, I was fortunate enough to shoot three, which I prepared, in order that they might be sent to the British Museum, and I believe they will be the first of the species known in Europe. These animals resemble very much a Guinea pig in form, but are of a light-brown mouse colour. The fur is longer than that of a rat, and is very silky; the eyes are black, large, and prominent; the orifices of the ears (which are quite flat against the side of the head) are also black, and free from hair; the tail, or rather a little stump resembling one, is just perceptible to the touch, and from it grows a bunch or tuft of long black hair. The body is very round and fat, and particularly broad at the shoulders. These animals burrow amongst the rocks. They are eaten with great relish by the Arabs, and no doubt are very good, as the flesh is exceedingly white and fat, and resembles that of a rabbit.

At about half a mile from the castle is a place called Tghrasat تغراسات at which a Bazaar is held weekly, and whither all the mountaineers resort. At two we passed this place, and went about four miles south to a village called Tegerinna طجرنّه, where the inhabitants live above as well as under ground. We pitched our tents in a saffron field, and had our horses shod by a Jew blacksmith. He afterwards prepared in his house a fine lamb, and very white bread, for our dinners, of which the Chowse pocketed all we did not eat. We made the poor man a present, to his great astonishment; for no one, if he can avoid it, performs any act of kindness to these persecuted people. In the evening we had many visitors, amongst others the Sheikh, who was all curiosity, and ready for as many presents as we chose to make him.

From this place, three other above-ground villages bore south by west two miles. They were called Usadena. The inhabitants, male and female, had all been murdered on the Bashaw’s conquering the country, and the buildings were entirely ruined.

Gharian is famed for the excellence of its oil, the richness of its saffron, which is produced in great quantities, and the goodness of its corn. The people are fine, well made men, and have an air of freedom, which their change of circumstances has not been able to conquer. In collecting the tribute for the Bey, each man pays in kind a certain portion of his harvest. The Jews are employed to weigh and prepare the Bey’s share, and are well paid by the Arabs, in order that they may give short measure; for although using false weights is by the law of Mohammed a heinous crime, yet they fancy the sin is not incurred if the Jews defraud for them.

Of the dress, food, &c. of the Arabs, I shall treat more fully in a future page.

Saturday, 13th February.—At seven A.M. we left this delightful spot for Benioleed. Our road was through very difficult passes in the mountains, where we found some rain water, with which we filled our gerbas, or water-skins, with a sufficient supply for three days.

Our road the latter part of this day lay over a barren, stony plain; and having proceeded south 40° east twenty-five miles, we encamped at sunset in a small valley amongst some bushes. Our fellow travellers, after prefacing their stories by boasting of their own courage and expertness in fighting, gave us most frightful accounts of the banditti who were said to frequent this track; but how these rogues, or any one else, could manage to exist at all in such a place, was a riddle which our friends could not explain. Muskets and pistols were laid at the Chowse’s head, and two bottles of wine were drank to fortify his stomach, so that he slept undisturbed through the night.

Sunday, 14th.—The country onward presented one unvaried scene of desolation: not a living creature appeared during the day; but at night the jackals kept up a continual howling. At noon, we passed a deep ravine, for about eight miles, of basalt, which appeared as if it had been rent open by some convulsion of nature. At five, we crossed a dry water-course, and stopped on its bank for the night amongst some stunted bushes. We made this day, south 40° east, thirty miles.

Monday, 15th February.—At four A.M. made on for Benioleed. We passed occasionally over mountains and gravelly plains, generally coming again to the side of a large Wadey, or ravine, in which there was some appearance of verdure. Many coveys of red-legged partridges flew by us. After winding along a Wadey for an hour or two, we arrived at Benioleed بنيوليد, at two P.M., ourselves and animals much fatigued: we had made, south 50° east, twenty-five miles. We took up our quarters in the house, or rather in the stable of the house, of the Sheikh. Here we paid our guide, who came with us from Gharian, and who was a feeble man in appearance, but a most persevering walker. He never would sleep in our tent, but preferred lying in the open air, though the Thermometer was generally at the freezing point, with no other covering than his Barracan, not even a shirt.

Tuesday, 16th February.—We walked out to see the houses, which are built on each side of the Wadey of rough stones: none are above eight feet in height; they have no windows, but receive their light through the doors; and all look like heaps of ruins. The inhabitants are Arabs of the tribe Orfilly الفلّي, and are a fine handsome race of people. The young girls are really beautiful.

These poor Arabs are dreadfully oppressed by the Bashaw, who has reduced them all to a most miserable state of poverty. Those who remain in the country are in rags; the others who let their camels out to hire, and accompany traders to the interior, are somewhat better off. They were once a brave daring set of men, who defied the government of Tripoli; and, during the youth of the present Bashaw, fully protected him from his father’s troops. Their services to him have, however, been but ill requited; for he persecutes them more than any others of his subjects. They have (and I believe not without deserving it) the character of being the greatest robbers and rogues in the neighbourhood of Tripoli.

The Wadey produces but little corn, as the crops are all sown in the desert to the eastward; and in harvest time the owners go in bodies to bring in the grain. Much oil is made here, and the palms and olive-trees are very flourishing. We observed that of the latter there were no young trees, and learnt that the Bashaw taxed them, wherever found, as large ones,—a system, which, if pursued, will in a few years more destroy all the olive groves in his dominions.

The water here is excellent; the wells are of great depth, many being 100 feet, and others above 200 feet: in fact, the labour requisite in drawing water, makes it a scarce article. This is the most southerly town in the Bashaw’s dominions on the road to Fezzan, to which it is nearer than the other routes.

I took a drawing of the valley, which very much amazed the Arabs, and collected round me an immense crowd. We here discovered that our living amongst these people had not contributed much to our cleanliness, and that one of Pharaoh’s curses was but too evidently upon us.

Wednesday, 17th.—We removed from our stable to a building dignified by the name of a castle, in which the Kaid resides during his too frequent visits to these parts. We had a dozen negroes turned out to make way for us, the only good room being occupied by a Chowse, who in the Kaid’s name was collecting money. He was all day surrounded by poor wretches, entreating that his master would spare them, and that something might be left to assist in supporting their families. It was really melancholy to witness the misery which prevailed amongst them; for they were called upon to answer the exactions of three masters, none of whom would leave them even a sheep, if their extortions were not complied with. Thus it is: the Bashaw demands a certain sum of money, and sends a Kaid to collect it. This man doubles the requisition, in order to enrich himself; and it not unfrequently happens that he goes away, and leaves a Chowse to act for him, who in his turn drains them still more and more; and thus their victims are reduced to utter ruin. There were in the castle slaves, camels, sheep, goats, and grain in quantities, which had all been lately extorted from these unhappy people. Eight poor prisoners were confined under-ground, and had not been fed during the time we were there; and finally, the Chowse had an order to cut their throats, which we understood was executed the day after we left the castle. A market is held here weekly, to which the necessaries of life are brought with fear and trembling, lest any one should appear too rich.

Thursday, 18th February.—This being market day, a few sheep and goats were brought on the plain before the gate. There were also dates, corn, and gunpowder, but in small quantities. We bought a sheep and some dates. It rained the whole of this day; but at night it cleared up. The Sheikh came to see us, and brought us a bowl of Bazeen, in return for which we gave him some powder. The Population amounts to about 2000, as near as I could judge; but the habitations are so scattered along the sides of the Wadey, that no very just estimate can be given.

Mr. Ritchie was requested to obtain the pardon of the prisoners in the castle, who had been guilty of resisting an attempt to drive off their flocks for the service of the Bashaw, and he promised to intercede for them; but we were overtaken, when on our return to Tripoli, by a man, who informed us that they had all been killed.

Mr. Ritchie, by two observations, made the latitude of Benioleed, 31°. 45′ north.

Friday, 19th February.—Having somewhat refreshed ourselves and cattle, we left this place at eight A.M.; and, ascending the side of the Wadey, proceeded during the whole day over a rocky flat, perfectly barren, until six P.M., when we stopped, having made, north 20° west, thirty miles. We saw this day two large vultures, but scarcely within shot of us.

Saturday, 20th February.—Our road this day improved, and we went through several fertile Wadeys, and over plains of fine grass. We passed also several herds of female camels, with their young, and many flocks of sheep. At three, our road began to rise, and we saw many tents of the Arabs of Terhoona ترحونه, who were attending their flocks: some of them were changing their quarters, and we were much amused by different parties, who were travelling on the same road as ourselves. Women and children were riding the camels, which were also laden with their tents and furniture. At seven, we came amongst the mountains, and arrived at the wells of Melghrā ملغرا, which have excellent water. There are several little streams from the sides of the hills, which run through the valley; and there is much game here, principally partridges and snipes.

Sunday, 21st February.—At eight A.M., we left the wells, and passed through winding defiles at the foot of the mountains until noon, when we cleared them, and opened on a sandy plain, covered in some places with verdure, and having great quantities of the Khandal حندل or Colycynth. On passing some Arab tents, the children brought us small roots, of the shape of young potatoes; but resembling mushrooms in taste, smell, and tenderness. They grow in the sand, and the Arabs call them Terfaas ترفاس. We here drank some camel’s milk for the first time. It is much less rich than that of a cow, and saltish to the taste. We also procured a skin full of sour butter-milk, which is much esteemed by the Arabs, who call it Libban لبّان. It is never drank in a sweet state; but is allowed, after the butter is made, to stand until it tastes and smells very sour.

In the afternoon, the country over which we passed had many bushes; and at five, we came to a well, near a Marāboot’s tomb, having made, north 43° west, twenty-four miles. The well, near which we were, was 288 feet in depth, and the water brackish. In the evening a man came to request Mr. Ritchie to take an Arab under his protection to Tripoli, and endeavour to procure for him the Bashaw’s pardon, he being the only one remaining of a rebel tribe, which had been destroyed. The offender was in the Marāboots’ tombs, which was considered a sanctuary; but, on our mounting our horses in the morning, he was to follow us at full speed, and claim the protection of the British flag.

Monday, 22d.—We waited some time for this man, and at last were obliged to proceed to Tripoli without him. Our road was over very steep and irregular sand hills. At three P.M. we arrived, having made, north-west, twenty miles. As I now had many opportunities of seeing the Arabs amongst their own tribes, and had greatly familiarised myself with them, I obtained some knowledge of their manners and customs, which I will endeavour to describe in giving an account of this extraordinary race of people.

OF THE ARABS.

The Arabs are, generally speaking, tall, straight, and well formed, and inclined, from their manner of living, to be thin and muscular. Their countenances are expressive and handsome, their form of face oval, and their noses aquiline. Although naturally white, their complexion becomes dark from continual exposure to the sun, and from not being very particular in their ablutions. They are active; capable of undergoing great fatigue and abstinence from food; lively in their manners; daring, and possessed of much cunning: though generous, they are great beggars; revengeful and unforgiving. The general costume of the men is a large loose shirt and trowsers of cotton, sandals, or tight half boots of red leather, which lace in front, fit close round the ankle, and rise as high as the calf of the leg. On their heads they wear a red cap, which is long enough to hang a little down on one side; from the top of it falls a tassel of blue silk. A wrapper of woollen (from about twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and five or six in breadth), woven rather more compactly than flannel, is thrown round the body in folds, part being placed over the head in the manner of a hood, while the end is thrown over the left shoulder, and hangs down behind the back. This article of dress has several names, according to its texture. The most coarse and heavy is called Aba. That between this and the finest (called Jereed) is named Kholi; but in Tripoli, all three are known under the appellation of Barracan. A large cloak, having a hood, and no sleeves, and composed of closely and well-woven wool without a seam, is used in rainy or cold weather over the Barracan, and is called Bornouse. The dress of the females differs but little from that of the men in materials, but they put it on in a different manner. The poorest class wear only the Barracan, which is passed over the head and fastened at the waist; others have a shirt in addition to this. Young women wear their hair in tresses, to which they attach beads, pieces of coral, silver, or any other gaudy thing which they can procure; and they have one or two large silver ornaments in the form of crescents, fastened on the right side of the head, on which they also frequently wear a large woollen turban of blue, wrapped carelessly round. From their ears are suspended a multitude of silver rings, and round their necks they hang rows of beads of various colours. The old women frizzle their hair over the forehead, so as to make it project to some distance; and they dye it of a dull red, with the leaves of a plant called Henna, which gives it the appearance of red wool. All the females have a practice of tattooing their chins, the tips of their noses, and between the eyebrows. Their necks and arms are also frequently marked. The favourite figure is that of a hand, which is intended to avert the “Evil Eye.” They wear red lacing boots, in the same manner as the men. When young (that is to say, fifteen or sixteen), they have fine figures, and are exceedingly handsome; but they soon lose their good looks and pleasing form, and become as ugly as they were before beautiful. Their eyes are black and large; their noses straight and well proportioned; they have small lips, and their teeth are exquisitely white. Nothing, in fact, can exceed in prettiness an Arab girl; but the old women are, without exception, the most disgusting and hideous creatures I ever beheld. Both sexes blacken their eyelids with Kohol, or lead ore powdered, which adds much to the brilliancy of the eye, and makes it appear larger than it really is. They all wear an immense quantity of Agebs عجب, or Charms, against disorders and misfortunes.

The arms of the Arabs are the same as those of the natives of Tripoli, viz. guns, pistols, swords, and daggers. They are good shots, when able to rest their guns; but otherwise cannot easily manage them. The gun is slung over the shoulders, and the pistols are worn in a belt, which is hung round the body, and which contains the ammunition. They are constantly armed with both these weapons; but the sword is seldom carried, unless when they ride on horseback; it is then suspended by the side of the saddle, in such a way as to remain under the left leg, with the hilt near the pommel. They generally procure their powder and lead from Tripoli, though some possess the art of making a kind of inferior powder amongst themselves.

In the Tripoline dominions, and in Fezzan also, there are two kinds of Arabs, one wanderers, the other fixed residents in towns; those in towns (as Benioleed for example) travel much about the country, but always return to what they consider as their home. The wanderers have no permanent place of abode, but remove their tents as pasturage or circumstances require. These tents are made of woollen, coarsely woven in long pieces and sewn together. They spread to a great breadth, but are not high; the entrance being about six feet, and the top sloping gradually down till it is fastened to the ground. They are so divided by means of mats or carpets, that the women have a separate place from the men, and can be hidden from the gaze of strangers: they, however, so manage it, as to see without being themselves observed. These dwellings of the Arabs are called by their inhabitants, Beit el Shar, بيت الشار, or “hair houses,” and Nejja also. By means of bushes, almost every tent has an inclosure adjoining it, for securing sheep or goats at night; and stakes are driven in the ground, to which the horses are fastened, though sometimes these animals are allowed a portion of the tents of their masters. The Arabs are generous to their own kinsmen; and should a stranger come amongst them, they never deny him the rights of hospitality, provided they are themselves eating; but should that not be the case, they make no attempt to prepare food expressly for him: an acquaintance, however, is always sure of a good reception.

The Bedouins of Barbary are not to be compared with those of Egypt, either for enterprise, ingenuity, or good qualities; since whatever they may have been, they are now, by the tyranny of their masters, fallen from their once high character, and are not in any respect better than slaves. One or two tribes are yet independent, but are likely soon to fall. Each tribe, or even set of tents, is governed by a Sheikh, who, being an old man, or one appointed by the Bashaw, is looked up to as a superior; though his business is chiefly to collect the requisite sums of money from his people. Some years back, these Sheikhs commanded their tribes in the wars of plunder, or in defence of their liberties, and were then chosen by the voice of the people, for their courage and military skill; but all offensive or defensive wars being now at an end, in consequence of their repeated and bloody overthrows by the Bashaw, the name of Sheikh has no honour attached to it. In some cases, indeed, individuals refuse to undertake the office, lest the Bashaw should make them responsible for any faults committed by their followers.

In their Religion, the Arabs are great bigots, very superstitious, and easily alarmed about the enchantments and wiles of Iblis (or the devil), to whom they attribute many of their misfortunes and illnesses. To the prayers enjoined by the Koran they are very attentive, and, unless in travelling, never omit repeating them at the appointed periods. Of the name and attributes of God they never speak without reverence; and they have a profound respect for Idiots, whom they consider as people beloved of Heaven, and totally unable to think of the things of this world.

Marriages are contracted in most instances without either party having seen the other, the agreement being entirely on the part of the parents of the bride, and the bridegroom, the consent of the females never being asked. There are certain marriage presents which are always given by the husband to the relations of his wife, so that he may be said to purchase her of them. Though four wives are allowed to all Mohammedans, the Arabs very rarely possess so many, few having more than two, and some only one. It is not their custom to have Negresses living with them, which may be accounted for by their dislike to being considered as the fathers of children of colour. The settled Arabs are not so scrupulous; but are, notwithstanding, more so than the Moors. The ceremony observed in conducting a bride to her husband is very singular; and having myself been an eye-witness of it, I made a drawing representing the camel used on such occasions, with its gay trappings.

A frame being fixed on the back of the animal, the bride is placed in it, and, while thus sitting, is housed over with carpets, shawls, and ostrich feathers. In travelling from place to place, or in searching for pasture ground, the people make use of these frames; but they are in such cases generally uncovered, and have baskets, or other frame-work, attached to their sides, in which the young children are placed. An Arab family on its march presents a very extraordinary appearance, the camels being laden with tents, cooking utensils, women, and children. The men walk, driving their flocks before them, or ride their horses, frequently without bridle or saddle. Should the journey exceed one day, a temporary tent is erected at night; and at the dawn of morning, all is again placed on the camels. The operation of erecting or taking down one of their hair houses does not occupy much time, as the women always assist the men on these occasions. The dogs guard the flocks during the night, and are very fierce. In colour they are white, resembling wolves in form, and having long bushy tails. They howl rather than bark, and with great apparent courage attack every stranger who approaches them, though when threatened with a stick or stone, they run yelping away. It frequently happens, that the spot fixed on as a temporary residence is far distant from any well, sometimes even three days of the ordinary march of flocks; yet this does not dishearten the persevering Arab, who, notwithstanding, drives his sheep once a week to drink. They feed as they go and come, and therefore do not suffer much on their long journey. The wants of the people are easily supplied; a few skins of water being brought at stated times by a camel, and economised with great care. I have remarked, that not only the Arabs and their camels, but all animals in this country have the power of remaining a great length of time without water. Sheep, (provided they have tolerable herbage), will pass even a month without drinking. Antelopes and buffaloes, I should conceive, in some cases never taste water, none being found on the surface of the desert, and they are unable to obtain that which is in the wells. On the other hand, wolves, hyænas, foxes, and jackals, are less capable of enduring thirst. They descend such wells (or more properly pits) as are not deep; and the vicinity of one of these places is frequently ascertained from observing the tracks of animals, which, during the night, go there to drink.

The Bedouins sow their scanty stock of corn, after turning up the earth with a rude plough, or more generally with a hoe. These cultivated spots are respected by other wanderers, and the corn is rarely stolen; should the Bashaw, indeed, be at war with the Arabs, he never fails to destroy their crops. When a sufficient time has elapsed to allow of the grain being in a state of maturity, those to whom it belongs come and gather in their harvest (sometimes before it is perfectly ripe), lest the Bashaw should be informed of the circumstance, and deprive them of a larger portion than they can afford; emissaries, indeed, are never wanting, who make it their business to ascertain the exact time when the corn is to be cut, and then pounce on the poor Arabs for the Bashaw’s share of it. To avoid such taxes, therefore, they sometimes gather it so prematurely, that it will not serve as seed for the ensuing year. When the date season commences, many families come and pitch their tents in the Meshea of Tripoli, in order to purchase dates for their future subsistence; these they deprive of the stones, and when kneaded together, keep them in skins, so as to preserve them from insects or wet: these form their chief support, assisted by the milk of their sheep and camels. That of the camel, as I have before noticed, is thin, of a bluish colour (resembling cow’s milk mixed with water), and rather salt to the taste; it throws up no cream, but soon coagulates like new curds. The ewe milk is excellent, but is never drank fresh, the Arabs preferring it sour, or, more properly, as butter-milk. The flocks are milked morning and night into large bowls, and when a sufficient quantity is thus collected, it is poured into skins, without much attention being paid to its cleanliness, when by shaking and rolling it about, butter is procured, and generally attaches itself to the side of the skin; the milk being then strained from it into other vessels, is allowed to grow sour, and a quantity of butter being produced, it is boiled with a little salt until it becomes like oil, and is then poured into goat-skins, and is fit for use or market.

Cheese is procured by turning the milk with a certain herb (the name of which I have forgotten), and the curds, being salted, are spread out to dry in the sun, when they resemble little crums, and are very pleasant to the taste. I did not see any other kind of cheese than the one I have mentioned, and this is rather scarce, and used as a luxury in many of their little messes. Sometimes it is toasted, and has a very agreeable flavour. It is called Jibn, جبن.

A great article of commerce is the fat which the shepherds procure from the sheep they kill. They cut it from every part of the body, salt it, and lay it by until a large quantity is collected, when, whether putrid or not, they boil it, until it bear some resemblance to the grease used by tallow-chandlers; it is then poured into skins, and is fit for use. In the interior it sells at about a shilling a pound; but at Tripoli it is much cheaper. It is put into almost every article of food by the Arabs, and though not very savoury, we soon became accustomed to its taste. It is called Shahm شحامر.

From the wool of their sheep, the women make strong barracans, carpets, shirts, turbans, and many ornaments. Their tents too are made of wool and goats’ hair, as are also sacks, which are used to carry corn and merchandize on the camels. Mats and ornaments of palm leaves or grass are neatly made. Their dyes are generally brilliant; black, blue, red, and orange; in fact, every colour excepting green, which they find much difficulty in producing; though at Tripoli the dyers succeed very well in it. The looms of the Arab women are on the ground; they have no shuttles, but with much trouble pass the threads through with their fingers, generally lightening their labour with songs. The men seldom work while in their tents, and their time seems to hang much heavier on their hands than that of the women, who with cooking and other domestic employments are generally pretty well occupied. No woman eats in the presence of a man, and wives always wait on their husbands.

The domestic animals consist of poultry, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and dogs: they all live under the same canopy as their masters, and are on good terms amongst themselves. The horses are perfectly quiet, being brought up with the children of the family. They would be a fine race, but that the want of good food prevents their acquiring a handsome appearance; add to which, the ambition of possessing well fed and comely animals does not now exist; for should any of the Bashaw’s people wish to appropriate a fine horse, the owner dares not refuse to sell him, at whatever low price may be offered. Still, however, many of the Arabs breed them expressly for the market, bringing them while foals for sale. I have seen some of them brought in this way, which, when taken care of, became remarkably handsome, and unlike the generality belonging to the Bedouins. In the bazaars at Tripoli I have sometimes observed very fine ones, which were brought from the Desert, and sold for forty or fifty dollars (about eleven or twelve pounds sterling) a piece. All have long tails, and are entire; a great defect is, however, almost general amongst them, in consequence of their being mounted when too young; which is, that their backs are very hollow, and their hind quarters appear higher than their fore. Colts of twelve months are frequently seen, staggering beneath the weight of a heavy man, his arms, water skin, and food. The Arabs consider a large belly as very handsome; and some horses, from the nature of their food, acquire such rotundity in this respect, that they appear like mares in foal.

_Drawn from Life by G. F. Lyon._

_On Stone by D. Dighton._

ARABS EXERCISING.

_London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. 1821._

_C. Hullmandel’s Lithography._]

A light mane and tail on a chesnut horse is considered unlucky; the colour, though common, is not much admired, and the feet of such animals are accounted soft and tender. Bay is the favourite colour next to light grey, which is much in request, the Bashaw generally riding horses of this description.

Much importance is attached to the manner in which the legs are coloured, stockinged horses being in the extremes of good or bad luck, according to the disposition of the white. If both forelegs are marked, it is good; if one hind and one fore leg are marked on the same side, it is very unlucky; or if one alone is white, it is equally unfortunate; but if opposite legs (off fore and near hind) are light, nothing can be more admired. Ridiculous as these fancies may appear, they nevertheless influence the price of horses, sometimes to even a sixth of their value.

In sandy parts of the desert shoeing is never used; but where the animals are to pass over mountains, it is absolutely necessary. The Arab shoes are thus formed, turning up behind; and are, in general, so badly put on, that there are few horses to be found which have not been injured in their feet. The Arab’s forge is simple, and almost every man is his own blacksmith. A small mud or clay wall is built to the height of a foot or eighteen inches; a hole is then made even with the ground, and an iron pipe introduced. To this are attached two skins, which open at the upper end by means of two sticks, having a small leather handle on each: the thumb is passed through one of these, and the fingers through the other; so that the hand easily opens and shuts the skin. The mouth being closed, the skin is pressed down, and throws a strong blast through the pipe. It is again opened and lifted up, when it is once more ready. Thus, alternately with each hand, the current of air is kept up to the fire which lies over the pipe. Camel’s dung is used when charcoal cannot be procured, and gives a very strong heat. The anvil is a small square-ended piece of iron, which is sunk in a log of wood, and partly buried in the sand. An ordinary hammer, and a pair or two of pincers, complete the apparatus.

The mill is equally simple, being composed of two circular stones, one of which lies flat on the other, and is turned by a small handle placed on it; this is fixed by a pivot from the lower one, and has a hole in the centre, through which it is supplied with grain.

The messes made with flour are few, and may be thus enumerated: Cusscussou, Bazeen, Dweeda, Atila, Mogatta, Zūmeita, Bread, Fetaat. Cusscussou being a dish very generally mentioned in all books of travels, I shall attempt to describe the manner in which it is made; and I trust I may be allowed, however trifling the subject, to mention in the same manner the other articles of food, as I believe they are at present only known by name.

The corn for Cusscussou is ground expressly to the state which is called Semolina in Italy, and used also under that name in England. The hand being clean washed, and a large wooden bowl prepared, a portion of semolina is thrown into it with the right hand; it is turned quickly round under the palm, while from the left, water is occasionally sprinkled upon the mass, together with dry semolina. In a short time, by turning it constantly the same way, the flour adheres in little granules, like bread crums; and by a dexterous motion of the hand, is prevented from forming into large lumps. When finished, the grains resemble small shot in size, and stick closely together, without danger of again falling into flour on being dried. They will keep good in this state nearly as long as corn. When Cusscussou is to be prepared for eating, it is put in a basket, or tin vessel having holes in the bottom, and steamed over meat, or boiling water, care being taken to stir it occasionally, so as to prevent its caking. When sufficiently done, meat is poured on with its gravy, or a little butter or grease mixed with it; should meat be wanting, a good quantity of red pepper and salt are frequently all its auxiliaries.

Bazeen (which in Fezzan is called Aseēda) is the most common food, as being the easiest prepared. It is made of the flour of any grain (Bishna and Barley are mostly used near Tripoli) in the following manner. A large pot, of copper or iron, is placed on the fire, with a little water in it, which is suffered to boil. Flour is then thrown in, until it acquires the consistency of dough, when it is stirred well about with a large stick (water being occasionally added, if necessary,) until it is quite thick, and begins to assume the appearance of a pudding, when it is taken out, and placed in a bowl. After being beat into a circular shape, and having a hole made in the centre, gravy, oil, butter, or grease, is poured on it, and it is then ready for eating, which is done by pinching pieces out with the right hand, and kneading them with the grease until they assume the appearance of thick paste. Should there be no gravy or grease to be procured, a little flour mixed with hot water is used instead of it. It requires much strength of arm to make bazeen properly, as the stick is wielded by both hands, and the pot is confined on the fire by having a forked piece of wood placed against it, on which the woman kneels while preparing the mess.

Dweeda is moulded in the shape of little seeds, not quite so large as the grains of rice; but oblong, and much resembling them. A stiff dough being prepared, the women very expeditiously pinch it out between their fingers and thumbs into this form. It is then allowed to dry; and is considered a great dainty when boiled, and a little butter poured over it.

Atila is composed much in the same way; but is longer, and much resembles small macaroni broken in pieces. It is also boiled in the same manner as Dweeda.

Mogatta is made of paste, by being beaten and turned between the hands, until it is as thin as a pancake; it is then laid in the sun to harden a little. When it becomes sufficiently crisp to break, it is crumbled in pieces, and boiled until it resembles thick porridge, the larger pieces always remaining entire. A sufficient quantity of fat and pepper completes it.

Zumeeta is made of barley, which has been a little malted; it is then ground into flour, and sometimes dates are pounded with it. In this state it remains until it is to be used; when a little cold water being mixed with it until it becomes like dough, it is fit for eating. Oil is much used with it, by dipping the Zumeeta in it when formed into mouthfuls for eating. This is almost the only stock which Arabs provide on going a journey, as it is easily prepared, and very nourishing.

Bread is made as in Europe. It is leavened with flour, or a preparation of dates, moulded into little cakes shaped like buns. The ovens are generally formed in the ground: a hole is made about two feet in depth, and in the shape of a large jar, contracted at the mouth; it is then encrusted inside with clay. Wood is thrown in and burnt, until a thick layer of glowing ashes is collected at the bottom, and the oven is thoroughly heated; the loaves are then put in by a woman, who bares and wets her arm, and sticks them against the side with great dexterity: when done enough, if not speedily taken off, they fall into the embers. Sometimes meat is dressed in these ovens; a kind of crumpet, also, called Fetaat, made in the same way as Mogatta, but without leaven, is slightly baked in them; one of these crumpets is then placed in a bowl, and soup and vegetables are poured over it; another is then put in, and soup added as before, and so on in successive layers, until the bowl is full. All these messes are eaten with the fingers.

There is great variety in the manner of dressing meat, which is stewed, boiled, or baked; but for journeys the Arabs have a very good way of preserving it, by cutting it into thin slices, drying it in the sun, and afterwards stewing it in fat. I have often observed them eating small grasses, which they found as they pursued their journey; and to my inquiries how they knew them to be innoxious, the general reply was, that whatever an animal which chewed its cud could eat with safety, must be food for man. There is a species of dandelion, very bitter, and exuding a white juice, which is much liked by the sheep as well as their masters. The taste at first is very unpleasant; but I soon became accustomed to it. The Colocynth apple grows in great quantities in some parts of the Desert, and is almost the only medicine used by the Arabs. Burning is always had recourse to, and many of them are in consequence covered with scars; it is also occasionally used to show the force of love; and both sexes practise it when they wish to give proof of very strong affection.

Wolves, young dogs, cats, and hedgehogs, though forbidden animals, are not unfrequently eaten by sick persons, from a belief that their flesh is medicinal, or, as they express it, “Doua.” Charms are much worn, and are procured from such as are considered Marāboots amongst themselves, or from the Scribes of Tripoli. It is not enough that the man should be defended by these little prayers sewed up in leather, and attached to his arms or body; but his horse, gun, sword, and red cap must be equally protected with himself. The “Evil Eye” is of all other mischiefs most dreaded, and for a stranger to express particular admiration of a child, a horse, or any other valuable, is to bring on it or its possessor certain misfortune; this may, however, be averted by passing over the object a finger wetted with saliva, or by the equally efficacious charm of an open hand, either attached to the clothes as an ornament, or tattooed on the skin. It is remarkable that no Arab will take a knife or scissars from the hands of any one, as (from some superstitious prejudice) such an action is considered highly unfortunate; but they require that the instrument should be first laid on the ground, whence they readily take it up without fear.

The Arabs have but few amusements beyond Dancing and a Game called Helga, which resembles draughts, and is played with camels’ dung or date stones, in holes made in the sand. The noise uttered by these people at their festivals, or on any joyful occasion, is most extraordinary; and being very shrill, it may be heard at a great distance, particularly if several persons join in chorus: it is a piercing cry from the throat (the mouth being quite open), to which a tremulous sound is given by a rapid motion of the tongue from side to side; it is very enlivening, and when it becomes familiar to the ear, far from disagreeable.

The manner of salutation used amongst the Arabs is particularly striking, and certainly not ungraceful. Friends on meeting, seize each the right hand of the other, then loosen and apply the tips of their fingers to their mouths, afterwards laying the open hand on the heart, they press it and gently incline the head at the same time. Very intimate acquaintances mutually lift their joined right hands in such a manner that each kisses the back of the other’s hand, repeating with the greatest rapidity, “How are you? well, how are you? Thank God, how are you? God bless you, how are you?” which compliments in a well bred man never last less than ten minutes; and whatever may be the conversation afterwards, it is a mark of great good breeding occasionally to interrupt it, bowing solemnly and asking, “How are you?” though an answer to the question is by no means considered necessary, as he who asks it is perhaps looking another way, and thinking of something else. I must not omit to mention a particular instance of good breeding which I met with amongst these people: a man begged me one day to reach him a piece of straw which lay near me, that he might take out of a cup of water a bird which had fallen into it. I perceived, however, that it was only a Fly; and was afterwards informed that they consider it disrespectful to make use of the word Fly in presence of a superior.