Chapter XVII: The Crusades

51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)

Within a short time after the death of Mohammed (632) the whole country of Syria, including Palestine, was overrun by the Arabs, and the Holy City of Jerusalem passed out of Christian hands into the control of the infidels. The Arabs, however, shared the veneration of the Christians for the places associated with the life of Christ and did not greatly interfere with the pilgrims who flocked thither from all parts of the Christian world. In the tenth century the strong emperors of the Macedonian dynasty at Constantinople succeeded in winning back all of Syria except the extreme south, and the prospect seemed fair for the permanent possession by a Christian power of all those portions of the Holy Land which were regarded as having associations peculiarly sacred. This prospect might have been realized but for the invasions and conquests of the Seljuk Turks in the latter part of the eleventh century. These Turks came from central Asia and are to be carefully distinguished from the Ottoman Turks of more modern times. They had recently been converted to Mohammedanism and were now the fiercest and most formidable champions of that faith in its conflict with the Christian East. In 1071 Emperor Romanus Diogenes was defeated at Manzikert, in Armenia, and taken prisoner by the sultan Alp Arslan, and as a result not only Asia Minor, but also Syria, was forever lost to the Empire. The Holy City of Jerusalem was definitely occupied in 1076. The invaders established a stronghold at Nicaea, less than a hundred miles across the Sea of Marmora from Constantinople, and even threatened the capital itself, although they did not finally succeed in taking it until 1453.

No sooner were the Turks in possession of Jerusalem and the approaches thither, than pilgrims returning to western Europe began to tell tales, not infrequently as true as they were terrifying, regarding insults and tortures suffered at the hand of the pitiless conquerors. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) put forth every effort to expel the intruders from Asia Minor, hoping to be able to regain the territories, including Syria, which they had stripped from the Empire; but his strength proved unequal to the task. Accordingly, in 1095, he sent an appeal to Pope Urban II. to enlist the Christian world in a united effort to save both the Empire and the Eastern Church. It used to be thought that Pope Sylvester II., about the year 1000, had suggested a crusade against the Mohammedans of the East, but it now appears that the first pope to advance such an idea was Gregory VII. (1073-1085), who in response to an appeal of Alexius's predecessor in 1074, had actually assembled an army of 50,000 men for the aid of the Emperor and had been prevented from carrying out the project only by the severity of the investiture controversy with Henry IV. of Germany. At any rate, it was not a difficult task for the ambassadors of Alexius to convince Pope Urban that he ought to execute the plan of Gregory. The plea for aid was made at the Council of Piacenza in March, 1095, and during the next few months Urban thought out the best method of procedure.

At the Council of Clermont, held in November, 1095, the crusade was formally proclaimed through the famous speech which the Pope himself delivered after the regular business of the assembly had been transacted. Urban was a Frenchman and he knew how to appeal to the emotions and sympathies of his hearers. For the purpose of stirring up interest in the enterprise he dropped the Latin in which the work of the Council had been transacted and broke forth in his native tongue, much to the delight of his countrymen. There are four early versions of the speech, differing widely in contents, and none, of course, reproducing the exact words used by the speaker. The version given by Robert the Monk, a resident of Rheims, in the opening chapter of his history of the first crusade seems in most respects superior to the others. It was written nearly a quarter of a century after the Council of Clermont, but the writer in all probability had at least heard the speech which he was trying to reproduce; in any event we may take his version of it as a very satisfactory representation of the aspirations and spirit which impelled the first crusaders to their great enterprise. It has been well said that "many orations have been delivered with as much eloquence, and in as fiery words as the Pope used, but no other oration has ever been able to boast of as wonderful results."

Source--Robertus Monachus, _Historia Iherosolimitana_ [Robert
the Monk, "History of the Crusade to Jerusalem"], Bk. I.,
Chap. 1. Reprinted in _Recueildes Historiens des Croisades:
Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol. III., pp. 727-728.
Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa.
Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 5-8.

[Sidenote: The Council of Clermont]

In the year of our Lord's Incarnation one thousand and ninety-five,
a great council was convened within the bounds of Gaul, in
Auvergne, in the city which is called Clermont. Over this Pope
Urban II. presided, with the Roman bishops and cardinals. This
council was a famous one on account of the concourse of both French
and German bishops, and of princes as well. Having arranged the
matters relating to the Church, the lord Pope went forth into a
certain spacious plain, for no building was large enough to hold
all the people. The Pope then, with sweet and persuasive eloquence,
addressed those present in words something like the following,
saying:

[Sidenote: Pope Urban appeals to the French]

"Oh, race of Franks, race beyond the mountains [the Alps], race
beloved and chosen by God (as is clear from many of your works),
set apart from all other nations by the situation of your country,
as well as by your Catholic faith and the honor you render to the
holy Church: to you our discourse is addressed, and for you our
exhortations are intended. We wish you to know what a serious
matter has led us to your country, for it is the imminent peril
threatening you and all the faithful that has brought us hither.

[Sidenote: The ravages of the Turks]

"From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople
a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought repeatedly to
our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom of the Persians, an
accursed race, a race wholly alienated from God, 'a generation that
set not their heart aright, and whose spirit was not steadfast with
God' [Ps., lxxviii. 8], has violently invaded the lands of those
Christians and has depopulated them by pillage and fire. They have
led away a part of the captives into their own country, and a part
they have killed by cruel tortures. They have either destroyed the
churches of God or appropriated them for the rites of their own
religion. They destroy the altars, after having defiled them with
their uncleanness.... The kingdom of the Greeks [the Eastern
Empire] is now dismembered by them and has been deprived of
territory so vast in extent that it could not be traversed in two
months' time.

[Sidenote: Urban recalls the zeal and valor of the earlier Franks]

"On whom, therefore, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs and
of recovering this territory, if not upon you--you, upon whom,
above all other nations, God has conferred remarkable glory in
arms, great courage, bodily activity, and strength to humble the
heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of your ancestors
encourage you and incite your minds to manly achievements--the
glory and greatness of King Charlemagne, and of his son Louis [the
Pious], and of your other monarchs, who have destroyed the kingdoms
of the Turks[396] and have extended the sway of the holy Church
over lands previously pagan. Let the holy sepulcher of our Lord and
Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean nations, especially
arouse you, and the holy places which are now treated with ignominy
and irreverently polluted with the filth of the unclean. Oh most
valiant soldiers and descendants of invincible ancestors, do not
degenerate, but recall the valor of your ancestors.

[Sidenote: The crusade as a desirable remedy for over population]

"But if you are hindered by love of children, parents, or wife,
remember what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'He that loveth father
or mother more than me is not worthy of me' [Matt., x. 37]. 'Every
one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father,
or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake,
shall receive an hundred-fold, and shall inherit everlasting life'
[Matt., xix. 29]. Let none of your possessions restrain you, nor
anxiety for your family affairs. For this land which you inhabit,
shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded by the mountain
peaks, is too narrow for your large population; nor does it abound
in wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough for its
cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another,
that you wage war, and that very many among you perish in civil
strife.[397]

[Sidenote: Syria, a rich country]

"Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels
end; let wars cease; and let all dissensions and controversies
slumber. Enter upon the road of the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that land
from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. That land
which, as the Scripture says, 'floweth with milk and honey' [Num.,
xiii. 27] was given by God into the power of the children of
Israel. Jerusalem is the center of the earth; the land is fruitful
above all others, like another paradise of delights. This spot the
Redeemer of mankind has made illustrious by His advent, has
beautified by His sojourn, has consecrated by His passion, has
redeemed by His death, has glorified by His burial.

"This royal city, however, situated at the center of the earth, is
now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected, by
those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen. She
seeks, therefore, and desires to be liberated, and ceases not to
implore you to come to her aid. From you especially she asks
succor, because, as we have already said, God has conferred upon
you, above all other nations, great glory in arms. Accordingly,
undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, with
the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in the kingdom of
heaven."

[Sidenote: Response to the appeal]

When Pope Urban had skilfully said these and very many similar
things, he so centered in one purpose the desires of all who were
present that all cried out, "It is the will of God! It is the will
of God!" When the venerable Roman pontiff heard that, with eyes
uplifted to heaven, he gave thanks to God and, commanding silence
with his hand, said:

[Sidenote: "Deus vult," the war cry]

"Most beloved brethren, to-day is manifest in you what the Lord
says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together in my
name, there am I in the midst of them' [Matt., xviii. 20]. For
unless God had been present in your spirits, all of you would not
have uttered the same cry; since, although the cry issued from
numerous mouths, yet the origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say
to you that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it
forth from you. Let that, then, be your war cry in battle, because
it is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon the
enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: 'It
is the will of God! It is the will of God!'

[Sidenote: Who should go and who should remain]

"And we neither command nor advise that the old or feeble, or those
incapable of bearing arms, undertake this journey. Nor ought women
to set out at all without their husbands, or brothers, or legal
guardians. For such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a
burden than an advantage. Let the rich aid the needy; and according
to their wealth let them take with them experienced soldiers. The
priests and other clerks [clergy], whether secular or regular, are
not to go without the consent of their bishop; for this journey
would profit them nothing if they went without permission. Also, it
is not fitting that laymen should enter upon the pilgrimage without
the blessing of their priests.

"Whoever, therefore, shall decide upon this holy pilgrimage, and
shall make his vow to God to that effect, and shall offer himself
to Him for sacrifice, as a living victim, holy and acceptable to
God, shall wear the sign of the cross of the Lord on his forehead
or on his breast. When he shall return from his journey, having
fulfilled his vow, let him place the cross on his back between his
shoulders. Thus shall ye, indeed, by this twofold action, fulfill
the precept of the Lord, as He commands in the Gospel, 'He that
taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, is not worthy of me'"
[Luke, xiv. 27].

52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)

The appeals of Pope Urban at Clermont and elsewhere met with ready response, especially among the French, but also to a considerable extent among Italians, Germans, and even English. A great variety of people were attracted by the enterprise, and from an equal variety of motives. Men whose lives had been evil saw in the crusade an opportunity of doing penance; criminals who perhaps cared little for penance but much for their own personal safety saw in it an avenue of escape from justice; merchants discovered in it a chance to open up new and valuable trade; knights hailed it as an invitation to deeds of valor and glory surpassing any Europe had yet known; ordinary malcontents regarded it as a chance to mend their fortunes; and a very large number of people looked upon it as a great spiritual obligation laid upon them and necessary to be performed in order to insure salvation in the world to come. By reason of all these incentives, some of them weighing much more in the mediaeval mind than we can understand to-day, the crusade brought together men, women, and children from every part of Christendom. Both of the accounts given below of the assembling and starting of the crusaders are doubtless more or less exaggerated at certain points, yet in substance they represent what must have been pretty nearly the actual facts.

William of Malmesbury was an English monk who lived in the first half of the twelfth century and wrote a very valuable _Chronicle of the Kings of England_, which reached the opening of the reign of Stephen (1135). He thus had abundant opportunity to learn of the first crusade from people who had actually participated in it. His rather humorous picture of the effects of Pope Urban's call is thus well worth reading. Better than it, however, is the account by the priest Fulcher of Chartres (1058-1124)--better because the writer himself took part in the crusade and so was a personal observer of most of the things he undertook to describe. Fulcher, in 1096, set out upon the crusade in the company of his lord, Etienne, count of Blois and Chartres, who was a man of importance in the army of Robert of Normandy. With the rest of Robert's crusaders he spent the winter in Italy and arrived at Durazzo in the spring of 1097. He had a part in the siege of Nicaea and in the battle of Dorylaeum, but not in the siege of Antioch. Before reaching Jerusalem, in 1099, he became chaplain to a brother of Godfrey of Bouillon and was already making progress on his "history of the army of God."

Sources--(a) Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, _De gestis
regum Anglorum_ [William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the
Kings of England"], Bk. IV., Chap. 2. Adapted from translation
by John Sharpe (London, 1815), p. 416.

(b) Fulcherius Carnotensis, _Historia Iherosolimitana: gesta
Francorum Iherusalem peregrinantium_ [Fulcher of Chartres,
"History of the Crusade to Jerusalem: the Deeds of the French
Journeying Thither"], Chap. 6. Text in _Recueil des Historiens
des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol.
III., p. 328.

[Sidenote: Universal interest in the crusade]

(a)

Immediately the fame of this great event,[398] being spread through
the universe, penetrated the minds of Christians with its mild
breath, and wherever it blew there was no nation, however distant
and obscure, that did not send some of its people. This zeal
animated not only the provinces bordering on the Mediterranean, but
all who had ever even heard of the name Christian in the most
remote isles, and among barbarous nations. Then the Welshman
abandoned his forests and neglected his hunting; the Scotchman
deserted the fleas with which he is so familiar; the Dane ceased to
swallow his intoxicating draughts; and the Norwegian turned his
back upon his raw fish. The fields were left by the cultivators,
and the houses by their inhabitants; all the cities were deserted.
People were restrained neither by the ties of blood nor the love of
country; they saw nothing but God. All that was in the granaries,
or was destined for food, was left under the guardianship of the
greedy agriculturist. The journey to Jerusalem was the only thing
hoped for or thought of. Joy animated the hearts of all who set
out; grief dwelt in the hearts of all who remained. Why do I say
"of those who remained"? You might have seen the husband setting
forth with his wife, with all his family; you would have laughed to
see all the _penates_[399] put in motion and loaded upon wagons.
The road was too narrow for the passengers, and more room was
wanted for the travelers, so great and numerous was the crowd.[400]

[Sidenote: The multitude of crusaders]

(b)

Such, then, was the immense assemblage which set out from the West.
Gradually along the march, and from day to day, the army grew by
the addition of other armies, coming from every direction and
composed of innumerable people. Thus one saw an infinite multitude,
speaking different languages and coming from divers countries. All
did not, however, come together into a single army until we had
reached the city of Nicaea.[401] What shall I add? The isles of the
sea and the kingdoms of the whole earth were moved by God, so that
one might believe fulfilled the prophecy of David, who said in his
Psalm: "All nations whom Thou hast made shall come and worship
before Thee, O Lord, and shall glorify Thy name;" and so that those
who reached the holy places afterwards said justly: "We will
worship where His feet have stood." Concerning this journey we
read very many other predictions in the prophets, which it would be
tedious to recall.

[Sidenote: Mingled sorrow and joy of the crusaders]

Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping, what
lamentations among the friends, when the husband left the wife so
dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions of any
kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And yet in spite of the
floods of tears which those who remained shed for their friends
about to depart, and in their very presence, the latter did not
suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in no
way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing
without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold in receiving the
recompense which God has promised to those who love Him.

Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return and
assured her that, if he lived, by God's grace he would return to
her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and, weeping,
promised to return. But the latter, who feared that she would never
see him again, overcome with grief, was unable to stand, fell as if
lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear one whom she was
losing in life, as if he were already dead. He, then, as if he had
no pity (nevertheless he was filled with pity) and was not moved by
the grief of his friends (and yet he was secretly moved), departed
with a firm purpose. The sadness was for those who remained, and
the joy for those who departed. What more can we say? "This is the
Lord's doings, and it is marvelous in our eyes."

53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife

One of the most important groups of sources on the crusades is the large body of letters which has come down to us, written by men who had an actual part in the various expeditions. These letters, addressed to parents, wives, children, vassals, or friends, are valuable alike for the facts which they contain and for the revelation they give of the spirit and motives of the crusaders. A considerable collection of the letters, in English translation, may be found in Roger de Hoveden's _Annals of English History_, Roger of Wendover's _Flowers of History_, and Matthew Paris's _English History_ (all in the Bohn Library); also in Michaud's _History of the Crusades_, Vol. III., Appendix. In many respects the letter given below, written at Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois to his wife Adele, under date of March 29, 1098, is unexcelled in all the records of mediaeval letter-writing. Count Stephen (a brother-in-law of Robert of Normandy, who was a son of William the Conqueror) was one of the wealthiest and most popular French noblemen who responded to Pope Urban's summons at Clermont. At least three of his letters to his wife survive, of which the one here given is the third in order of time. It discloses the ordinary human sentiments of the crusader and makes us feel that, unlike the modern man as he was, he yet had very much in common with the people of to-day and of all ages. He was at the same time a bold fighter and a tender husband, a religious enthusiast and a practical man of affairs. When the letter was written, the siege of Antioch had been in progress somewhat more than five months; it continued until the following June, when it ended in the capture of the city by the crusaders. Count Stephen was slain in the battle of Ramleh in 1102.

Source--D'Achery, _Spicilegium_ ["Gleanings"], 2d edition,
Vol. III., pp. 430-433. Adapted from translation by Dana C.
Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I.,
No. 4, pp. 5-8.

Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his
dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks,--his greeting
and blessing.

[Sidenote: Count Stephen reports prosperity]

You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I sent to
give you pleasure left me before Antioch safe and unharmed and,
through God's grace, in the greatest prosperity. And already at
that time, together with all the chosen army of Christ, endowed
with great valor by Him, we have been continually advancing for
twenty-three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know
for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kind
of riches I now have twice as much as your love had assigned to me
when I left you. For all our princes, with the common consent of
the whole army, though against my own wishes, have made me up to
the present time the leader, chief, and director of their whole
expedition.

[Sidenote: Early achievements of the crusaders]

Doubtless you have heard that after the capture of the city of
Nicaea we fought a great battle with the treacherous Turks and, by
God's aid, conquered them.[402] Next we conquered for the Lord all
Romania, and afterwards Cappadocia.[403] We had learned that there
was a certain Turkish prince, Assam, dwelling in Cappadocia; so we
directed our course thither. We conquered all his castles by force
and compelled him to flee to a certain very strong castle situated
on a high rock. We also gave the land of that Assam to one of our
chiefs, and in order that he might conquer the prince we left there
with him many soldiers of Christ. Thence, continually following the
wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst of Armenia,[404] as
far as the great river Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and
beasts of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into
Arabia.

[Sidenote: The arrival at Antioch (1097)]

The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria,
hastened by forced marches night and day, in order to be able to
enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach.[405] Hearing
of this, the whole army of God gave due praise and thanks to the
all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to this chief city of
Antioch, we besieged it and there had a great number of conflicts
with the Turks; and seven times we fought with the citizens of the
city and with the innumerable troops all the time coming to their
aid. The latter we rushed out to meet and fought with the fiercest
courage under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven
battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered and most
assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles,
indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our
brethren and followers were killed and their souls were borne to
the joys of paradise.

[Sidenote: The beginning of the siege]

We found the city of Antioch very extensive, fortified with the
greatest strength and almost impossible to be taken. In addition,
more than 5,000 bold Turkish soldiers had entered the city, not
counting the Saracens, Publicans, Arabs, Turcopolitans, Syrians,
Armenians, and other different races of whom an infinite multitude
had gathered together there. In fighting against these enemies of
God and of us we have, by God's grace, endured many sufferings and
innumerable hardships up to the present time. Many also have
already exhausted all their means in this most holy enterprise.
Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a bodily death from
starvation, if the mercy of God and our money had not come to their
rescue. Lying before the city of Antioch, indeed, throughout the
whole winter we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold
and enormous torrents of rain. What some say about the
impossibility of bearing the heat of the sun in Syria is untrue,
for the winter there is very similar to our winter in the West.

[Sidenote: The Christians defeated near the seashore]

I delight to tell you, dearest, what happened to us during Lent.
Our princes had caused a fortress to be built before a certain gate
which was between our camp and the sea. For the Turks, coming out
of this gate daily, killed some of our men on their way to the sea.
The city of Antioch is about five leagues distant from the sea. For
this purpose they sent the excellent Bohemond and Raymond, count of
St. Gilles,[406] to the sea with only sixty horsemen, in order
that they might bring mariners to aid in this work. When, however,
they were returning to us with these mariners, the Turks collected
an army, fell suddenly upon our two leaders, and forced them to a
perilous flight. In that unexpected fight we lost more than 500 of
our foot-soldiers--to the glory of God. Of our horsemen, however,
we lost only two, for certain.

On that same day, in order to receive our brethren with joy, and
entirely ignorant of their misfortunes, we went out to meet them.
When, however, we approached the above-mentioned gate of the city,
a mob of foot-soldiers and horsemen from Antioch, elated by the
victory which they had won, rushed upon us in the same manner.
Seeing these, our leaders went to the camp of the Christians to
order all to be ready to follow us into battle. In the meantime our
men gathered together and the scattered leaders, namely, Bohemond
and Raymond, with the remainder of their army came up and told of
the great misfortune which they had suffered.

[Sidenote: A notable victory over the Turks]

Our men, full of fury at these most evil tidings, prepared to die
for Christ and, deeply grieved for their brethren, rushed upon the
wicked Turks. They, enemies of God and of us, hastily fled before
us and attempted to enter the city. But by God's grace the affair
turned out very differently; for, when they tried to cross a bridge
built over the great river Moscholum,[407] we followed them as
closely as possible, killed many before they reached the bridge,
forced many into the river, all of whom were killed, and we also
slew many upon the bridge and very many at the narrow entrance to
the gate. I am telling you the truth, my beloved, and you may be
assured that in this battle we killed thirty emirs, that is,
princes, and three hundred other Turkish nobles, not counting the
remaining Turks and pagans. Indeed the number of Turks and
Saracens killed is reckoned at 1230, but of ours we did not lose a
single man.

On the following day (Easter), while my chaplain Alexander was
writing this letter in great haste, a party of our men lying in
wait for the Turks fought a successful battle with them and killed
sixty horsemen, whose heads they brought to the army.

These which I write to you are only a few things, dearest, of the
many which we have done; and because I am not able to tell you,
dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to watch
carefully over your land, and to do your duty as you ought to your
children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon
as I can possibly return to you. Farewell.

FOOTNOTES:

[396] The term Turks is here used loosely and inaccurately for Asiatic pagan invaders in general. The French had never destroyed any "kingdoms of the Turks" in the proper sense of the word, though from time to time they had made successful resistance to Saracens, Avars and Hungarians.

[397] Among the acts of the Council of Clermont had been a solemn confirmation of the Truce of God, with the purpose of restraining feudal warfare [see p. 228]. In the version of Urban's speech given by Fulcher of Chartres, the Pope is reported as saying that in some parts of France "hardly any one can venture to travel upon the highways, by night or day, without danger of attack by thieves or robbers; and no one is sure that his property at home or abroad will not be taken from him by the violence or craft of the wicked."

[398] Pope Urban's appeal at the Council of Clermont.

[399] The _penates_ of the Romans were household gods. William of Malmesbury here uses the term half-humorously to designate the various sorts of household articles which the crusaders thought they could not do without on the expedition, and hence undertook to carry with them.

[400] This was in the summer of 1097. The whole body of crusaders, including monks, women, children, and hangers-on, may then have numbered three or four hundred thousand, but the effective fighting force was not likely over one hundred thousand men.

[401] The crusaders reached Nicaea May 6, 1097. After a long siege the city surrendered, although to the Emperor Alexius rather than to the French.

[402] This battle--the first pitched contest between the crusader and the Turk--was fought at Dorylaeum, southeast of Nicaea.

[403] Romania (or the sultanate of Roum) and Cappadocia were regions in northern Asia Minor.

[404] The country immediately southeast of the Black Sea.

[405] Antioch was one of the largest and most important cities of the East. It had been girdled with enormous walls by Justinian and was a strategic position of the greatest value to any power which would possess Syria and Palestine. The siege of the city by the crusaders began October 21, 1097.

[406] Bohemond of Tarentum was the son of Robert Guiscard and the leader of the Norman contingent from Italy. Raymond of St. Gilles, count of Toulouse, was leader of the men from Languedoc in south France.

[407] The modern Orontes.