Chapter VI: The Development of the Christian Church

10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy

In tracing the history of the great ecclesiastical institution known as the papacy, the first figure that stands out with considerable clearness is that of Leo I., or Leo the Great, who was elected bishop of Rome in the year 440. Leo is perhaps the first man who, all things considered, can be called "pope" in the modern sense of the term, although certain of his predecessors in the bishop's seat at the imperial capital had long claimed and exercised a peculiar measure of authority over their fellow bishops throughout the Empire. Almost from the earliest days of Christianity the word _papa_ (pope) seems to have been in common use as an affectionate mode of addressing any bishop, but after the fourth century it came to be applied in a peculiar manner to the bishop of Rome, and in time this was the only usage, so far as western Europe was concerned, which survived. The causes of the special development of the Roman bishopric into the powerful papal office were numerous. Rome's importance as a city, and particularly as the political head of the Mediterranean world, made it natural that her bishop should have something of a special dignity and influence. Throughout western Europe the Roman church was regarded as a model and its bishop was frequently called upon for counsel and advice. Then, when the seat of the imperial government was removed to the East by Constantine, the Roman bishop naturally took up much of the leadership in the West which had been exercised by the emperor, and this added not a little in the way of prestige. On the whole the Roman bishops were moderate, liberal, and sensible in their attitude toward church questions, thereby commending themselves to the practical peoples of the West in a way that other bishops did not always do. The growth of temporal possessions, especially in the way of land, also made the Roman bishops more independent and able to hold their own. And the activity of such men as Leo the Great in warding off the attacks of the German barbarians, and in providing popular leadership in the absence of such leadership on the part of the imperial authorities, was a not unimportant item.

After all, however, these are matters which have always been regarded by the popes themselves as circumstances of a more or less transitory and accidental character. It is not upon any or all of them that the papacy from first to last has sought to base its high claims to authority. The fundamental explanation, from the papal standpoint, for the peculiar development of the papal power in the person of the bishops of Rome is contained in the so-called theory of the "Petrine Supremacy," which will be found set forth in Pope Leo's sermon reproduced in part below. The essential points in this theory are: (1) that to the apostle Peter, Christ committed the keys of the kingdom of heaven and the supremacy over all other apostles on earth; (2) that Peter, in the course of time, became the first bishop of Rome; and (3) that the superior authority given to Peter was transmitted to all his successors in the Roman bishopric. It was fundamentally on _these_ grounds that the pope, to quote an able Catholic historian, was believed to be "the visible representative of ecclesiastical unity, the supreme teacher and custodian of the faith, the supreme legislator, the guardian and interpreter of the canons, the legitimate superior of all bishops, the final judge of councils--an office which he possessed in his own right, and which he actually exercised by presiding over all ecumenical synods, through his legates, and by confirming the acts of the councils as the Supreme Head of the Universal Catholic Church."[88] Modern Protestants discard certain of the tenets which go to make up the Petrine theory, but it is essential that the student of history bear in mind that the people of the Middle Ages never doubted its complete and literal authenticity, nor questioned that the authority of the papal office rested at bottom upon something far more fundamental than a mere fortunate combination of historical circumstances. Whatever one's personal opinions on the issues involved, the point to be insisted upon is that in studying mediaeval church life and organization the universal acceptance of these beliefs and conclusions be never lost to view.

Leo was pope from 440 to 461 and it has been well maintained that he was the first occupant of the office to comprehend the wide possibilities of the papal dignity in the future. In his sermons and letters he vigorously asserted the sovereign authority of his position, and in his influence on the events of his time, as for example the Council of Chalcedon in 451, he sought with no little success to bring men to a general acknowledgment of this authority.

Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patroligiae Cursus
Completus_ ["Complete Collection of Patristic Literature"],
First Series, Vol. LIV., cols. 144-148. Translated in Philip
Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 117-118.

[Sidenote: The apostle Peter still with his Church]

Although, therefore, dearly beloved, we be found both weak and
slothful in fulfilling the duties of our office, because, whatever
devoted and vigorous action we desire to undertake, we are hindered
in by the frailty of our nature, yet having the unceasing
propitiation of the Almighty and perpetual Priest [Christ], who
being like us and yet equal with the Father, brought down His
Godhead even to things human, and raised His Manhood even to things
Divine, we worthily and piously rejoice over His dispensation,
whereby, though He has delegated the care of His sheep to many
shepherds, yet He has not Himself abandoned the guardianship of His
beloved flock. And from His overruling and eternal protection we
have received the support of the Apostle's aid also, which
assuredly does not cease from its operation; and the strength of
the foundation, on which the whole superstructure of the Church is
reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple that rests upon
it. For the solidity of that faith which was praised in the chief
of the Apostles is perpetual; and as that remains which Peter
believed in Christ, so that remains which Christ instituted in
Peter.

[Sidenote: Christ's commission to Peter]

For when, as has been read in the Gospel lesson,[89] the Lord had
asked the disciples whom they believed Him to be amid the various
opinions that were held, and the blessed Peter had replied, saying,
"Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," the Lord said,
"Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona, because flesh and blood hath not
revealed it to thee, but My Father, which is in heaven. And I say
to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build My
church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it. And I
will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And
whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in heaven; and
whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be loosed also in
heaven." [Matt. xvi. 16-19.]

[Sidenote: Peter properly rules the Church through his successors
at Rome]

The dispensation of Truth therefore abides, and the blessed Peter
persevering in the strength of the Rock, which he has received, has
not abandoned the helm of the Church, which he undertook. For he
was ordained before the rest in such a way that from his being
called the Rock, from his being pronounced the Foundation, from his
being constituted the Doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven, from his
being set as the Umpire to bind and to loose, whose judgments shall
retain their validity in heaven--from all these mystical titles we
might know the nature of his association with Christ. And still
to-day he more fully and effectually performs what is intrusted to
him, and carries out every part of his duty and charge in Him and
with Him, through whom he has been glorified. And so if anything is
rightly done and rightly decreed by us, if anything is won from the
mercy of God by our daily supplications, it is of his work and
merits whose power lives and whose authority prevails in his
see....[90]

[Sidenote: Leo claims to be only Peter's representative]

And so, dearly beloved, with becoming obedience we celebrate
to-day's festival[91] by such methods, that in my humble person he
may be recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of all the
shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep commended to him,
and whose dignity is not belittled even in so unworthy an heir. And
hence the presence of my venerable brothers and fellow-priests, so
much desired and valued by me, will be the more sacred and
precious, if they will transfer the chief honor of this service in
which they have deigned to take part to him whom they know to be
not only the patron of this see, but also the primate of all
bishops. When therefore we utter our exhortations in your ears,
holy brethren, believe that he is speaking whose representative we
are. Because it is his warning that we give, and nothing else but
his teaching that we preach, beseeching you to "gird up the loins
of your mind," and lead a chaste and sober life in the fear of God,
and not to let your mind forget his supremacy and consent to the
lusts of the flesh.

[Sidenote: An exhortation to Christian constancy]

[Sidenote: The peculiar privilege of the church at Rome]

Short and fleeting are the joys of this world's pleasures which
endeavor to turn aside from the path of life those who are called
to eternity. The faithful and religious spirit, therefore, must
desire the things which are heavenly and, being eager for the
divine promises, lift itself to the love of the incorruptible Good
and the hope of the true Light. But be assured, dearly-beloved,
that your labor, whereby you resist vices and fight against carnal
desires, is pleasing and precious in God's sight, and in God's
mercy will profit not only yourselves but me also, because the
zealous pastor makes his boast of the progress of the Lord's flock.
"For ye are my crown and joy," as the Apostle says, if your faith,
which from the beginning of the Gospel has been preached in all the
world, has continued in love and holiness. For though the whole
Church, which is in all the world, ought to abound in all virtues,
yet you especially, above all people, it becomes to excel in deeds
of piety, because, founded as you are on the very citadel of the
Apostolic Rock, not only has our Lord Jesus Christ redeemed you in
common with all men, but the blessed Apostle Peter has instructed
you far beyond all men.

11. The Rule of St. Benedict

A very important feature of the church life of the early Middle Ages was the tendency of devout men to withdraw from the active affairs of the world and give themselves up to careers of self-sacrificing piety. Sometimes such men went out to live alone in forests or other obscure places and for this reason were called anchorites or hermits; but more often they settled in groups and formed what came to be known as monasteries. The idea that seclusion is helpful to the religious life was not peculiar to Christianity, for from very early times Brahmins and Buddhists and other peoples of the Orient had cherished the same view; and in many cases they do so still. Monasticism among Christians began naturally in the East and at first took the form almost wholly of hermitage, just as it had done among the adherents of other Oriental religions, though by the fourth century the Christian monks of Syria and Egypt and Asia Minor had come in many cases to dwell in established communities. In general the Eastern monks were prone to extremes in the way of penance and self-torture which the more practical peoples of the West were not greatly disposed to imitate. Monasticism spread into the West, but not until comparatively late--beginning in the second half of the fourth century--and the character which it there assumed was quite unlike that prevailing in the East. The Eastern ideal was the life of meditation with as little activity as possible, except perhaps such as was necessary in order to impose hardships upon one's self. The Western ideal, on the other hand, while involving a good deal of meditation and prayer, put much emphasis on labor and did not call for so complete an abstention of the monk from the pursuits and pleasures of other men.

In the later fifth century, and earlier sixth, several monasteries of whose history we know little were established in southern Gaul, especially in the pleasant valley of the Rhone. Earliest of all, apparently, and destined to become the most influential was the abbey of St. Martin at Tours, founded soon after St. Martin was made bishop of Tours in 372. But the development of Western monasticism is associated most of all with the work of St. Benedict of Nursia, who died in 543. Benedict was the founder of several monasteries in the vicinity of Rome, the most important being that of Monte Cassino, on the road from Rome to Naples, which exists to this day. One should guard, however, against the mistake of looking upon St. Benedict as the introducer of monasticism in the West, of even as the founder of a new monastic _order_ in the strict sense of the word. The great service which he rendered to European monasticism consisted in his working out for his monasteries in Italy an elaborate system of government which was found so successful in practice that, in the form of the Benedictine Rule (_regula_), it came to be the constitution under which for many centuries practically all the monks of Western countries lived. That it was so widely adopted was due mainly to its definite, practical, common-sense character. Its chief injunctions upon the monks were poverty, chastity, obedience, piety, and labor. All these were to be attained by methods which, although they may seem strange to us to-day, were at least natural and wholesome when judged by the ideas and standards prevailing in early mediaeval times. Granted the ascetic principle upon which the monastic system rested, the Rule of St. Benedict must be regarded as eminently moderate and sensible. It sprang from an acute perception of human nature and human needs no less than from a lofty ideal of religious perfection. The following extracts will serve to show its character.

Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patrologiae Cursus
Completus_, First Series, Vol. LXVI., cols. 245-932 _passim_.
Adapted from translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select
Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp.
274-314.

_Prologue...._ We are about to found, therefore, a school for the
Lord's service, in the organization of which we trust that we shall
ordain nothing severe and nothing burdensome. But even if, the
demands of justice dictating it, something a trifle irksome shall
be the result, for the purpose of amending vices or preserving
charity, thou shalt not therefore, struck by fear, flee the way of
salvation, which cannot be entered upon except through a narrow
entrance.

[Sidenote: Responsibility of the abbot for the character and deeds
of the monks]

[Sidenote: He must teach by example as well as by precept]

=2.= _What the abbot should be like._ An abbot who is worthy to
preside over a monastery ought always to remember what he is
called, and carry out with his deeds the name of a Superior. For he
is believed to be Christ's representative, since he is called by
His name, the apostle saying: "Ye have received the spirit of
adoption of sons, whereby we call Abba, Father" [Romans viii. 15].
And so the abbot should not (grant that he may not) teach, or
decree, or order, anything apart from the precept of the Lord; but
his order or teaching should be characterized by the marks of
divine justice in the minds of his disciples. Let the abbot always
be mindful that, at the terrible judgment of God, both things will
be weighed in the balance, his teaching and the obedience of his
disciples. And let the abbot know that whatever of uselessness the
father of the family finds among the sheep is laid to the fault of
the shepherd. Only in a case where the whole diligence of their
pastor shall have been bestowed on an unruly and disobedient flock,
and his whole care given to their wrongful actions, shall that
pastor, absolved in the judgment of the Lord, be free to say to the
Lord with the prophet: "I have not hid Thy righteousness within my
heart; I have declared Thy faithfulness and Thy salvation, but
they, despising, have scorned me" [Psalms xl. 10]. And then let the
punishment for the disobedient sheep under his care be that death
itself shall prevail against them. Therefore, when any one receives
the name of abbot, he ought to rule over his disciples with a
double teaching; that is, let him show forth all good and holy
things by deeds more than by words. So that to ready disciples he
may set forth the commands of God in words; but to the hard-hearted
and the more simple-minded, he may show forth the divine precepts
by his deeds.

[Sidenote: His duty to encourage, to admonish, and to punish]

He shall make no distinction of persons in the monastery. One shall
not be more cherished than another, unless it be the one whom he
finds excelling in good works or in obedience. A free-born man
shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude, unless there
be some other reasonable cause. But if, by the demand of justice,
it seems good to the abbot, he shall do this, no matter what the
rank shall be. But otherwise they shall keep their own places. For
whether we be bond or free, we are all one in Christ; and, under
one God, we perform an equal service of subjection. For God is no
respecter of persons. Only in this way is a distinction made by Him
concerning us, if we are found humble and surpassing others in good
works. Therefore let him [the abbot] have equal charity for all.
Let the same discipline be administered in all cases according to
merit.... He should, that is, rebuke more severely the unruly and
the turbulent. The obedient, moreover, and the gentle and the
patient, he should exhort, that they may progress to higher things.
But the negligent and scorners, we warn him to admonish and
reprove. Nor let him conceal the sins of the erring; but, in order
that he may prevail, let him pluck them out by the roots as soon as
they begin to spring up.

And let him know what a difficult and arduous thing he has
undertaken--to rule the souls and uplift the morals of many. And in
one case indeed with blandishments, in another with rebukes, in
another with persuasion--according to the quality or intelligence
of each one--he shall so conform and adapt himself to all that not
only shall he not allow injury to come to the flock committed to
him, but he shall rejoice in the increase of a good flock. Above
all things, let him not, deceiving himself or undervaluing the
safety of the souls committed to him, give more heed to temporary
and earthly and passing things; but let him always reflect that he
has undertaken to rule souls for which he is to render account.

[Sidenote: The monks to be consulted by the abbot]

[Sidenote: The Rule to be followed by every one as a guide]

=3.= _About calling in the brethren to take counsel._ Whenever
anything of importance is to be done in the monastery, the abbot
shall call together the whole congregation,[92] and shall himself
explain the matter in question. And, having heard the advice of the
brethren, he shall think it over by himself, and shall do what he
considers most advantageous. And for this reason, moreover, we have
said that all ought to be called to take counsel, because often it
is to a younger person that God reveals what is best. The brethren,
moreover, with all subjection of humility, ought so to give their
advice that they do not presume boldly to defend what seems good to
them; but it should rather depend on the judgment of the abbot, so
that, whatever he decides to be best, they should all agree to it.
But even as it behooves the disciples to obey the master, so it is
fitting that he should arrange all matters with care and justice.
In all things, indeed, let every one follow the Rule as his guide;
and let no one rashly deviate from it. Let no one in the monastery
follow the inclination of his own heart. And let no one boldly
presume to dispute with his abbot, within or without the monastery.
But, if he should so presume, let him be subject to the discipline
of the Rule.

[Sidenote: No property to be owned by the monks individually]

=33.= _Whether the monks should have anything of their own._ More
than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and
branch from the monastery, that one should presume to give or
receive anything without the order of the abbot, or should have
anything of his own. He should have absolutely not anything,
neither a book, nor tablets, nor a pen--nothing at all. For indeed
it is not allowed to the monks to have their own bodies or wills in
their own power. But all things necessary they must expect from the
Father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have anything which
the abbot has not given or permitted. All things shall be held in
common; as it is written, "Let not any man presume to call anything
his own." But if any one shall have been discovered delighting in
this most evil vice, being warned once and again, if he do not
amend, let him be subjected to punishment.[93]

[Sidenote: Daily schedule for the summer season]

=48.= _Concerning the daily manual labor._ Idleness is the enemy of
the soul.[94] And therefore, at fixed times, the brothers ought to
be occupied in manual labor; and again, at fixed times, in sacred
reading.[95] Therefore we believe that both seasons ought to be
arranged after this manner,--so that, from Easter until the Calends
of October,[96] going out early, from the first until the fourth
hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From the fourth
hour until about the sixth, they shall be free for reading. After
the meal of the sixth hour, rising from the table, they shall rest
in their beds with all silence; or, perchance, he that wishes to
read may read to himself in such a way as not to disturb another.
And the _nona_ [the second meal] shall be gone through with more
moderately about the middle of the eighth hour; and again they
shall work at what is to be done until Vespers.[97] But, if the
emergency or poverty of the place demands that they be occupied in
picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they are truly monks
if they live by the labors of their hands, as did also our fathers
and the apostles. Let all things be done with moderation, however,
on account of the faint-hearted.

[Sidenote: Reading during Lent]

In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books from the
library, which they shall read entirely through in order. These
books are to be given out on the first day of Lent. Above all there
shall be appointed without fail one or two elders, who shall go
round the monastery at the hours in which the brothers are engaged
in reading, and see to it that no troublesome brother be found who
is given to idleness and trifling, and is not intent on his
reading, being not only of no use to himself, but also stirring up
others. If such a one (may it not happen) be found, he shall be
reproved once and a second time. If he do not amend, he shall be
subject under the Rule to such punishment that the others may have
fear. Nor shall brother join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover,
on Sunday all shall engage in reading, excepting those who are
assigned to various duties. But if any one be so negligent and lazy
that he will not or can not read, some task shall be imposed upon
him which he can do, so that he be not idle. On feeble or delicate
brothers such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall
neither be idle nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be
driven to take flight. Their weakness is to be taken into
consideration by the abbot.

[Sidenote: Hospitality enjoined]

=53.= _Concerning the reception of guests._ All guests who come
shall be received as though they were Christ. For He Himself said,
"I was a stranger and ye took me in" [Matt. xxv. 35]. And to all
fitting honor shall be shown; but, most of all, to servants of the
faith and to pilgrims. When, therefore, a guest is announced, the
prior or the brothers shall run to meet him, with every token of
love. And first they shall pray together, and thus they shall be
joined together in peace.

[Sidenote: Power of abbot to dispose of articles sent to the monks]

=54.= _Whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or
anything._ By no means shall it be allowed to a monk--either from
his relatives, or from any man, or from one of his fellows--to
receive or to give, without order of the abbot, letters, presents,
or any gift, however small. But even if, by his relatives, anything
has been sent to him, he shall not presume to receive it, unless
it has first been shown to the abbot. But if the latter order it to
be received, it shall be in the power of the abbot to give it to
whomsoever he wishes. And the brother to whom it happened to have
been sent shall not be displeased; that an opportunity be not given
to the devil. Whoever, moreover, presumes to do otherwise shall be
subject to the discipline of the Rule.

12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor

Gregory the Great, whose papacy extended from 590 to 604, was a Roman of noble and wealthy family, and in many ways the ablest man who had yet risen to the papal office. The date of his birth is not recorded, but it was probably about 540, some ten years after St. Benedict of Nursia had established his monastery at Monte Cassino. He was therefore a contemporary of the historian Gregory of Tours [see p. 47]. The education which he received was that which was usual with young Romans of his rank in life, and it is said that in grammar, rhetoric, logic, and law he became well versed, though without any claim to unusual scholarship. He entered public life and in 570 was made praetor of the city of Rome. All the time, however, he was struggling with the strange attractiveness which the life of the monk had for him, and in the end, upon the death of his father, he decided to forego the career to which his wealth and rank entitled him and to seek the development of his higher nature in seclusion. With the money obtained from the sale of his great estates he established six monasteries in Sicily and that of St. Andrew at Rome. In Gregory's case, however, retirement to monastic life did not mean oblivion, for soon he was selected by Pope Pelagius II., as resident minister (_apocrisiarius_) at Constantinople and in this important position he was maintained for five or six years. After returning to Rome he became abbot of St. Andrews, and in 590, as the records say, he was "demanded" as pope.

Gregory was a man of very unusual ability and the force of his strong personality made his reign one of the great formative epochs in papal history. Besides his activity in relation to the affairs of the world in general, he has the distinction of being a literary pope. His letters and treatises were numerous and possessed a quality of thought and style which was exceedingly rare in his day. The most famous of his writings, and justly so, is the _Liber Regulae Pastoralis_, known commonly to English readers as the "Pastoral Care," or the "Pastoral Rule." This book was written soon after its author became pope (590) and was addressed to John, bishop of Ravenna, in reply to inquiries received from him respecting the duties and obligations of the clergy. Though thus put into form for a special purpose, there can be no doubt that it was the product of long thought, and in fact in his _Magna Moralia_, or "Commentary on the Book of Job," written during his residence at Constantinople, Gregory declared his purpose some day to write just such a book. Everywhere throughout Europe the work was received with the favor it deserved, and in Spain, Gaul, and Italy its influence upon the life and manners of the clergy was beyond estimate. Even in Britain, after King Alfred's paraphrase of it in the Saxon tongue had been made, three hundred years later [see p. 193], it was a real power for good. The permanent value of Gregory's instructions regarding the life of the clergy arose not only from the lofty spirit in which they were conceived and the clear-cut manner in which they were expressed, but from their breadth and adaptation to all times and places. There are few books which the modern pastor can read with greater profit. The work is in four parts: (1) on the selection of men for the work of the Church; (2) on the sort of life the pastor ought to live; (3) on the best methods of dealing with the various types of people which every pastor will be likely to encounter; and (4) on the necessity that the pastor guard himself against egotism and personal ambition. The passages below are taken from the second and third parts.

Source--Gregorius Magnus, _Liber Regulae Pastoralis_ [Gregory
the Great, "The Book of the Pastoral Rule"]. Text in Jacques
Paul Migne, _Patroligiae Cursus Completus_, First Series, Vol.
LXXVII., cols. 12-127 _passim_. Adapted from translation in
Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 9-71 _passim_.

[Sidenote: The qualities which ought to be united in the
pastor]

The conduct of a prelate[98] ought so far to be superior to the
conduct of the people as the life of a shepherd is accustomed to
exalt him above the flock. For one whose position is such that the
people are called his flock ought anxiously to consider how great a
necessity is laid upon him to maintain uprightness. It is
necessary, then, that in thought he should be pure, in action firm;
discreet in keeping silence, profitable in speech; a near neighbor
to every one in sympathy, exalted above all in contemplation; a
familiar friend of good livers through humility, unbending against
the vices of evil-doers through zeal for righteousness; not
relaxing in his care for what is inward by reason of being occupied
in outward things, nor neglecting to provide for outward things in
his anxiety for what is inward.

[Sidenote: Purity of heart essential]

The ruler should always be pure in thought, inasmuch as no impurity
ought to pollute him who has undertaken the office of wiping away
the stains of pollution in the hearts of others also; for the hand
that would cleanse from dirt must needs be clean, lest, being
itself sordid with clinging mire, it soil all the more whatever it
touches.

[Sidenote: He must teach by example]

The ruler should always be a leader in action, that by his living
he may point out the way of life to those who are put under him,
and that the flock, which follows the voice and manners of the
shepherd, may learn how to walk rather through example than through
words. For he who is required by the necessity of his position to
_speak_ the highest things is compelled by the same necessity to
_do_ the highest things. For that voice more readily penetrates the
hearer's heart, which the speaker's life commends, since what he
commands by speaking he helps the doing by showing.

The ruler should be discreet in keeping silence, profitable in
speech; lest he either utter what ought to be suppressed or
suppress what he ought to utter. For, as incautious speaking leads
into error, so indiscreet silence leaves in error those who might
have been instructed.

[Sidenote: He must be able to distinguish virtues and vices]

The ruler ought also to understand how commonly vices pass
themselves off as virtues. For often niggardliness excuses itself
under the name of frugality, and on the other hand extravagance
conceals itself under the name of liberality. Often inordinate
carelessness is believed to be loving-kindness, and unbridled wrath
is accounted the virtue of spiritual zeal. Often hasty action is
taken for promptness, and tardiness for the deliberation of
seriousness. Whence it is necessary for the ruler of souls to
distinguish with vigilant care between virtues and vices, lest
stinginess get possession of his heart while he exults in seeming
frugality in expenditure; or, while anything is recklessly wasted,
he glory in being, as it were, compassionately liberal; or, in
overlooking what he ought to have smitten, he draw on those that
are under him to eternal punishment; or, in mercilessly smiting an
offense, he himself offend more grievously; or, by rashly
anticipating, mar what might have been done properly and gravely;
or, by putting off the merit of a good action, change it to
something worse.

[Sidenote: No one kind of teaching adapted to all men]

Since, then, we have shown what manner of man the pastor ought to
be, let us now set forth after what manner he should teach. For, as
long before us Gregory Nazianzen,[99] of reverend memory, has
taught, one and the same exhortation does not suit all, inasmuch as
all are not bound together by similarity of character. For the
things that profit some often hurt others; seeing that also, for
the most part, herbs which nourish some animals are fatal to
others; and the gentle hissing that quiets horses incites whelps;
and the medicine which abates one disease aggravates another; and
the food which invigorates the life of the strong kills little
children. Therefore, according to the quality of the hearers ought
the discourse of teachers to be fashioned, so as to suit all and
each for their several needs, and yet never deviate from the art
of common edification. For what are the intent minds of hearers
but, so to speak, a kind of harp, which the skilful player, in
order to produce a tune possessing harmony, strikes in various
ways? And for this reason the strings render back a melodious
sound, because they are struck indeed with one quill, but not with
one kind of stroke. Whence every teacher also, that he may edify
all in the one virtue of charity, ought to touch the hearts of his
hearers out of one doctrine, but not with one and the same
exhortation.

[Sidenote: Various classes of hearers to be distinguished]

Differently to be admonished are these that follow:

Men and women.

The poor and the rich.

The joyful and the sad.

Prelates and subordinates.

Servants and masters.

The wise of this world and the dull.

The impudent and the bashful.

The forward and the faint-hearted.

The impatient and the patient.

The kindly disposed and the envious.

The simple and the insincere.

The whole and the sick.

Those who fear scourges, and therefore live innocently; and those
who have grown so hard in iniquity as not to be corrected even by
scourges.

The too silent, and those who spend time in much speaking.

The slothful and the hasty.

The meek and the passionate.

The humble and the haughty.

The obstinate and the fickle.

The gluttonous and the abstinent.

Those who mercifully give of their own, and those who would fain
seize what belongs to others.

Those who neither seize the things of others nor are bountiful
with their own; and those who both give away the things they have,
and yet cease not to seize the things of others.

Those who are at variance, and those who are at peace.

Lovers of strife and peacemakers.

Those who understand not aright the words of sacred law; and those
who understand them indeed aright, but speak them without humility.

Those who, though able to preach worthily, are afraid through
excessive humility; and those whom imperfection or age debars from
preaching, and yet rashness impels to it.

[Sidenote: How the wise and the dull are to be admonished]

(Admonition 7)[100]. Differently to be admonished are the wise of
this world and the dull. For the wise are to be admonished that
they leave off knowing what they know[101]; the dull also are to be
admonished that they seek to know what they know not. In the former
this thing first, that they think themselves wise, is to be
overcome; in the latter, whatsoever is already known of heavenly
wisdom is to be built up; since, being in no wise proud, they have,
as it were, prepared their hearts for supporting a building. With
those we should labor that they become more wisely foolish[102],
leave foolish wisdom, and learn the wise foolishness of God: to
these we should preach that from what is accounted foolishness
they should pass, as from a nearer neighborhood, to true wisdom.

[Sidenote: Emphasis on the importance of setting a right example]

But in the midst of these things we are brought back by the earnest
desire of charity to what we have already said above; that every
preacher should give forth a sound more by his deeds than by his
words, and rather by good living imprint footsteps for men to
follow than by speaking show them the way to walk in. For that
cock, too, whom the Lord in his manner of speech takes to represent
a good preacher, when he is now preparing to crow, first shakes his
wings, and by smiting himself makes himself more awake; since it is
surely necessary that those who give utterance to words of holy
preaching should first be well awake in earnestness of good living,
lest they arouse others with their voice while themselves torpid in
performance; that they should first shake themselves up by lofty
deeds, and then make others solicitous for good living; that they
should first smite themselves with the wings of their thoughts;
that whatsoever in themselves is unprofitably torpid they should
discover by anxious investigation, and correct by strict
self-discipline, and then at length set in order the life of others
by speaking; that they should take heed to punish their own faults
by bewailings, and then denounce what calls for punishment in
others; and that, before they give voice to words of exhortation,
they should proclaim in their deeds all that they are about to
speak.

FOOTNOTES:

[88] John Alzog. _Manual of Universal Church History_ (trans, by F. J. Pabisch and T. S. Byrne), Cincinnati, 1899, Vol. I., p. 668.

[89] That is, the passage of Scripture read just before the sermon.

[90] "See" is a term employed to designate a bishop's jurisdiction. According to common belief Peter had been bishop of Rome; his see was therefore that which Leo now held.

[91] The anniversary of Leo's elevation to the papal office.

[92] That is, the body of monks residing in the monastery.

[93] The vow of poverty which must be taken by every Benedictine monk meant only that he must not acquire property individually. By gifts of land and by their own labor the monks became in many cases immensely rich, but their wealth was required to be held in common. No one man could rightfully call any part of it his own.

[94] The converse of this principle was often affirmed by Benedictines in the saying, "To work is to pray."

[95] The Bible and the writings of such Church fathers as Lactantius, Tertullian, Origen, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Eusebius, and St. Jerome.

[96] The first day of the month.

[97] Thus the ordinary daily programme during the spring and summer months would be: from six o'clock until ten, manual labor; from ten until twelve, reading; at twelve, the midday meal; after this meal until the second one about half past two, rest and reading; and from the second meal until evening, labor. Manual labor was principally agricultural.

[98] Gregory's remarks and instructions in the _Pastoral Rule_ were intended to apply primarily to the local priests--the humble pastors of whom we hear little, but upon whose piety and diligence ultimately depended the whole influence of the Church upon the masses of the people. The general principles laid down, however, were applicable to all the clergy, of whatever rank.

[99] Gregory, bishop of Nazianzus (in Cappadocia), was a noted churchman of the fourth century.

[100] After enumerating quite a number of other contrasted groups in the foregoing fashion Gregory proceeds in a series of "admonitions" to take up each pair and tell how persons belonging to it should be dealt with by the pastor. One of these admonitions is here given as a specimen.

[101] Gregory's attitude toward the "learning of the world," especially the classical languages and literatures, was that of the typical Christian ascetic. He had no use for it personally and regarded its influence as positively harmful. It must be said that there was little such learning in his day, for the old Latin and Greek culture had now reached a very low stage. Gregory took the ground that the churches should have learned bishops, but their learning was to consist exclusively in a knowledge of the Scriptures, the writings of the Church fathers, and the stories of the martyrs. As a matter of fact not only were the people generally quite unable to understand the Latin services of the Church, but great numbers of the clergy themselves stumbled blindly through the ritual without knowing what they were saying; and this condition of things prevailed for centuries after Gregory's day. [See Charlemagne's letter _De Litteris Colendis_, p. 146.]

[102] That is, more simple and less self-satisfied in their own knowledge.