Chapter I (7)

The Pascha, either to show his good nature, or from some other reason of his own, sent my brother this morning to visit the Sheik Mussa (Moses), who is from Sauakim. My brother found him, outside the camp, lying on the earth in the open air, barely covered by a ferda, and his head resting on a stone, round which stood his followers. He had violent fever, with bloody-flux, and constant vomitings; the ground was moist from rain, and yet the sick man would hardly allow us to have him removed inside the camp. Joseph felt very doubtful as to his recovery, but the Pascha, who seemed to set much value on the Sheik’s life (probably that he might not get the credit of having poisoned him), begged us to take him into our own hut, and do all we could to restore his health. Thus we had the pleasing company of this half-dead man in our small hut, and two of our servants had to watch him day and night, as he never once ordered his own people to come and attend on him, nor indeed had we any wish for them to be in our hut, as their habits of stealing are insufferable. For five or six days the sick man was an intolerable nuisance to us. We had to find him in bed and board, in short, to provide him with everything, nor could we, any moment of these days, call ourselves masters of our own hut, as, from early dawn to late at night, it was constantly crowded by some twenty or thirty Arabs, visitors of the sick man, who kept up a constant chattering with him. The patient, however, at last recovered, and one morning, during my brother’s absence, quietly packed up his goods and took himself off, without as much as wishing me good bye, far less thanking us for all our trouble with him. So it is with all this race. Gratitude they know not; one may show them every kindness, but never will it occur to any of them to make the smallest return for it; thanks is a word to them unpronounceable, but they have a word, viz. kata-geirak, in their language, to express the sentiment, though why I know not, as they never use it; nor does this arise from stupidity or ignorance, but from design. On the other hand, they are never tired of most unblushingly asking and begging for every thing; all they see they covet, and fancy it should be at once given them, even though all could be bought for little money, and they themselves have plenty of this or other means of procuring what they beg for. If one does not from the very first go on the principle of determinedly and rudely refusing them every thing, one is sure to be victimised. Their plan is to part with nothing save for double its value, and all who act otherwise they look on as fools. An Arab would see a man perish for want of a cup of water though plenty was at hand, ere he would reach him one, if he knew the dying man was without a para to give in return. In one word the whole race of the Bellad-Sudan, are the most completely devoid of feeling of any I ever was among.

Our life grows every day more monotonous and tedious; our pipes are almost our only amusement. In general the Turks and Arabs of Egypt are great smokers, but not those of the other tribes. Before the Turkish invasion, tobacco-smoking (dogahn, smoke), was unknown to the Schaigies, and even yet it is not practised by anything like a fourth part of these natives. Among the Mograbins it is hardly known at all,—but chewing, each portion of tobacco being accompanied by a piece of natron, is the order of the day. Master and servant, rich or poor, all carry about them a bag with tobacco and pieces of natron in it, and they do not carry their quid as Europeans who indulge in this bad habit do, in their cheek, but in front, between the teeth and upper lip. The blacks of Gesira have another method of enjoying this plant. They make a cold infusion of tobacco, and dissolve the natron in it. Of this precious mixture, called bucca, they take a mouthful, which they keep rincing about in their mouths for some quarter of an hour ere they eject it. So much do they delight in this bucca, that it is the highest treat they can offer to their dearest friends. The whole party sit in solemn silence, the bucca cup makes its round, each takes his mouthful, and nothing is heard save the gurgling and working inside the closed mouths; at such a moment these blacks will give no reply to the most important questions, as to open the mouth would be to lose the cherished bucca, so signs are only used. All these races, however, blacks and all, are much addicted to snuff-taking (nuschuk); the snuff they usually carry in small oval-shaped cases, made out of the fruit of the Dom-palm; these have a very small opening at one end, stopped up by a wooden peg, and the snuff is not taken in pinches, but shaken out on the back of the hand.

This is the principal sensual pleasure, and the most favourite mental one of every follower of Islam is the counting the beads of his rosary; these rosaries, their chief ornament, they wear hanging on the neck or arm while praying, but carry it at other times as a plaything in the hand. This latter plan was much in vogue among many Franks in Alexandria, who could not remain quiet on the divan if they had not a rosary to finger, nor could they walk out on business through the streets without this indispensable plaything. The religious Turks use a rosary during prayer (sali), at each bead, the telling of which goes on rather more rapidly than with our German devotees, exclaiming the name of Allah. But other religionists carry also rosaries,—Copts, Eastern Christians, Armenians, &c., as a toy to amuse themselves with when their hands are not occupied by the pipe. Among the better classes, these rosaries are generally of precious stones, sweet smelling woods, or a dark, odorous compound of roses, ornamented with gold, silver, ivory, and such like. Those used by the lower order of Arabs are manufactured in Hedjas from the fruit of the Dom-palm, and are sold by the merchants and pilgrims (Hadji) as possessed of particular qualities and special virtues; others are made of rose and other fragrant woods, and retain considerable remains of such scents. The size and numbers of beads vary; commonly there are 99, in three divisions of 33 each, but there are some rosaries with only 33, and some with as many as 198 beads. The sacred number of Mahomet is 33, and pious Mussulmen pronounce or exclaim after prayer Allah’s name 3 times 33 times (99); but this is not absolutely ordered by the Koran. For the first 33 times the exclamation is Subhan Allah (To God belongs all, God created all!); the second division Hamdul el Allah (Thanks to God!); the third Allah Ackbar (God is great—is over all!). In usual conversation the name given the Deity is Mauhle. The whole string of 99 beads is called Sebbà. The Sheiks and Faki[19] are distinguished by extravagantly large and long rosaries; and in Hallenga, where almost every man is a Faki, we have seen some rosaries three or four feet long, each bead as large as a musket-ball. Such a rosary we were anxious to buy, to present to an aunt in our fatherland, to smooth her path to heaven, but were indignantly refused, called Christians and heathen dogs, told that this rosary had made the tour of the holy shrines, and been washed in the Purifying Well at Mecca.

Such rosaries form no small branch of trade with Hedjas, and there is also a considerable trade in glass beads and false pearls carried on between that place and Nubia, Bellad-Sudan, and Taka; and more than probable, this trade extends to the Abyssinians, Negroes, and inhabitants of the upper part of Faszogl and of the White Nile. Many houses trading in these beads are to be found in Cairo and Alexandria. The glass beads come chiefly from Europe (Bohemia, Venice, Conterie di Venezia), and from a place near Jerusalem; formerly from the latter alone. They are of all sizes and colours; in Abyssinia the large amber- like ones are the most valued, although now become much more common, and no longer bringing their earlier high price. These beads form all over the land of the coloured (Sudan) the chief ornament of the women, who wear them in rows round the neck, ancles, arms, both above and below the elbows, in the hair, and some, as also in Egypt, round the naked waist, with some one of the many highly-prized amulets of these lands hanging from them. We have now and then seen them worn as nose and ear rings. Little children are laden with strings of these beads, and of the small white mussel shells (cypræa moneta). The women often are dressed in nothing else save these, the rahat or short skin apron, and the well- known long cloth or ferda rolled round head, breast, and loins. Armlets and bracelets they must ever have, the poor of glass, black horn, or false pearls; the rich of ivory, silver, and even gold; and such are often also worn on the ancles. Children have narrow iron rings with small bells attached to them, fastened round the ancles, perhaps as ornament only, perhaps to tell of their whereabouts; the ringing of the bells much delight the small wearers. That the women keep their hair well anointed with fat, and their bodies smeared with it or grease, is a matter of course.

But here in Taka, where they are treated more as slaves, the women dare not smear fat (dichen) on their hair; here, too, they seem compelled to do most of the field work and household labour, while in Nubia and Gesira they pass the whole day on their couches in comfortable idleness, leaving all labour to the men and slaves.

The pretended pearls brought by Dschellabi (slave-dealers) into Egypt, and bartered with the blacks and natives of Habesch for slaves and other goods, often at a profit of 1,000 per cent., may be seen at times worn by the men on different parts of their bodies as ornaments, but very sparingly. Ear-rings of lead and silver are worn by both men and women of Habesch, and those worn by the Sultan of Habesch and his family were of gold; these ornaments are not worn in the lobe of the ear, but in the upper gristly part, or in the elongation of the skin opposite to or over the orifice of the ear. Usually one ear only is thus adorned, and many, like the Sheik of the Beni-Amer, had two rings in the same ear. Rings through the right nostril are less common here than in Upper Egypt or Nubia, and in Taka we saw none; but where such are worn and happen to be lost or not in use, a piece of wood is always stuck in to keep the orifice open. On the feet are generally sandals, and in Chartum the women wear at times a curious kind, raised at front, and behind on bulky pieces of wood two inches thick, so that the foot can never touch the ground. If the object of this is to avoid wet or cold, it may answer; but the walking on them seems hard work, and is by no means graceful.

The Arab’s pet ornament of all is undoubtedly his beard, although with most of them this mark of manhood is neither full nor flowing. He values it more than mustachios; by it he swears, and puts his hand on it when he would support aught he tells as truth. A Shukurie-Arab had a considerable and very painful wen on his chin; to cure him of it, it would have been necessary to cut off his beard—a scanty and hardly visible one it was—but to this he would on no account submit; he much preferred retaining wen and beard. The blacks of the island have little or no beard; still if only a hair shows itself here and there, this is carefully spared, and the barber (mùssein) must daily be in requisition to tend it. No greater joy can happen them than when they can get possession of a mirror; for hours will they hold this in their hands, gazing into it, and never seeming to tire of admiring and examining in all directions their dark visages. It is solely for the sake of the glass that the blacks let the barbers come near their heads, as it is only on the eye-brows and hair of the ears he has to work. However, one of these blacks, in his white garment, that he well knows how to drape over himself in artistical folds, and white turban surmounting all, has really an interesting and handsome appearance. His gait is slow and proud, and on his hand is displayed a broad, massive signet ring, on the smooth surface of which are engraved some Arabian characters spelling his name; behind him are his attendants, the most favoured of whom bears his sword with silver hilt. Almost all are tall and slender, dignified and stately in their movements. Their robes are always, if possible, clean and spotless; they especially favour white, as they hold it to be the colour of purity and friendly feelings. They often have examined our skin, and cannot comprehend why it is so white, nor how it is possible that the blood should be perceptible in the veins. They were particularly curious as to the colour of our women[20]; and when we assured them they were far fairer, expressed their opinion that it must be a great pleasure to have such a wife; and for the same reason did one of them extol the charms of a certain female slave, as being white as snow (saie el telki). However, it is perfectly incomprehensible to most of them that all our nation should be white; that Arabian is not spoken in our country; that men there know nothing of the supreme and powerful Turkish rule, and that our customs and habits should be what they are. Over and over again are we asked, if all the men of our country are hakims (plural, hakama, doctors), probably as most of the Franks who visit these lands are, or wish to pass for such. Never will they believe that a Frank travels merely to see foreign countries, to collect objects of interest or other curiosities; but often are we asked, “Are your brothers achuan, (achui, my brother, so each calls his countryman) out of their senses, to waste so much money and build such large houses to contain collections, merely to look at them?” That all this leads to the advance of science they cannot at all comprehend.

CHAP. VIII.

Effects of exposure to the sun — Diseases of the natives — Their insensibility to pain — Stoicism under surgical operations — Mograbin soldiers — A travelled Arab — Tyranny of Mehemet Ali — Amulets — Foreigners in Egypt — Turkish prejudice.

We suffer greatly from the heat; and it is only in cases of much urgency we stir out, or quit our hut, from noon till four hours after it. When we are summoned by the Pascha,—and to appear before him, one must at any hour be ready,—we cover up our heads, in addition to the taghie (takie, under-cap) and tarbush, by a hood or cloth, as we have been warned by sad experience to take every precaution. On our journey up, my brother received a stroke of the sun in spite of his straw hat, and had for two days to struggle with death; and I only saved him by the desperate remedy of constantly blistering his stomach and the soles of his feet. In spite, of this fearful heat, we still wear our usual woollen clothing; and even over this, a warm silken scarf (hessàhn), which, as it produces perspiration, is much to be preferred to thinner stuffs. The principal care we Germans require is, shading the head; on the march, we keep this rolled up, and so covered, that we often cannot see out of our eyes; we must cut queer figures. But even the Bedouins themselves, in warm sunshine, carefully cover their heads with their woollen barakan (batanie), although almost all the rest of the body is left exposed or naked; and, for the same reason, the Turks wear two tarbushes. As far as the present inhabitants of Dongola and the Island are concerned, the sun does not seem to exercise any very hurtful power on their brain-pans. Both races, however, are well protected from his rays, by their well- greased and plaited hair, which, like the woolly hair of the negroes, forms a good sheltering roof, or thatch: but even among them are to be found old bald-headed men, who seem to care as little for the sun’s rays as the others. It is very remarkable, that persons with perfectly smooth-shaved heads, and the rest of their body all bare, save some old rag about the loins, will expose themselves all day to the most glowing sun, and not complain of headache, or any thing of the kind. What would we poor Europeans do in such a case? In less than five minutes we would be raving mad. Our youngest attendant, Sale, from Mahass, sits the whole day in the sun, his head uncovered, save by his short-cut hair. Out of pity we gave him an under cap, to somewhat protect him; and as it was a new possession he wore it delightedly till noon, when I again saw him, though then the heat was strongest, sitting bareheaded by the fire; and even the smallest children, such as are with us yet carried in arms, one sees lying for hours long under the glowing sun; and surely those with their tender bones should not be better able to bear its rays, than we with our fully developed bodily powers. How comes it that these delicate creatures do not sicken under it? Of their being accustomed to it, there can be no talk here; and how would infants of our race bear it? However, custom does something; as at first we could not venture out here in the sun without having, in a few minutes, blisters and painful scalds on our naked hands; the skin of our faces was scorched, and, regularly every week, peeled off in great blotches; but without our gaining by it a more juvenile appearance, although we often jested over and amused ourselves with such hopes. Being burnt almost as brown as Arabs, we can now venture to expose our hands without gloves: but still we dare not allow any part of our body usually covered, to be exposed naked to the sun, even for a short while, without we choose to pay for it by a painful redness, almost to be considered a kind of erysipelas. Besides, the covered parts of the body have, in spite of the fiery heat, preserved their original colour. What a fearful state it would be in this country should a man not perspire! The whole body is burning hot; one is tortured by a not to be assuaged inward thirst, and racking restlessness; the hair of the head stands on end; and, although one is inside the house, and sheltered from the sun, it is of a burning heat; every separate hair seems to act as a conductor of the sun’s rays to the brain; one knows not where to fly from such a torturing state, which, besides, is generally accompanied by weakness and despondency, and is usually, though not always, the forerunner of fever. Liver and gastric illnesses are not very common; and acute tropical liver disease we have only seen one instance of. Gastritis chronica and rheumatism are commoner. Ferendit (muscular hair-worm, vena medinensis) has not been seen during our whole expedition; it seems as if this locality was free of it. In Chartum, many of the black soldiers suffered from it; but, probably, brought it from their own countries with them. From many instances, we are led to suspect they communicated it to each other by the touch. The chief spots for ferendit are Dinka, Frantiet, from whence it got its name; Atisch, Katareff, and most parts of the lands of the blacks and negroes. In Taka, the deadly fever swelling, or ague, is so common, that one may safely say every third man suffers under it. The females suffer less from it than the males. Usually it is of such a size, that it extends even to the arcus cruralis, and almost the whole front division of the belly is filled up by it; all over where it does extend, only a few drops of blood can be drawn out, and that after much pain and trouble, by cupping. A general wail is made over the Genna el Wurda (Child of Fever), which gives rise to numbers of other illnesses. As yet, there have only been two dropsical cases, and both these were consequences of disorganisation. Phthisis, especially in women, is oftener seen; and also here and there are cases of hæmorrhoides, but not in any great numbers.

Operating is here an easy matter for the surgeon, as seldom does a sound tell of pain, nor are men necessary to hold the patient while operated on. There is, indeed, much to surprise one in this great self-command or insensibility of the blacks during the most painful operations. For instance, a black in the hospital had caries of all his toes: Joseph amputated the foot à la Chopart, without the patient being held or bound, and without his emitting one cry of pain. The operation completed, it was discovered that the head of the tibula and the joint of the ancles were very carious, although this could not be perceived from the exterior; and so it was necessary to at once take off the leg under the knee. My brother told the patient this: he replied, if it was so, and it must be done, that he had better not lay aside his knife, but proceed at once, as he (the patient) would remain quiet as before; and he did so: the second operation being over, he then, but not till then, begged for some merissa. Although the wound healed well, this man afterwards died, from caries again breaking out in the knee and hip joint; a real dispositio cariosa. The blacks’ cure for the frantiet (farendit), viz. fire, is certainly the best and surest.[21] They run a red-hot nail, or other pointed iron, many times into the swelling, and by this the spot where the worm generally lies, with part of his body rolled up in a knot, is laid open; they think no more of this than a European would do of taking out a thorn; and with all coolness perform on themselves this small but most painful operation.[22] In Chartum, Joseph applied the actual cautery to two soldiers; one in the first, and the other in the second stage of coralgie, with good success. The firing streaks were not small, and the fat, insensible skin hissed much under the hot iron; but neither would allow himself to be held, nor was it required, as only a slight convulsive motion of the muscles of the face showed the pain suffered. Nay, one of them during the firing said, “Ana badenn uachet kabab,” (after this, I may pass as a kabab—roasted bit of meat). During circumcision, these black soldiers will stand upright, and even laugh, while it is going on; the presence of many spectators may contribute much to this stoicism, and by it they would also show their zeal and ardent wish to quit heathenism. The slaves that come from the neighbourhood of Faszogl, the hills of Kordofan, the countries of Schilluk and Dinka, are never circumcised; and it is said, that, with the latter, the pulling out of the four under cutting-teeth has the same significance as circumcision; and this is done to both men and women. Burning sores with caustic seems to inflict no pain whatever on the blacks.

This indifference towards pain exhibited by the blacks generally seems to be highly valued among the better educated and wealthier of them; these, the first among their tribes, would hold themselves degraded, and look on it as a deep disgrace to themselves, to appear weak in the presence of those who are sure to attend in crowds even during the smallest operations. With the common people it may, indeed, be actual insensibility to pain. A sick man is constantly visited by his friends and relatives, and generally the small hut is so full, that many must remain outside. The sick man may be ever so ill, may be in the greatest pain, every day becoming worse, and yet, to his friends’ questions of “Taibin? sciak ente?” (How goes it? How do you feel?) is only the one answer, “El hamdull Allah, taib” (Well, praise be to God!) No complaint is ever heard during such visits. This custom, or this pride, is not confined to the blacks, but is common to both Arabs and Turks. The natives of Egypt and Syria alone cry out and behave like children under the smallest pain, all running off as soon as they see the knife; though they behave tolerably well under any operation performed by fire, perhaps because they are used to such from their youth.

Not long ago my brother had to set a broken thigh-bone, and where, too, there was serious dislocation of the broken parts; but the black sufferer, though he allowed it gave him some pain, still declared he was no woman, but a man (achu el bennaht, brother or defender of the weak—a truly splendid name for the brave, and a title of which all are proud), and had slain many enemies ere he gained his freedom.

The Schaigie Melek Saat, whose father yet rules the old Dongola (Dongola agùhs), had received, a month before the present chasua, some hundred blows of the stick at the orders of the Pascha. One side where he had been punished healed quickly, but under the skin on the other shoulder formed a collection of matter of large extent. In spite of all this, he made on horseback the march from Chartum to Aronga, of more than a month’s duration, with the army, in a state when another man would have been lying in bed with violent fever. In Aronga, at last, he called in Joseph; but now, from neglect, a hard, ulcerous sore had formed:—Joseph informed him it would be necessary to cut it out. “Oh,” he said, “cut away, when and where you will; I can stand it:” and he kept his word.

A Mograbin from the great Oasis (Oa) had got his hand shattered by the bursting of his gun. This happened five hours’ journey from the camp; and he came to us the next day, sitting erect and stately on his horse, having stopped the bleeding by powder and sand. With all possible coolness, he looked on during the painful operation performing on him, supporting his injured arm in his sound right hand.

But, manly and brave as the Mograbins may show themselves, still, from their falseness and dishonesty, they are little liked by the other Arabs, or by the Turks. They are said to be men of two faces (Magrab endu wuschu etenien), _i.e._ they can speak kind words, while they are false at heart; and we must, as far as we know them, add our confirmation of this character. They are generally tall and stout, have long-shaped faces, strong black beards, long high noses, and very expressive but rather cunning countenances. With us they could pass as Jews. Their gait and demeanour are haughty, but to superiors they are submissive and obsequious, with constant smiles on their faces; and if, as it is said, they are proud of their descent, holding themselves superior to all other Arabs, nay, even to the Turks themselves, they know well how to conceal this pride in the presence of the latter. However little conscientious about other things, they are strict in observing their religious ceremonies, though strongly given to luxury, spending much care and coin on their dress. This consists, when it can be had, of a tarbush, a long, narrow, white under shirt, and a great, very wide upper shirt of the same colour, which must reach the ground; its sleeves being also so wide as to almost touch the earth. Shoes must never be wanting, however old or bad. Thus they dress and ornament themselves for themselves alone, as they have little intercourse with the other Arabs, and keep altogether to their own tribe. The greater part of them have come, some thirty years before, from Tripoli, with the family Ladjam, who had there long carried on quarrels and hostilities with the Pascha Jussuff, but had at last to yield. Many are also to be found here from all parts of Barbary, who had quitted their native lands in hopes of finding rich prizes and spoil here. They boast highly of their own virtues, and of the great riches and high dignities they held at home; but all this is false; one knows only too well the state of things among the Bedouins there, and to this race most of these belong. However, they show themselves good soldiers and horsemen; although the horses they are supplied with by government are bad enough. Their weapon is a long musket, which they well know how to use. Many have a brace of pistols in addition, but the sabre is only worn by their leaders. They themselves look on it as a useless weapon; and, in their opinion, war is only to be carried on by firing. They rush on and fire, and as rapidly retire back again. They have to find their own horses and arms, and maintain them; receive seventy-five piastres monthly, and thirty rupp of durra for their horse, and six for themselves. If the horse dies, or is killed in action, then must they from their own means furnish another, and if they have not the means, as is generally the case, then the divan or their leaders supply one, and always at a high price; so it is too often the case that the soldier remains two or three years in debt, during which time he receives no pay. Besides, their leaders, in the most unlawful way, take the highest interest from their men’s pay, which is the same in peace and war; or they buy necessary articles in the mass, and issue them to the soldier who has no money at two prices. Thus, between the cheating of the divan and their officers, the poor soldier in the end gets no pay at all. Thus acts the commandant of artillery, thus almost all other commanders; and the wretched soldiery, who often for many years receive no coin, are then compelled to apply to these Jews for the means of keeping life in themselves. These tricks can be no secret to the Pascha; and it is well known that Abd-el-Kader, the commandant of artillery, whose monthly pay is only 600 piastres, makes in this way, by selling to the soldiers clothing, soap, &c. at the most usurious prices, some ten purses monthly. To extract money is the only thing these rascals of Turks, who stream into Egypt from all the countries round—Circassia, Kurdistan, Rumelia, &c. &c.—think of or attend to.

The lot of the Mograbins here is, therefore, not very much to be envied. Moreover, often for a couple of years they do not see their wives or children, so well does the Pascha keep them employed; and, ere long, most of them will be swept away by the diseases of the unhealthy climate. As a solitary instance among them of one man of really good character whom we have known, must be mentioned Mohammed Agà, of the family of Ladjam. He is a leader of some 400 men, and this dignity is hereditary in his family. Of the guidance of money he is, indeed, no great master; for, besides his monthly pay of five purses, and his other revenues of nearly as much, he has already got rid of some 2000 purses, although he is not yet twenty-seven years old. And in this expenditure he has had little pleasure, for the Turks do not understand how to expend money worthily. As usual, the brave but not too wise Ladjam has been ably assisted by many friends in this labour. His mother, who lives in Cairo, will now no longer send him money, and he therefore often finds himself in the saddest dilemma, as he supports in his household some 140 persons.[23] In his potations, Ladjam has now become very moderate, since his brother drank himself to death by pouring daily down six or eight bottles of brandy, and wine in proportion to allay the thirst the brandy caused. In earlier days, in Cairo, Mohammed Agà could hold his own with him. He does not stand high with the Pascha, as he is neither flatterer nor soldier, and he some two years ago caused some hundred blows to be given Ladjam. The case was this: Ladjam had fallen desperately in love with a beautiful lady of Cairo, and sent a confidential servant to bring the fair dame to Bellad-Sudan; but while on their journey the couple spent and wasted some seventy or eighty purses. On his arrival Ladjam threw the cheating servant into prison, “karakohl,” and had him well bastinadoed. He complained to the Pascha, who, having no very kind feelings towards Ladjam, and perhaps angered by the whole story, sentenced the latter to corporal punishment. That the dignity and authority of the higher officers must be much impaired by their being subject to such punishments, follows as a matter of course. Now, the poor Ladjam goes in fear and trembling to wait on the Pascha, and one never hears a word from him while there, unless in answer to a direct question. His major domo, his Mentor, in short, his right hand man, is old Achmet Salaui (from Selva), who already had been long with his father. He says, and what he says is true, that he really looks after Ladjam’s interest; and that, were it not for him, the latter would ere now have been beggared. Achmet is a tall, stately, and, spite of his advanced age, a very handsome man. He is better acquainted with European customs and uses, than any other Turk I ever met with, prides himself not a little on his civilisation, and calls the others blockheads, who have not seen the world, and, for all their stupid pride, know nothing of life, especially of European life and pleasures. When he pays us a visit, he gives vent to what he still retains of broken Spanish, Italian, and French. He was once, in earlier times, as others have assured us, a well-doing merchant of Tripoli, and worth some 25,000 Spanish dollars. In the course of business he visited many European ports; life there pleased him only too well, so he gathered up his coin, and set out on his travels; during which he visited Paris, Cadiz, Madrid, Naples, Genoa, Venice, Vienna; and of this last he still remembers the names Prater and Danube. This tour had played the mischief with his treasure, and he at last found himself compelled to pass to Egypt and turn soldier. How much his entertainment of fair dames and kind friends also aided in the devouring of his capital, can easily be imagined. He himself often says, “I have never repented I laid out my money in that way; I have seen the world, and made myself acquainted with it; I have had my enjoyments, such as no Turk knows, and such as I never will have again. Even now, in my reduced state, where I merely manage to live, I have memories left me which I would not sell for any sum. Ah!” he cried out, “those putane belline, quest’ vino buono, deloachti mafish!” (Now it’s all over). “It is much better that I should have spent my money when young, than that after my death the divan should have got it all.”

A Turk is in the right when he thinks thus; for, if it is possible, the divan manages one way or another to be heir to almost all. The widow of the dead man gets nothing, or so little it hardly supports her; and if she is still young, she is forced to marry some other man of humbler rank. The younger children are placed in some establishment for education, the elder into the regiments, and the state pockets the property. Thus are high and low treated, if any gain can be made by it; only the children of the former are usually appointed to some rank in the army. But it is not always that the state has time to wait till death: it knows other ways and means to get money. And this causes all, Turks and rayahs (subjects), to conceal and hide in every possible way from its prying eyes every symptom of riches or property. Every one complains of being poor, suffers privations, goes meanly dressed, lets the outside of his house fall into decay, has in his reception-chamber his worst carpets and furniture, &c. &c., while in the interior of his house, and especially in his harem (charim), all is luxury and abundance; his wives shine in silken robes and costly jewels, and are waited on by numerous slaves of every colour. Incense perfumes their rooms, the most splendid Persian carpets of the richest, freshest, and gayest colours, cover divans and floors,—and he, poor man, casts off his dirty, shabby clothes, wipes from his face his assumed humility and obsequiousness, and becomes a man. Rich robes cover the cooling silken shirt, costly Cashmere shawls girdle his loins, and form the stately Turk; yellow shoes or slippers adorn his feet; and, perfumed with fragrant scents, he strides now with all gravity, as lord and master, into his inner apartments, where all are at his orders. At the doors the guards of his earthly paradise humbly await him, the wretched eunuchs (Tauwasch), as slowly and stately he approaches the circle of his women, haughtily returning the reverent salutations. His long pipe with precious amber mouth-piece (Tarkib) is brought him, the loved Gebbeli (best kind of Syrian tobacco) is kindled with aloe wood, and at once spreads its aroma round, while the evening passes with music, dance, and song. Thus do the rich enjoy in secret that wealth, which a barbarous government prevents their otherwise expending; for should any one in the smallest degree openly display such, a revision of his accounts would at once take place, were he in office and, without doubt, errors and deficiencies be made out, which would far exceed all his means. If he were only a merchant (Chawàga), the state would compel him to make advances that never would be repaid him; or he would be forced to purchase, to the full amount of all he possessed, some produce of the country at double the price the state had already bought it at, and so his ruin made inevitable.

While we were at Cairo, a rich Armenian firm was thus ruined by old Mehemet Ali. He compelled this Armenian, who was a rayah, to purchase from himself, at a very exorbitant price, cotton to the full amount of his means; and as soon as he had received coin in payment, he sold out of his own magazines so much cotton, and at so low a price, that it was only after a very long time, and at less than half price, the poor Armenian could dispose of his. Such are the honest practices of this conscientious ruler, as often and wherever he can; and by such acts of tyrannical violence he has succeeded in so well clearing out his subjects, that in the whole valley of the Nile, not one single wealthy person is to be found. If here and there a man yet possesses wealth, he dare not, under existing circumstances, let it one instant appear, or enter into the smallest speculation with it; from this are now the bazaars in Cairo and other former cities of trade empty in comparison with former times, and from this arises the want of credit and small repute the Egyptian merchants command in other lands.

As badly, if not worse, are the members of the military profession situated. They never receive their discharge; and if they are Arabs, the very thought of it would be high treason. Many of these soldiers, especially the Turks, who have managed to get hold of high office, and by cheatings and extortions from the soldiery as well as from the people of their departments have succeeded in gathering up a tolerable sum, are all most desirous to retire to their native land, or into some town where they may pass the remainder of their lives in rest and quiet. Well, they say so; and what happens? Their accounts, since they entered the army, are revised, and it were a miracle were no deficiency discovered, and such too as far exceeds all the goods and property of the culprit; so that, were he to live to the most unusual age, he never could make good the sum wanting. Thus are and remain all, even the most dignified Paschas, slaves for life; and ever must they tremble either for their wealth or their lives. If they die soon—it is well—the divan are their heirs. If they are tenacious of life, or show any symptom of attempting flight, means are found to introduce into their coffee or food a certain specific for all life’s pains. The higher Turks, whose wealth is known, are thus ever held in constant fear; and often present large sums to the divan as antidotes to such specifics, or, during life, declare the divan their heir, and this proper feeling is found to be in general a good diverter of the evil: such doings as these are not solely confined to Egypt, but are common enough in Turkey itself.

Turks, Arabs, and Negroes, all add greatly to these and other annoyances by their superstitions. These prevail, indeed, more or less in all countries among the ignorant and demi-savage races, but here it is not confined to the low or uneducated; but the same ridiculous opinions are held by the highest and best informed. On all of them are amulets, _i.e._, texts or words from the Koran, written on tablets and inclosed in leather cases, to be seen. Even the otherwise free-thinking and well- informed Pascha is not free from these superstitions, as, although no amulets are to be seen on himself, still his favourite dromedary bears various such charms on his neck. Among the Haddenda at present each has fresh amulets suspended to some old long worn one, and all for the same object, viz., to make themselves ball and sabre proof against the daily expected attack of the Turks.

Ali Aga, whose family-name is Sobi, leader of 300 Magrabins, told us, with solemn face, that during a battle in Hedjas, against the Bedouins there, he had three horses shot under him, and all his dress torn and riddled by balls, but not one of them touched his body. We said, he was in high luck; but he proudly drew from his breast a little old leathern bag, and holding it up triumphantly, replied: “It was no luck, but this treasure did it, which a saint in my own country gave me!” Although he still wears this and many such charms, the sabres of the Abyssinians seem to have no respect for such relics, as these have wofully slashed him in an attack by the Turks on Makada. Never have we seen on any skull such severe scars, or any attended with the loss of so much of the bone. On the head he has four cuts, more than four inches long and one and a half broad, in which one could easily conceal his thumb: only the inner bone plate remains, and in one of these cuts there is such a loss of the bony substance that the pulsation of the brain can be felt. We, laughing, asked him, if, when he received these wounds, he wore his amulets against sabre cuts: he replied, he had them not on, as, if he had, no sabre would have harmed him. We also learned, from what he said, that men hold the inhabitants of Abyssinia, who are Christians, to know somewhat of the black art, believe them to have an understanding with the devil, and that, to make this power innocuous, some special papers or extracts are necessary. Sobi, who in spite of his fearful wounds was sound again within four weeks, these being healed by application of burnt coffee and brandy, the prescription of an Abyssinian doctor, is descended from one of the principal families of Fez, and his most cunning and shrewd face plainly declares his descent and country. He is false and hypocritical, has a constant smile at his command, is, as usual, outwardly a strict Mussulman, who punctually obeys all the commandments, drinks no spirituous liquors, and lives or seems to live very moderately and sparingly in all things, women alone excepted. Then, too, he has proved himself a brave and able soldier; and, if he had his own way, would extirpate all Franks and Christians.

Innate foes to both are indeed, more or less, all Mussulmen; the lower orders really from religious hate, the higher from envy, caused by the perfect freedom, the civilisation, and scientific acquirements of the Franks. They feel only too well that the Franks in every way are entitled to take a far higher position, and value themselves far higher; but they are too feeble and lazy for rivalry, and see no other means of avenging their inferiority than by silly pride and assumed contempt for all Europeans and European improvements or institutions. However, the time cannot be far off, when the pride of these Mussulmen will be lowered, and they will be shown that the masters of the world, as Mahomet called his followers, along with their system, have become mouldy, worn out, and obsolete.

At present the Franks have actually more liberty in Egypt than the other races, as there the word of their consul is respected, and foreigners can no longer be insulted with impunity. So far has Europe brought matters with the old fox, Mehemet Ali. Still the Frank here must pay considerable regard to public appearances; for instance, were he to enter any mosque of more than common sanctity without the escort of a soldier, he would be cudgelled; or, during the great procession which carries the curtain to Mecca, were any man in European dress to show himself in the streets, he would run a risk of being fearfully ill used. If a Mussulman female be found with a Frank, she is at once seized on, bastinadoed, and cast into prison,—nay, sometimes into the Nile. In general, the European is judged by his own laws; and this is an inestimable privilege, otherwise all Franks would fall a prey to the caprice of Turkish justice. Only for three crimes is a Frank handed over to be punished by Turkish law, _i.e._ is to be at once hanged or strangled,—viz., for breaking into a harem, for coining false money, or for intentionally murdering a Mussulman.

Unfortunately, in Egypt as in the free states, the foreigners there are the raff of their nations, for though one must not fancy that all Franks here are good-for-nothing rascals, still such is the character of most of them. It is almost incredible the villanous deeds most of these have committed in their own country and other lands, and in Egypt their villany, of course, arrives at the culminating point. It is from this that the better Turks form such mean opinions of Europeans, and hence it is a hard task to gain the respect or confidence of one of these. Besides, in Alexandria and more especially in Cairo, and more or less in many other cities of Egypt, Franks are to be found who have sought an asylum there, and who are nothing but perfect adventurers. Every nation has, indeed, its representatives here. The Greeks (Rumi), partly rayahs (subjects), partly free, are doubtless the most numerous. That this debased race can bring little advantage to any land is too true; and the base character, especially of these Levant Greeks, is too well known, for one to desire the presence of any of this most ungrateful and faithless people.

Next to them the Italians are the most numerous, and their language is the prevailing one all over the Levant. But Italy seems in truth to have opened her brothels and houses of correction, and to have set her galley-slaves at liberty, to aid in rendering Egypt’s people still more rascally and corrupted. Only very few among the Italians can be counted on as honest men; the most of them have been cast off by their country, or compelled to fly from it for their crimes. We had many opportunities of knowing well these Italians, as we were compelled to live, for a considerable time, in close intercourse with many of them, and must unfortunately express our conviction, that they are as false, cunning, and overbearing, where they dare show it, as they are obsequious and profuse of their friendships where this will gain them their ends. They seem unable to live without intrigue, and they are sure to introduce discord wherever they are suffered to interfere. Their grudges and hatred they will keep concealed for many a year, feign friendship towards those whose ruin they have sworn, until the hour of revenge has come, and they find themselves certain of success. All means are right to them, horrible or faithless as they may be, if they only lead to their aim. One can never be enough on his guard with them; a single word, rashly spoken, is enough for them, as from their own great cunning, and their ever being on the look-out to cause the ruin of others, they, agreeably to their innate characters, put the worst construction on every thing, and turn it, as far as they can, to the speaker’s detriment.