Chapter XII: Front Matter (12)

"To him who soars on golden wing,
Guiding his fiery-wheeled throne,
The cherub contemplation."

ART. XIII. _On a singular Disruption of the Ground, apparently by Frost, in Letters from_ EDWARD HITCHCOCK, A.M. _Principal of Deerfield Academy_.

(With a Plate.)

_To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c._

SIR,

I have lately examined a singular disruption in the earth, discovered a few days since in the northerly part of an extensive meadow in this town, about ten rods from Deerfield river.

The soil on the spot is alluvial, consisting of a dry, rich, vegetable mould, with a large intermixture of sand; and the field, elevated 14 feet above the bed of the river, is annually mowed. A valley encircles the ruptured spot on the east, south, and west, only five feet lower, yet so marshy and soft, as to render draining necessary to make it passable; and immediately back of this valley, on the south, rises a hill 100 feet high, at whose foot are several springs. North of the rupture, also, between it and the river, is a gradual descent of three feet: indeed, the ground slopes from it on every side except the northwest.

A fissure one inch wide and fourteen deep, forming an almost perfect ellipsis, whose diameters are 9 and 5½ rods, marks the exterior limit of the convulsion. Within this curve are several others nearly concentric to it, some forming a quarter, and some half an ellipsis, and near the longer axis are others, running in various directions. On this transverse diameter, which lies near the highest part of the swell above described, and in its longest direction, or parallel to the river, the greatest effect of the convulsion appears. The earth, to the depth it has frozen the past winter, 14 inches, is broken on a straight line above 6 rods, and the south edge of the fissure, having been forced up, overlaps the other, three feet. Where one edge does not thus overreach, the tables of earth, which at a small distance resemble masses of ice, are raised up so that their faces form an isosceles triangle, leaving a cavity beneath. About the extremities of the transverse axis, is also an overlapping of two feet, which continues nearly two rods on the curve each way from the axis, and in most places is double, overreaching internally and externally, exhibiting likewise, some irregularity where the compressing forces acted at right angles to each other. The edges of these elevated masses of earth, which are yet frozen, are quite smooth, and the angles but little fractured. I have dug into the earth about four feet underneath the longer axis of the ellipsis, and thrust down a bar in other places, but cannot perceive that the soil has been moved below where it was frozen. It is, however, not the most favourable season for ascertaining this fact.

Every appearance on the spot will justify this conclusion, that the frozen surface of the earth around, has pressed with great force _from every direction_ to this ellipsis as a centre; for, were every fissure in the ellipsis to be filled by replacing the earth, there must remain on its longer axis and at the extremities of this, an overplus of surface two feet wide.

The month of February last has been unusually cold. Its mean temperature in Deerfield, by Fahrenheit's scales, is as follows.

7_h._ A. M. 1½_h._ P. M. 10_h._ P. M.
6° 24° 11°

The extremes were 25° below, and 49° above zero. On the last day but one of the month, the cold suddenly relaxed; and on the 1st and 2d of March, a heavy and warm rain succeeded. This produced an uncommon rise in Deerfield river, and on the 3d of March, it had overflowed the ground where the above described phenomenon occurred, and did not recede from it for 24 hours. Its greatest depth there, was five feet. The snow was nearly one foot deep when the flood happened, and being a nonconductor of heat, the temperature of the surface of the ground was not probably much changed from its state in February, until the water came in contact with it. It may not be amiss to give the state of the thermometer on the last of February and beginning of March.

7_h._ A. M. 1½_h._ P. M. 10_h._ P. M. Wind, weather, &c.
Feb. 27th, 15° below 0. 28° above 0. 32° above 0. South, clear.
28th, 31 above 45 ----- 31 ----- do. do.
March 1st, 29 ----- 46 ----- 37 ----- N. E. rain.
2d, 46 ----- 49 ----- 37 ----- do. do.
3d, 30 ----- 35 ----- 29 ----- do. rain & clear.

On the third of March, about sunset, some lads were sailing near the spot where the disruption appears, and saw the water in considerable agitation, with much bubbling, and at short intervals it was thrown up in several places to the height of 3 or 4 feet. They saw no rupture in the earth, although they came within two or three rods of the spot, and state the water to have been two feet deep. About one o'clock on the morning of March 4th, Mr. Seth Sheldon and family, living one mile south from this spot, and being awake, were alarmed by a loud report from the north, by which their house and furniture were much shaken. They compared the sound, though louder by far than they had ever heard from this cause, to that of a cracking in the earth by frost in severe weather. Some others living rather nearer the spot, were awakened by the same report. That the rupture in the earth was made at that time is probable, though not certain.

It may be proper to state, that during the flood, no ice, except a few loose masses, was carried over, or near the spot where the disruption appears. This, therefore, could not have produced it.

_N. & S. S. Jocelyn Sc. N.H._]

Fig. 1. is a transverse section, taken with a theodolite, from Deerfield river 28 rods south, crossing the longer axis of the disruption at right angles. The scale is 4 rods to an inch, although in laying off the heights and levels, the exact proportion was a little varied, to render the irregularities of surface more distinct. The letters of reference correspond to those on fig. 2, and need no explanation.

Fig. 2. is a bird's-eye view of the disruption and the adjoining region, very obligingly sketched by Mr. Derick Barnard of Troy, New-York. The surrounding country is somewhat contracted to bring more of it into view.

These are all the facts I am able at present to collect concerning this phenomenon. I have been particular as to the temperature of the air, and the situation of the adjacent country, from an idea that frost was a principal agent in producing it; and that, therefore, these circumstances would be important in fixing a theory. I will not, however, hazard any hypothesis on the subject; but if you deem the fact of sufficient importance, your opinion, Sir, is respectfully solicited.

Your humble Servant,

EDWARD HITCHCOCK.

_Deerfield, Mass. March 26th, 1818._

* * * * *

_Deerfield, June 3d, 1818._

SIR,

Since I sent you a description of a singular disruption in the earth in this town, another has been observed in the same meadows, about one mile from the former. This is less than the one of which I sent you an account, but its situation is almost exactly similar; it being on a small elevation, on the sides of which, at a few rods distant, is low wet ground. Indeed, the _general_ description which I sent you will answer for this smaller disruption. The diameters of this last, are only 7 and 8 paces, and the curve is not perfect. There appears to have been an expansion of the earth's surface around both these spots, or disruptions, by which it was forced to give way at the point where there was the least resistance, which, of course, would be on the highest ground. The more I observe of this phenomenon, the more I am inclined to impute it to the agency of frost.

It may be proper to observe, that in neither of these disruptions has the general mass of the hills sunk in the least. Had this been the case, it might perhaps have accounted for them. It is also certain, that the soil below where it was frozen the past winter, has not been moved. I mentioned this fact in my first communication, though with some suggested doubt.

REMARKS.

An opinion having been requested by Mr. Hitchcock on the above facts, it may be observed, that there appears in the statement sufficient evidence that the phenomenon (as the author has suggested) is attributable to frost.

It is a fact, established equally by common experience and by numerous experiments, that water, in freezing, expands. It is generally estimated that 8 cubic inches of water, become 9 by the act of congealing. The expansion is attributed, with sufficient evidence, to a crystalline arrangement arising from a kind of polarity in the particles of water exerted when they are near congealing, by which they attract one another in certain points, and not in others. Dr. Black, with his usual felicity, has illustrated this tendency, by supposing a great number of small magnetized needles, thrust through corks, so that they will float parallel to the surface of water, to be thrown promiscuously into a vessel of that fluid. They will not remain in the situation in which they are thrown in, but, in consequence of their polarity, attractions and repulsions will be immediately exerted; they will rush together, with a force equal to the overcoming of a certain resistance; they will arrange themselves in pairs and groups, and finally, in a connected assemblage.

The particles of water attract each other with a prodigious force, when resistance is opposed; for it is well known that domestic utensils, trees, rocks, and even cannon, and bomb-shells, are burst with explosion, when water confined within them is frozen.

There is force enough then exerted by the expansion of freezing water, to produce all the mechanical violence, whose effects were so striking in the instance at Deerfield.

In the common cracking of the ground by frost, so extensively observed in cold climates, the effect appears to result in the following manner. The water contained in the ground, (that is, in that part which is within the reach of a freezing temperature) by congealing, expands and demands more space; a movement must necessarily take place in the direction where there is the least resistance; this will evidently be upward, because the atmosphere, the only counteracting power in this direction, cannot resist the expansion of the freezing water as much as it is resisted by the earth below the freezing stratum. Consequently, the freezing earth is forced upward, but being of unequal strength in different places, it cracks at the weakest spot; and the earth, for some distance on the sides of the fissure, is thrown into the position of two planes gently inclined, their relative position resembling that of a very flat roof, and the more they are lifted by frost, the more they will decline from one another, and the wider will be the fissure.

But why, in the instance which Mr. Hitchcock has related, did they overlap? The explanation appears to result from the circumstances of the case, as far as they can be understood without ocular inspection of the ground.

The elevated spot which cracked in so remarkable a manner, being nearly surrounded by a _belt_ of low wet ground, the congelation of the water in this ground by the intense cold, would of course produce a very great expansive effort towards the elevated ground. This, not only on account of its elevation, but from its containing less water, would not be able to exert an equal counteracting effort. The surface of the ground, therefore, (without at all disturbing the unfrozen earth below,) was, by the expansive effort of the freezing water, _pushed along_ towards the elevated spot. This spot being possessed of a certain power of resistance derived from its gravity, and from the freezing of the water in it, would not immediately give way; but the whole surface, it is probable, gradually rose for some time, while the expansion was going on and increasing. A cavity would thus be produced between that superficial layer of frozen ground which was rising, and the unfrozen ground below. This cavity would of course be filled with air derived from the atmosphere, and from the porousness of the ground below. When the place came to be overflowed, water would immediately rush in through any fissure, and this hydraulic and hydrostatic effort would force the air out at any orifice, and thus blow the water up with it. This was probably the cause of the agitation of the water, and of the bubbling of air, and of the throwing up of the water at intervals, observed by the boys on the 3d of March.

The effect of the water covering the ground, would be to weaken its cohesion derived from frost, and as there were probably hundreds of tons of pressure, the vaulted ground, when sufficiently weakened, gave way with a loud explosion and a violent concussion, as heard by Mr. Sheldon's family, a few hours after the facts observed by the boys. The parts of the arch now fallen in, (so to speak) necessarily either overlapped, or rose in ridges, piece being pressed against piece, as described and figured by Mr. Hitchcock.

We are indebted to this gentleman for his delineation of this singular case.

The freezing of water, and its attendant expansion, are productive of multiplied and very diversified phenomena upon our globe, whether we contemplate them in the delicate spiculæ of hoarfrost, the six-rayed stars of snow, or in the stupendous glaciers of the Alps, and the awful icebergs of Greenland.

_Cambridge, January 25, 1819._

PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

_Dear Sir_,

If the following observations are worthy of a place in your valuable Journal, please to insert them, and oblige yours, with real esteem,

J. F. DANA.

ART. XIV. _On a New Form of the Electrical Battery, by_ J. F. DANA, M. D. _Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College_.

The Electrical Battery in its common form is an unmanageable and inconvenient apparatus. When the coated surface is comparatively small, the instrument occupies a large space, and it cannot be readily removed from place to place without much trouble and risk; the apparatus is, moreover, very expensive, and when one of the jars is broken, another of the same dimensions cannot readily be found to supply its place.

It occurred to me, that a Battery might be constructed of plates of glass and sheets of tinfoil, in which the same extent of coated surface should occupy a much smaller space, and consequently that the apparatus would be more convenient and more portable. I selected several panes of glass, the surfaces of which coincided closely with each other, and then arranged them with sheets of tinfoil in this order, viz. pane of glass, sheet of tinfoil, then another pane of glass, then a second sheet of tinfoil, and so on; the sheets of foil being smaller than the plates of glass by two inches all around; the glass being 10 by 12, and the foil 6 by 8. This apparatus contained six plates of tinfoil, and the lowest plate being numbered _one_, was connected with the ground, and by slips of tinfoil passing over the edges, with the _third_ plate, and this, in like manner with the _fifth_. The _second_ plate was connected with the _fourth_, and this with the _sixth_, which communicated with the conductor of the machine; in this manner each plate positively electrified will be opposed by one negatively electrified, and vice versa; the 6th, 4th, and 2d plates positive, and the 5th, 3d, and 1st, negative. Into this apparatus I could introduce a powerful charge, but not possessing a battery of the common form, could not make comparative experiments. The annexed figures will explain the construction of this apparatus.

(See Plate.)

Fig. 1.

_a_ 1, _a_ 2, &c. the tinfoil.

_b b b_, plates of glass.

_c_, the intermediate slips connecting the plates 6, 4, and 2.

_d_, the slips connecting 5, 3, 1, and the ground.

Fig. 2.

_a_, the intermediate slips passing over the edges of the glass
and connecting plates, 1, 3, and 5.

_b_, the slip which connects the upper sheet of foil with the
4th, &c.

In a battery of the ordinary form, it is evident that a much less surface is coated than in one of the above construction; in a battery of the common form, two feet long, one foot wide, and ten inches high, and containing 18 coated jars, there will be no more than 3500 square inches of coated surface, while in a battery of the same dimensions on the proposed construction, there will be no less than 8000 square inches covered with tinfoil, allowing the sheet of glass and of foil to be ¼ inch thick.

When plate glass is employed for making this battery, the ring of glass exterior to the tinfoil may be covered with varnish, and then the next plate laid over it; the tinfoil will then be shut out for ever from the access of moisture, and the insulation will remain perfect. This form of the Electrical Battery is very portable, may be packed in a case with the machine, and indeed a powerful battery occupies no greater space than a quarto volume. It is cheap and easily constructed.

ART. XV. _Chemical Examination of the Berries of the Myrica Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by_ J. F. DANA, M. D. _Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College_.

(Communicated for this Journal.)

The myrtle wax of commerce has been examined by Dr. Bostock and by M. Cadet; the entire berry not having been made the subject of analysis, I have been induced to examine it, with a view to ascertain the proportion of wax.

I. Fifty grains of the most perfect berries were digested in repeated portions of warm alcohol, until the fluid appeared to exert no further action. The first portions of alcohol were tinged of a green colour, but the last portions remained colourless.

II. The alcoholic solutions were poured into a small retort of known weight; the alcohol was carefully distilled off, and the residuum dried; deducting the weight of the retort, there remained 18.5 grs. for the weight of the matter dissolved by the alcohol.

III. The substances which had been dissolved by the alcohol consisted of two portions, viz. the wax, which was of an apple-green colour, and a reddish brown substance; this substance was supposed to be resinous, and the contents of the retort were therefore digested in acetic acid; the acid soon became of a reddish brown colour, and dissolved nearly the whole of the matter in the retort, leaving the wax. The acid solution, together with a small portion of insoluble reddish matter, were carefully separated from the wax. The wax being dried and melted, weighed 16 grains.

IV. The acetic acid solution was evaporated to dryness, and a dark brown matter was obtained; it was almost totally soluble in warm alcohol, from which it was precipitated by water; it was supposed therefore to consist chiefly of resin, with a small portion of extractive matter, and may be called resino-extractive; it weighed 2.5 grains.

V. The matter insoluble in alcohol consisted of two parts, viz. the kernels and a fine-grained black powder, having very much the appearance of fine gunpowder; the powder was carefully separated from the kernels by a wire sieve, and weighed 7.5 grains. The kernels were found to weigh 23.75 grains.

From this analysis it appears that the entire berries consist of

Wax 32.00
Resino-extractive 5.00
Black powder 15.00
Kernels 47.00
------
99.50
Loss .50
------
100.00

The chemical properties of the wax and of the black powder may be made the subject of another communication.

_Earthy phosphate of iron_ has recently been found at Hopkinton, Mass. It exists there in large quantities, and is employed as a pigment. The gentleman on whose grounds it was found sent me several pounds of it.

J. F. D.

ART. XVI. _Analysis of Wacke, by Dr._ J. W. WEBSTER, _of Boston_.

One hundred parts exposed to a red heat in a platina crucible lost 18.5, acquired an umber brown colour, and a degree of hardness sufficient to scratch glass.

One hundred parts reduced to fine powder were mixed with four times the weight of soda, and exposed to heat, gradually increased for three quarters of an hour; at the expiration of which time, the whole had acquired a pasty consistence. The crucible was now removed from the fire, its outer surface carefully wiped. Muriatic acid was poured on till all effervescence ceased. The solution obtained was evaporated to dryness, gradually assuming an orange red colour. Water was now poured upon the mass, after which it was filtered, and the powder remaining carefully dried; after ignition, and while warm, it weighed 28 parts. This powder was insoluble in muriatic acid, and of a white colour.

To the filtered solution, reduced by evaporation, carbonate of potash was added, the precipitate was collected on a filter, washed and dried; it weighed 23 parts. This powder was redissolved in sulphuric acid, sulphate of potash added, and crystals of alum finally obtained; hence this powder was alumine. To the liquor from which the silex and alumine had thus been separated, acetic acid was added; the whole evaporated to dryness; the excess of acid being removed, a small quantity of water was poured on, and after strong ignition, the precipitate weighed 4.5.

Into a very small tubulated retort I introduced a portion from the same mass, whence the piece submitted to analysis was broken, and obtained over mercury the carbonic acid in the usual manner. This was equal to 2.32; by deducting this from 18.5 the loss during exposure to red heat, we shall have 16.18, the proportion of water. The oxide of iron was separated from the solutions after the addition of acetic acid, by ammonia, and weighed 26 parts.

Silex 28.
Alumine 23.
Lime 4.5
Carbonic acid 2.32
Water 16.18
Oxide of iron 26.
------
100

AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS.

ART. XVII. _On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious Matter which may be obtained from an Acre of Land when cultivated with Potatoes or Wheat, by Dr._ ELI IVES, _Professor of Materia Medica and Botany in Yale College_.

In a good season an acre of suitable land well cultivated will produce 400 bushels of potatoes. In Woodbridge, a town adjoining New-Haven, a crop of 600 bushels of potatoes has been obtained from a single acre. A bushel of potatoes weighs 56 pounds. Multiply 400, the number of bushels, by 56, the weight of a single bushel, gives 22400, the number of pounds of potatoes produced upon one acre.

Thirty bushels of wheat are considered a good crop as the product of one acre of land. About ⅚ of wheat may be considered as nutritious matter.

According to the experiments of Dr. Pearson and Einhoff, about one-third of the potato is nutritious matter. From the analysis of Einhoff, 7680 parts of potatoes afforded 1153 parts of starch--fibrous matter analogous to starch 540 parts--albumen 107 parts--mucilage 312 parts. The sum of these products amounts to about one-third of the potatoes subject to the experiment.

Sir Humphry Davy observes, that one-fourth of the weight of potatoes at least may be considered nutritious matter.

One-fourth of 22400, the product of an acre of ground, cultivated with potatoes, is 5600. The whole weight of a crop of wheat calculated at 30 bushels to the acre, and at 60 pounds to the bushel, gives 1800. Deducting one-sixth from the wheat as matter not nutritious, and the weight is reduced to 1500.

The nutritious matter of the crop of potatoes to that of wheat is as 5600 to 1500, or as 56 to 15.

The starch might be obtained by a very simple machine, recommended by Parmentier; and in seasons when potatoes are abundant, the potatoes might be converted to starch, and the starch preserved for any length of time, and used as a substitute for wheaten flour.

The machine alluded to is a cylinder of wood about three feet long and six inches in diameter, covered with sheet tin, punched outward so as to form a coarse grater, and turned by a crank. This cylinder is placed in a box of boards whose sides slope a little inward upon the principle of a hopper, and a tub of water is placed beneath: The potatoes are thrown into this box, and as the crank is turned they are crushed, and the starch or fecula subsides to the bottom of the water. It is well known, that potatoes are largely used in England mixed with flour to form a very good bread; the _starch_ of the potato would of course answer much better.

MISCELLANEOUS

ART. XVIII. _Biographical Notice of the late_ ARCHIBALD BRUCE, M. D. _Professor of Materia Medica, and Mineralogy in the Medical Institution of the State of New-York, and Queen's College, New-Jersey; and Member of various Learned Societies in America and Europe._ With a Portrait.

(Communicated.)

Doctor Archibald Bruce, (the subject of this Memoir) was a native of the city of New-York, in North America. He was born in the month of February, in the year seventeen hundred and seventy-seven. His father was, at that time, at the head of the medical department of the British army, (then stationed at New-York) to which he had been attached from his youth, having been many years previously resident at New-York, as surgeon to the artillery department; where he was married, in or about the year seventeen hundred and sixty-seven, to Judith, a daughter of Nicholas Bayard, formerly of the same city, at that time the widow of Jeremiah Van Rensselaer of Greenbush; by whom he had another son, (who died an officer in the British army in Ireland) and a daughter, who died while a child.

William Bruce, (the father above-mentioned,) and his brother Archibald, together with a sister, were natives of the town of Dumfries in Scotland, where their father was many years resident as the parochial clergyman; and so continued until his decease, much respected.

Both sons applied themselves to the science of medicine and surgery. William, as above stated, became a physician in the British army, and died, in that station, of the yellow fever, in the island of Barbadoes. And Archibald received a commission of surgeon in the British navy, in which he continued until disqualified by old age, when he retired from business, and died a few years since in London. For many years he acted as surgeon to the several ships commanded by Sir Peter Parker, captain, and afterward admiral.

Doctor William Bruce, before his final separation from his family, on the occasion of his being ordered to the West-India station, had always declared that his son Archibald should never be educated for the medical profession; and finally enjoined such instruction upon his wife and friends, to whom the charge of the boy was committed. After his decease, the same injunction was repeated by the uncle, then in Europe, who was ever averse to his nephew's making choice of this profession: much pains were therefore early exerted to divert him from such inclination.

The momentous state of political affairs, induced his mother to send him to Halifax, under the care of William Almon, M. D. a particular friend of her husband, with whom, however, remaining but a short time, he returned to New-York; and was placed at a boarding-school at Flatbush, Long Island, under the direction of Peter Wilson, LL.D. who was in high standing as a teacher of the languages.

In 1791, he was admitted a student of the arts in Columbia college. Nicholas Romayne, M.D. was at this time among the physicians of highest consideration in New-York, and was engaged in delivering lectures on different subjects of medical science in Columbia College. Having pursued the early part of his medical studies with Dr. William Bruce, he felt a generous gratitude for the instruction and attention which he had received from him, and endeavoured to requite them by advising with his son, and promoting his views, as far as lay in his power. Here commenced a friendship which increased with advancing years, and terminated but with life. At this period, young Bruce began to evince a desire to oppose the inclination of his father and friends by studying medicine; this study, without their knowledge, and while a student of the arts in the senior class, he commenced by attending Dr. Romayne's lectures. Such was the strong bent of his mind towards the study of medicine, and its collateral physical pursuits, that the persuasion and remonstrances of his friends proved alike ineffectual, and he soon gave free scope to the prevailing inclination.

The collection and examination of minerals, a pursuit not then at all attended to in this country, was his particular relief from other studies; for even during his recreation, he was ever on the look-out for something new or instructing in mineralogy.

Dr. Romayne being about visiting Europe, young Bruce pursued his studies with Samuel Bard, M.D.; and having attended the usual courses in Columbia College, he left the United States for Europe in 1798, and in 1800 he obtained the degree of doctor in medicine from the University of Edinburgh, after defending a Thesis, De Variola Vaccina.

Having now finished his medical studies, he was prepared to visit the continent of Europe with peculiar advantage; for his continued attachment to mineralogy, a liberal distribution of American specimens then comparatively new in Europe, and his social habits and dispositions, which were very conciliating, secured him the best introductions from Edinburgh, and laid the foundation of permanent friendships.

During a tour of two years, he visited France, Switzerland, and Italy; and collected a mineralogical cabinet of great value and extent. After his return to England, he married in London, and came out to New-York in the autumn of 1803, to enter on the active duties of a practitioner of medicine.

Previous to the year 1805, the practice of physic in the state of New-York was regulated by no public authority, and of course was not in the happiest condition to promote the respectability and usefulness of the profession. To remove, as far as possible, the existing inconveniences, Dr. Bruce became an active agent, and in conjunction with Dr. Romayne and other medical gentlemen of New-York, succeeded in establishing the state and county medical societies, under the sanction of the state legislature. This act "may be considered among the first efforts made in this country to reduce medicine to a regular science, by investing the privileges of medical men in the body of the members of the profession."

In the organization of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the state of New-York, Dr. Bruce and Dr. Romayne were eminently active, and by their united exertion and perseverance, (opposed by much professional talent) they obtained a charter from the regents. In this new institution, as professor of the materia medica, and of his favourite pursuit, mineralogy, he exhibited the fruits of arduous study, with a dignity of character, and urbanity of manner, which commanded the respect of the profession, and the regard of the students.

The ruling passion in Dr. Bruce's mind, was a love of natural science, and especially of mineralogy. Towards the study of this science, he produced in his own country a strong impulse, and he gave it no small degree of eclat. His cabinet, composed of very select and well characterized specimens; purchased by himself, or collected in his own pedestrian and other tours in Europe, or, in many instances, presented to him by distinguished mineralogists abroad; and both in its extent, and in relation to the then state of this country, very valuable, soon became an object of much attention. That of the late B. D. Perkins, which, at about the same time, had been formed by Mr. Perkins in Europe, and imported by him into this country, was also placed in New-York, and both cabinets (for both were freely shown to the curious, by their liberal and courteous proprietors) contributed more than any causes had ever done before, to excite in the public mind an active interest in the science of mineralogy.[43]

Dr. Bruce, while abroad, had been personally and intimately conversant with the Hon. Mr. Greville, of Paddington Green, near London, a descendant of the noble house of Warwick, the possessor of one of the finest private cabinets in Europe, and a zealous cultivator of mineralogy. Count Bournon, one of those loyal French exiles, who found a home in England, during the storm of the French revolution, was almost domesticated at Mr. Greville's, and was hardly second to any man in mineralogical, and particularly in crystallographical knowledge. His connexions with men of science on the continent, were of the first order, and to be familiar at Mr. Greville's, and with Count Bournon, was to have access to every thing connected with science in England and France. Dr. Bruce was also at home at Sir Joseph Banks's, the common resort of learned and illustrious men. Thus he enjoyed every advantage in England, and when he went to the continent, the abundant means of introduction which he possessed, brought him into contact with the distinguished men of Paris, and of other cities which he visited. The learned and estimable Abbé Haüy was among his personal friends and correspondents; and many others might be mentioned in the same character, whose names are among the first in the ranks of science, in various countries of Europe.

Returned to his own country, after being so long familiar with the fine collections in natural history, and especially in mineralogy, in various countries in Europe, Dr. Bruce manifested a strong desire to aid in bringing to light the neglected mineral treasures of the United States. He soon became a focus of information on these subjects. Specimens were sent to him from many and distant parts of the country, both as donations and for his opinion respecting their nature. In relation to mineralogy he conversed, he corresponded extensively, both with Europe and America; he performed mineralogical tours; he kindly sought out and encouraged the young mineralogists of his own country, and often expressed a wish to see a journal of American mineralogy upon the plan of that of the School of Mines at Paris. This object, it is well known, he accomplished, and in 1810, published the first number of this work. Owing to extraneous causes, it was never carried beyond one volume; but it demonstrated the possibility of sustaining such a work in the United States, and will always be mentioned in the history of American science, as the earliest original purely scientific journal of America.

Dr. Bruce had, in a high degree, the feelings of a man of science. He was ever forward to promote its interests, and both at home and abroad, was considered as one of its most distinguished American friends.

Many strangers of distinction came introduced to him, and his urbanity and hospitality rarely left him without guests at his board. During the latter part of his life, he seems to have been less interested in science. His journal had been so long suspended, that it was considered as virtually relinquished; his health was undermined by repeated attacks of illness, and science and society had to lament his sudden departure, when he had scarcely attained the meridian of life.

He died in his native place on the 22d of February, 1818, of an apoplexy, in the 41st year of his age.

INTELLIGENCE.

ART. XIX. 1. _Dr._ J. W. WEBSTER'S _Lectures_.

Dr. J. W. Webster, some months since, commenced a course of Lectures in the town of Boston, on Geology and Mineralogy. Having finished his first course, he is now occupied with a second on the same subjects, and we understand receives the patronage of some of the most respectable citizens of Boston and its vicinity. He makes Geology the groundwork of his plan, and fills up by describing the metals and minerals met with in each class of rocks, after the rock has been noticed. A pretty full account is given of the coal formations, (several of which Dr. W. has visited) and of the modes of searching and boring. A view is given of the formations of Paris and the Isle of Wight, with specimens from those districts.

In the volcanic part, a description (from personal observation) is given of St. Michael's. The structure of veins; the forming and destroying effects of water; the physiognomy of the dry land and submarine; the origin of islands and coral reefs, and a view of the principal mountain ranges throughout the world conclude the course.

2. _Dr. Webster's Cabinet._

Dr. Webster, having spent two or three years in Europe, in professional studies, during which time he devoted much attention to mineralogy and geology, with the ample aids afforded by the cabinets and distinguished teachers in Scotland, France, and England, has recently returned to his own country, and has brought with him a very select and considerably extensive cabinet of minerals, with which, and with American specimens, he illustrates his lectures. We understand that the collection contains some thousand specimens, and is good in the English and Scotch minerals; also in the Siberian coppers; it contains a suite of three hundred geological specimens from Freyberg, from granite to gravel. The geological part is extensive, and was increased by numerous pedestrian tours in England and Scotland; most of the geological specimens have been examined, in company with Professor Jameson. The volcanic part is good, from the extensive opportunities which Dr. Webster enjoyed in the Azores, in which, on his return to this country, he spent some time, and found much to interest him. His observations will soon be given to the public, in a work entitled _Remarks on the Azores or Western Islands_.

It is well known that they are volcanic, and of course afford the usual volcanic substances. The most interesting part is that occupied by the boiling fountains, in many respects similar to the Geysers of Iceland, excepting that the water is not ejected to any considerable height; but the incrustations, the sinter, and sulphur, are every way equal to any specimens which Dr. Webster saw in Sir G. Mackenzie's collection.

We are much gratified in noticing both what Dr. Webster has done and is still doing. We are persuaded that he will do much towards promoting the cultivation of American mineralogy and geology, and especially in the enlightened community in which he resides.

We cordially wish him success, and trust that it will be ensured by the patronage of the citizens of Boston.

3. _Supposed identity of Copal and Amber._

A correspondent, whose paper is withheld from publication till some additional experiments can be made, conceives that copal and amber are originally the same substance, and the product of the same tree.

4. THE NECRONITE.--(_A supposed new mineral._)

_Extract of a letter from Dr. H. H. Hayden of Baltimore, to the Editor, dated January 5, 1819._

"It (the necronite) occurs in a primitive marble, or limestone, which is obtained 21 miles from Baltimore, and a small distance from the York and Lancaster road. It was first noticed by myself at Washington's monument, in which this marble is principally employed.

"It occurs, for the most part, in isolated masses in the blocks, or slabs, both in an amorphous and crystallized state. It is most commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica, of the colour of titanium; small but regular crystals of sulphuret of iron, tremolite, and small prismatic crystals of titanium, which are rare. The form of the crystals is a rhomboid, approximating very much to that of the felspar, and which has inclined some to consider it as such. Also, the hexaedral prism, resembling that of the beryl. This form is rare, and has not, as yet, I believe, been found complete. Its colour is a bluish white, and clear white. Its structure much resembles felspar, being lamellar; sometimes opaque, semi-transparent and transparent, at least in moderately thin pieces. It scratches glass, carbonat of lime, and even felspar, in a _slight_ degree. In all our efforts, it has been found infusible, per se, or with borate of soda, and even from all the force of heat that could be excited in a smith's furnace, it came out unchanged in any degree. The acids seem to have no sensible effect upon it, either cold or hot. This is all that I can say of it at present, except that it possesses a most _horrid_ smell.[44] I have since found in a marble of the same kind, but from a different quarry, and a few miles distant from the first, a quartz almost as fetid as the necronite, and likewise associated with _small_ prisms of titanium.

"These substances carry with them a degree of interest in another point of view. They seem to invalidate the opinion that the fetid smell of secondary limestone, slate, &c. is derived from the decomposition of animal matter. As their gangue is _decidedly_ a rock of primitive formation."

_Another new mineral observed by Dr. Hayden._

"Exclusive of the interest which the necronite has excited with me and several others, I have besides stumbled upon another substance, if possible still more interesting. I discovered it in an imperfect state, about 4 years since, but not until recently have I been able to find it perfect, in beautiful garnet coloured cubic crystals ¼ of an inch square or nearly. These crystals are very liable or subject to decomposition, in which state they present a perfect but spongy cube. Although they resemble the cubic zeolite, yet they have nothing of its character with them besides."

_Remark._

Dr. Hayden without doubt alludes to the _chabasie_ of the Abbé Haüy, formerly but inaccurately called the cubic zeolite; for it is really a rhomboid very nearly approaching a cube--its angles being 93° 48′, and 86° 12′.

5. PRESERVATION OF DEAD BODIES.

_From Thenard's Chemistry_, vol. iii. _Paris ed. p._ 713.

The author declines describing the methods of embalming commonly employed, and proceeds to describe the mode which was for the first time employed by Dr. Chaussier.

"This process consists in placing the dead body thoroughly emptied and washed, in water kept constantly saturated with corrosive sublimate. This salt gradually combines with the flesh, gives it firmness, renders it imputrescible, and incapable of being attacked by insects and worms.

"I have seen, (adds the author) a head thus prepared, which had been exposed alternately to the sun and rain during several years, without having suffered the slightest change. It was very little deformed, and easily recognized, although the flesh had become as hard as wood."

6. MATCHES KINDLING WITHOUT FIRE.

(_From Thenard's Chemistry, Vol._ ii. _p._ 525.)

This match is prepared by mingling two parts of the oxymuriate of potash and one of sulphur, which by means of a little gum is attached to a common sulphur match. This match on being dipped into, or rather slightly wet with, strong sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol) immediately catches fire.

The author has not added the caution that the sulphur and salt should be pulverized separately; if rubbed together in a mortar, they will explode with some danger to the operator, provided the quantity be over a few grains.

Matches made upon this principle, have been for some time made and sold in this country. They are sometimes put up in little japanned cases with a small phial, from which when inverted with the mouth open, nothing will drop, and yet the match kindles on being thrust in quite to the bottom. The truth is, these bottles contain a little amianthus moistened with sulphuric acid, which thus kindles the match, but as the acid soon weakens by attracting water from the air, it is better to use a phial of the acid in the liquid state. A few drops answer the purpose, and when this is weakened, it is easily renewed.

7. _Cleaveland's Mineralogy._

Our opinion of this work was fully expressed in the review of it in our first number. In the Edinburgh Review for September, 1818, this work is again reviewed, and in a manner which must gratify every friend to American science. It will be necessary to cite only a single sentence. After commending the condensed and _honest_ manner in which the work is printed, (for they say, that the same matter which here fills one volume would in England have been spread over three,) the reviewer adds, "We should be glad to see it reprinted exactly upon the plan of the original; and we have no doubt that it would be found _the most useful work on mineralogy in our language_." More need not be--more scarcely could be said.

8. _A new Alkali._

A new alkali has recently been discovered in Sweden, by M. Arfwedson. It is found in the petalite, a mineral from Utoen, in Sweden, in a proportion not over 5 pr. ct.; also in the triphane or spodumene, in the proportion of 8 per cent. and in what is called crystallized lepidolite, in the proportion of 4 per cent. In its general properties it very nearly resembles the other alkalies. When heated in contact with platinum it acts on it. In the galvanic circuit it was decomposed "with bright scintillations, and the reduced metal being separated, afterward burnt." This metal resembles sodium. The new alkali has been called lithia. (_Jour. of Science of the Roy. Inst._)

9. _Ignited Platinum Wire._

In our last we mentioned the lamp without flame, the ignition of platinum wire being sustained by means of the vapour of alcohol.

Sir H. Davy has discovered that the vapour of camphor answers the same purpose: "If a piece of camphor, or a few small fragments in a heap, be placed in any convenient situation, as on a shilling, the bottom of a glass, &c. and a piece of platinum wire, either coiled or pressed up together, be heated and laid upon it, the platinum will glow as long as any camphor remains, and will frequently light it up into a flame."

_Jour. Roy. Inst._

10. _Red Rain._

A red rain fell in Naples, (March 14, 1818,) the common people were much alarmed, and called it _blood_ or _fire_.

An earthy powder was collected, which when dry was yellow, unctuous, and of an earthy taste; its specific gravity 2.07.

Its analysis presented silex 33--alumine 15.5--chrome 1.-- iron 14.5--carbonic acid 9., and a combustible substance of a carbonaceous nature.

It is thought that this powder had not a volcanic origin, and that the presence of chrome assimilates it with meteoric stones. _Ibid._

11. _Gnephalium._

Professor Ives has discovered a new species of gnephalium with decurrent leaves, of which a plate and description will appear in our next number.

12. _Augite._

M. Haüy has united the fassalite and the bakalite with the sahlite, a sub-species of augite. (See Mem. of the Museum of Nat. Hist. vol. 3.)

13. _A New Vegetable Alkali_,

Has been found by Messrs. Pelletier and Caventon in the Feve St. Ignace and the Nux Vomica. It has been named the vaucquelin, in honour of M. Vaucquelin. (Journal de Physique, for Aug. 1818.)

14. _New Minerals._

Two new mineral species have been discovered, the scorrodite from Schnuburg in Saxony, and the tungstate of lead from Zinnwald in Bohemia. _Ibid._

15. _New Metal._

A new metal has been discovered by Berzilius, in the mines of Fahlun in Sweden, to which he has given the name of Selenium. _Ibid._

16. _Pure Alumine._

A large bed of this substance, perfectly pure, has been found at Argenton, Department de L'Endre. _Ibid._

17. _Collections of American Minerals._

We are informed that under the auspices of Col. Gibbs, a collection of American minerals by states, according to the arrangement of the minerals of the departments of France, in the cabinet of the school of mines at Paris, was begun some time since, at the rooms of the Hist. Society in New-York; and recently in the University of Cambridge. In the arrangement of the latter, he has been assisted by Dr. J. W. Webster, lecturer on mineralogy and geology in Boston.

18. _C. S. Rafinesque, Esq._

We are requested to announce that a Journal of this gentleman's "Travels and Discoveries in the West, will be published this year by Cramer and Spear of Pittsburg, and that the results of his zoological and botanical labours consist in the discovery of about 15 new genera, and 180 new species of plants; about 75 new genera, and 600 new species of animals, whereof nearly 70 are new fishes, 20 new quadrupeds, 30 new reptiles, 112 new shells, 250 new fossils, &c." "He has inquired how the deep valleys have been excavated, where lakes existed, where the old falls of the Ohio were, the extent and origin of the coal region, &c."

19. _Medical College of Ohio._

_Extract of a letter from Cincinnati, Jan. 10th, 1819._

The legislature of the state of Ohio have just established a medical college in this city, and have by an unanimous vote passed a law incorporating the Faculty. In the act, Dr. Samuel Brown of Alabama is named as Professor of Anatomy, Dr. Daniel Drake of Cincinnati, Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Medicine, Dr. Coleman Rogers, Professor of Surgery, and Dr. Slack, Professor of Chemistry. The other Professors are to be appointed by the Faculty, and it is believed that Dr. Richardson of Lexington, Kentucky, will be called to the Obstetrical chair. Very high expectations are entertained of the importance of this institution in the west.

20. _Notes on Ohio._

Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, has issued proposals for publishing the above work, (mentioned in our last number) with a prospectus exhibiting its principal features. We doubt not it will contain valuable information concerning a very interesting portion of the United States, and every effort on the part of men of intelligence and enlarged views, to make the western and southwestern states better known, deserves, and it is believed will receive, adequate support.

21. _Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellurium._

Neither of these metals, so far as we are informed, has been announced as existing in either of the Americas. It is well known to mineralogists, that tungsten is very rare, and that tellurium is found only in Transylvania.

We have now the pleasure to state that both these metals exist in the Bismuth mine, in the town of Huntington, parish of New Stratford, in Connecticut, 20 miles west of New-Haven.

During the examination of some ores, brought to us by Mr. Ephraim Lane, the proprietor of this mine, we obtained the tungsten in the state of yellow oxid, and the tellurium in the metallic state.

The tungsten is stated to be abundant in the mine; it is the ferruginous species, known to mineralogists by the name of wolfram.

We cannot yet say whether the tellurium is abundant, having obtained it from only two pieces; from these we extracted also tungsten, so that it may possibly constitute a new mineral species. Further particulars will be given in our next Number.

22. _Mr. Sheldon's Application of Chesnut Wood to the Arts of Tanning and Dying._

REMARKS.

A considerable time since, we were confidentially made acquainted with the discovery detailed in the following letter. We have repeated the most important of Mr. Sheldon's experiments, both in relation to tanning and dying, and are well satisfied that the discoverer has not overrated, or erroneously estimated, the value of his own results. We are persuaded that the highly _useful_ arts alluded to, will derive important aid from the use of a material so abundant and cheap as chesnut wood.

_To Professor Silliman._

_Springfield, Mass. Feb. 27, 1819._

DEAR SIR,

I send you a more particular account of the newly discovered properties of the chesnut.

This tree, _Fagus Castanea_, Linn. is very abundant in New-England and the middle states; and occurs in the mountainous districts, as far southward as South-Carolina, or perhaps even Georgia. It is one of the stateliest trees of the forest; scarcely less distinguished by the beauty of its foliage, than by the durability of its wood.

By repeated analyses, conducted with the minutest attention to every circumstance which could ensure accuracy, it appears, incredible as it may seem, that the chesnut _wood_ contains twice as much tannin as ross'd[45] _oak bark_, and six-sevenths as much colouring matter (which gives a black with iron,) as logwood. I am aware that nothing could be farther from the common apprehension than such results; but the uniform success of a great variety of experiments in tanning and dying, in addition to the other kind of evidence, should satisfy the most incredulous.