Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

In the paper written by Mr. Nuttall is the following query: "Does this plant, with a lateral mode of growth and alternate leaves, germinate with two cotyledons?" The following observations were made in answer to this question. In the winter of 1816-17 this plant was kept in a situation exposed to severe frost; yet whenever the weather became warm for two or three days, it became quite green, but for the last winter there was no appearance of life in the plant. In March 1818, the vessel in which the limosella had been preserved for two summers preceding, and in which were a great quantity of seeds, was exposed in a warm situation to the sun. There was no appearance of vegetation until the last of March, when were observed several cylindrical leaves, some of them evidently arose from bulbs which had formed the last summer, on account of the dryness of its situation, which frequently occurs when plants are removed from a moist to a dry situation. In other instances single cylindrical leaves arose from the earth, where no bulbs were to be found; these cylindrical leaves were thought to arise from seeds, which, if it was a fact, would prove that the plant vegetated with but one cotyledon. In a short time the vessel was crowded with the seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons. These were carefully observed, and in every instance, when the coat of the seed was cast off, two linear cotyledons were observed, soon a cylindrical leaf arose from the centre of the cotyledons, and when this leaf had grown to the length of half an inch, a leaf of a similar kind arose laterally to a line made by the first leaf and the cotyledons.

From the facts above stated, it is thought to be proved that the limosella vegetates with two cotyledons. This was the fact in every instance where the husk of the seeds was obviously attached to the cotyledons, and in the few instances where the plants appeared to vegetate with but one cotyledon, it is probable that it arose from a bulb or some portion of the old plant, in which life had not been extinguished, during the past winter, which was made more probable by the fact that several of the leaves arose obviously from bulbs. This limosella,[11] with its congeners, hence will take its place in the natural order of Jussieu lysimachiæ.

ART. XV. _Professor_ BIGELOW _on the comparative Forwardness of the Spring in different Parts of the United States, in 1817_.

We have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this subject, by the author, Professor Bigelow of Boston; it is a part of the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Professor Bigelow, availing himself of a hint given him some years ago by the late venerable Dr. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, ascertained, through the medium of correspondence with accurate observers in different parts of North America, the time of flowering, for "1817, of the common fruit-trees and a few other plants"--"found in most parts of the United States."

The peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned, and the following table exhibits the time of its flowering, in places sufficiently numerous and remote, to afford a fair specimen of these observations:

_Places._ _Lat._ _Long._ _Peach-tree in blossom._
Fort Claiborne, Alab. Ter. 31° 50′ 87° 50′ March 4
Charleston, S. C. 32 44 80 39 6 12
Richmond, Va. 37 40 77 50 23 Ap. 6
Lexington, Ky. 38 6 85 8 April 6 15
Baltimore, Md. 39 21 77 48 9
Philadelphia, P. 39 56 75 8 15
New-York, N. Y. 40 42 74 9 21 26
Boston, Mass. 42 23 70 52 May 9
Albany, N. Y. 43 39 73 30 12
Brunswick, Me. 43 53 69 55 15[12]
Montreal, Can. 45 35 73 11 12

Professor Bigelow infers, "that the difference of season between the northern and southern extremities of the country is not less than two months and a half." "Difference of longitude does not seem very materially to affect the Floral Calendar within the United States." It appears, that in the same year peach-trees were in blossom at Valencia, in Spain, about the 19th of March; the apple-tree near London, May 8th; the cherry-tree and pear-tree at Geneva, in Switzerland, April 3d.

We hope that this research will be prosecuted in the manner it has thus been happily begun. It evidently affords an excellent criterion of the actual temperature, on a scale more extensive than it is practicable to obtain from thermometrical registers.

Floral Calendars kept in various parts of the United States would afford very interesting information, as to the changes of climate in particular places; a common topic of popular remarks but generally with few and inaccurate data.

ART. XVI. _A Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near Philadelphia between the 20th of February and the 20th of May, 1816, with occasional Zoological Remarks._ By C. S. RAFINESQUE.

The importance of observations on the annual progress of vegetation is obvious, and, as connected with agriculture, gardening, &c., eminently useful. Comparative observations acquire a particular degree of interest, when made by skilful observers, at the same time, but at different places. Dr. Bigelow, of Boston, issued a circular, proposing that such contemporaneous observations should be made in the spring of 1817; and I wish that his request may have been attended to, when the collection of those observations may afford valuable materials for an American Calendar of Flora. The blossoming of plants is easily watched, but their foliation and budding ought not to be neglected. Having been prevented, by various causes, from keeping an exact record of the progress of vegetation near New-York in 1817, I submit an accurate journal which I had kept the year before, at Philadelphia, in which I hope that some interesting facts may be noticed. Dr. Benjamin Barton has published a sketch of a Calendar of Flora for Philadelphia, in his Fragments on the Natural History of Pennsylvania; by comparing it with mine, many material differences may be traced, which evince a gradual change of temperature, although the spring of 1816 was remarkably cold and late. The greater quantity of species observed by me may, besides, render this journal a sort of vernal Flora of the neighbourhood of Philadelphia; and many species found by me are not to be met in the _Flora Philadelphica_ of Dr. William Barton.

_February_ 20. The _Hyacinthus orientalis_ begins to show its flowers, and on the

24. In full blossom, as well as _Convallaria majalis_, in rooms.

25. The grass begins to look greenish in some parts.

26. Seen the first larva of insect in a pond.

27. The _Motacilla sialis_, or bluebird, is heard for the first time.

28. The first shad (_Clupea sapidissima_) is taken in the Delaware, while on the same day, the first smelt (_Salmo eperlanoides_) was taken in the Raritan, at New-Brunswick.

_March_ 1. The _Tulipa gesneriana_, and _Hesperis matronalis_, are in blossom at the windows: the suckers (_genus Catostomus_) appear in the fish-market.

2. The catkins of the _Alnus serrulatus_ begin to swell.

3. Those of _Salix Caprea_ begin to appear.

4. The grass looks green by patches in the country.

5. The leaves of _Veronica officinalis_, _Plantago virginiana_, _Saxifraga virginica_, &c. are quite unfolded.

6. The new leaves of _Kalmia latifolia_ begin to appear.

7. The spathas of _Spathyema fetida_, or _Fothos fetida_, begin to appear in blossom.

8. The _Alnus serrulatus_ is in full blossom.

10. Found several mosses and ferns in blossom; these last were covered with capsules or old fructification: they were _Asplenium ebeneum_, _Aspidium marginale_, _Asp. acrostichoides_, _Polypodium medium_, N. Sp., &c.

11. Seen the first spider, in the country, brown, oblong, walking. A fall of snow at night.

12. Seen in blossom, at the windows, _Narcissus tazzetta_, _N. janguilla_, and several saffrons, genus _Crocus_, &c.

14. The grass looks quite green; the _Draba verna?_ is in blossom in the State-House garden, the _Viburnum tinus_, _Primula acaulis_, &c. in the rooms, &c. The following fish are at market: white perch, (_Perca mucronata_, Raf.) yellow perch, (_Polyprion fasciatum_, Raf.) mamoose sturgeon, (_Accipenser marginatur_, Raf.) elk-oldwives, (_Sparus crythrops_, Raf.) &c.

15. The _Populus fastigiata_, Lombardy poplar, begins to show its catkins.

17. The big-eye herring (_Clupea megalops_) begin to be seen at the fish-market.

18. Many plants begin to grow and show their leaves.

19. A fall of snow. The first shad (_Clupea sapidissima_) appear in New-York: they are now common here.

20. _Crocus aureus_ in blossom in gardens; likewise _Iris persica_, &c.

21. _Betula lenta_ begin to show the catkins.

22. _Galanthus nivalis_, and _Lamium amplexicaule_, are in blossom in gardens at Cambden.

24. _Populus fastigiata_, and _Salix caprea_, are in full bloom.--The gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves.

25. _Populus angulata_ in blossom at Cambden.

26. _Salix babylonica_ begins to blossom and shoot the leaves. _Viburnum prunifolium_ is budding.

27. _Draba verna?_ is in seed already in Cambden: the _Rhododendron maximum_ begins to shoot in gardens.

28. _Juniperus virginiana_ is in bloom. _Saxifraga virginica_ begins to show its flowers. _Laurus benzoin_, and _Cornus florida_, are budding.

_April_ 1. In the morning, a large flight of wild geese went over the city northwards, making a great noise. In the afternoon there was a thunder storm from the southwest.

2. The frogs begin to croak. Found in blossom near Cambden, _Arabis rotundifolia_, Raf., _A. lyrata_, _Saxifraga virginica_, _Draba verna?_ _Betula lenta_, &c. _Pinus inops_ is budding.

3. Seen the first swallow. Found in blossom on the Schuylkill, _Fumaria cucullaria_, _Anemone thalictroides_, _Saxifraga virginica_, many ferns and mosses.

4. The fresh-water turtle (_Testudo picta_) begins to show itself.

7. Found in blossom to-day, _Hepatica triloba_, _Laurus benzoin_, _Sanguinaria canadensis_, _Spathyema fetida_, _Acer rubrum_, &c. The first bee is seen.

10. In blossom at the woodlands, _Viola blanda_, _Luzula filamentosa_, Raf., _Gnaphalium?_ _plantageneum_, &c.

12. In blossom at Cambden, _Viola lanceolata_, and _Houstonia cerulea_.

14. The apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens. _Acernegundo_ is in bloom at Gray's Ferry.

15. Seen the first butterfly--it was small and gray. Found in blossom, near Cambden, _Phlox subulata_, _Arabis parviflora_, Raf., and _Vaccinium ligustrinum_.

18. Seen in blossom, _Epigea repens_, _Carex acuta_, and _Taraxacum dens-leonis_. In gardens, the peach and cherry trees are in bloom. Observed many insects. The _Camellia_, the _Magnolia chinensis_, &c. are seen in the hot-house of the Woodlands.

20. The first snake is seen, _Coluber trivittata_, Raf. Also a beautiful large butterfly, red and black. The _Salix vitellina_, and _Capsella bursa_. (_Thlaspi bursa-pastoris_,) are in blossom.

21. Found in blossom, near Gray's Ferry, _Narcissus pseudo-narcissus_, and _Sedum ternatum_, both naturalized. Likewise the _Populus tremuloides_, and _Mespelus canadensis_. The leaves of _Podophyllum pettatum_ are fully expanded.

23. Seen in full bloom in gardens, the pear-tree, plum-tree, _Riber grossularia_, and _R. rubrum_.

24. Found in blossom along the Schuylkill, _Aguilegia canadensis_, _Hyacinthus botryoides_, _Ranunculus fascicularis_, _Violapapilionacea. V. decumbens_, Raf., _Houstonia cerulea_, _Cerastium pumilum_, Raf.

25. Found in blossom near Cambden, _Viola pedata_, _V. lanceolata_, _V. ovata_, Raf., _V. primulifolia_, _Arabis parviflora_, Raf., _Cerastium pumilum_, Raf., _Carex acuta_, _Meopilus botryapium_, _Laurus sassafras_, _Cercis canadensis_, _Potentilla simplex_, _Andromeda racemoca_.

28. Seen in blossom in gardens, _Calycanthus floridus_, _Syringa persica_, _Phlox pilosa_, &c. The leaves of _Liriodendron tulipifera_, _Æsculus hippocastanum_, _Populus fastigiata_, _P. angulata_, are unfolded.

30. In blossom on the Schuylkill, _Obolaria virginiana_, _Anemone trifolia_, _Hydrastis canadensis_, &c.

_May_ 1. In blossom in the Neck, _Cerastium vulgatum_? _Veronica serpyllifolia_, _V. arvensis_, _Ranunculus bulbosus_, _Viola cucultata_.

3. Found above the Falls of the Schuylkill, _Viola striata_, _V. concolor_, _V. primulifolia_, _V. blanda_, _Fumaria aurea_, _F. cucullaria_, _Charophyllum procumbens_, _Uvularia sessitifolia_, _U. perfoliata_, _Cercis canadensis_, _Arabis falcata_, _Stellaria pubera_, _Erigeron pulchellum_, _Orchis spectabilis_, _Hydrastis canadensis_, _Dentaria diphylla_, _Azalea nudiflora_, &c.

4. Found on the Vissahikon, _Arabis bulbosa_, _Panax trifolium_, _Viola pectata_, _V. rotundifolia_, _Cardamine pennsylvanica_, _Krigia virginica_, and several grasses.

7. Found in blossom over the Schuylkill, _Laurus sassafras_, _Viburnum prunifolium_, _Aronia arbutifolia_, _A. melanocarpa_, _Fragaria virginica_, _Cerastium nutans_, Raf., _Convallaria majalis_, naturalized, and several species of the genus _Vaccinium_.

10. Found below the falls of the Schuylkill, _Floerkea uliginosa_, _Viburnum acerifolium_, _Oxalis violacea_, _Cerastium tenuifolium, lechoma hederacea_, &c.: and the following above the Falls--_Trillium cernuum_, _Viola pubescens_, _V. pennsylvanica_, _Hydrophyllum virginicum_, _Polemonium reptans_, _Senecio aureus_, _Saxifraga pennsylvanica_, _Staphylea trifoliata_, _Obolaria virginica_, _Caltha palustris_, _Ranunculus abortivus_, &c.

11. Seen the first bat.

12. Near Haddonfield, _Bartsia coccinea_, _Helonias bullata_, _Trifolium repens_, &c.

15. Found between Cambden and Haddonfield, _Trifolium pratense_, _Silene virginica_, _Antirrhinum canadense_, _Lithospermum tenellum_, Raf., _Festucatenella_, _Seleranthus annuus_, _Oxalis biflora_, Raf., _Poa rubra_, _Vaccinium corymbosum_, _Viola palmata_, _V. parvifolia_, Raf., _Rubus flagellaris_, &c. Also in blossom, _Quercus rubra_, _Q. obtusiloba_, _Q. alba_, &c.

20. Found near Burlington, _Plantago virginica_, _Euphorbia ipecacuanha_, _Comptonia asplenifolia_, _Myosotis lappula_, _Senecio obovatus_, _Scirpus acicularis_, _Lithospermum trinervum_, Raf., _L. tenellum_, Raf., &c.; besides several _Carex_.

ART. XVII. _Description of a New Species of North American Marten_, (_Mustela vulpina_) by C. S. RAFINESQUE.

The regions watered by the Missouri are inhabited by many animals, as yet unknown to the zoologists, although many have been noticed by travellers. A species of marten has lately been presented to the Lyceum of Natural History in New-York, which was brought from that country, and appears to belong to a peculiar species, very different from the common martens of Europe, Asia, and America, although it has, in common with it, the character of the yellow throat; but the head, feet, and tail, afford so many peculiar characters, that no doubt can be entertained of its diversity. I have, therefore, given to it the name of _Mustela vulpina_, or Fox Marten, owing to its head and tail being somewhat similar to that of a fox.

_Mustela Vulpina._ Definition--Brown, three large yellowish spots underneath on the throat, breast, and belly; cheeks, inside of the ears, and a spot on the nape, white; tail tipped with white one-third of total length; feet blackish, toes white.

_Description._--This animal is of a fine shape: its size is rather above mediocrity, being about half a foot high, and the total length being twenty-seven inches, whereof nine form the tail. The general colour of the fur is of a drab brown, and it is neither coarse nor very fine. The head is elongated, oblong, about four inches long, shaped like that of a fox; the snout is narrow; the nose is black, notched, and granulated, furnished on each side with black whiskers, two inches long: there are three long black hairs, or _vibrissa_, above each eye, and a few shorter ones scattered behind them on the cheeks, chin, and tip of the lower jaw, which is white: the cheeks are whitish, and there is a white spot on the nape of the neck: the ears are large, broad, and white inside. There are three large, oblong spots, on the throat, breast, and belly; this last is the largest; that on the breast the smallest. The fore legs are shorter than the hind ones, and have, behind, three very long hairs or vibrissa: the feet and toes of all the legs are covered with long fur; the former have a dark brown or blackish ring, and the latter are of a dirty white: there are five long toes to all the feet, of which the inner one is the shortest; the nails are white, retractible, and shorter than the fur. The teeth are as in the genus _Mustela_, and white; those of the lower jaw are larger and stronger: the grinders are four on each side; they are broad, trifid, with the middle lobe sharp and very long: the tusks, or dogteeth, are very strong, curved, and approximated, leaving a very small place for the incisores, which are very small, very short, and flat; the two lateral ones on each side are situated diagonally, the second behind, and the two middle ones are only half the size of the others. The tail is bushy, particularly at the top, where there is a white pencil of long hairs; the brown of the remainder is darker than on the body.

From the above accurate description, it will appear evident that this animal is very different from the common marten of North America. It must be a ferocious little animal, and very fierce; which is indicated by the strength of the teeth.

ART. XVIII. _Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus, or Copper-head Snake._ By C. S. RAFINESQUE.

After the rattlesnake, the copper-head snake is the most dreaded in the northern states, being the next largest venomous snake: he is also more common in the cold parts, where the former is very rare. Strange as it may seem, this conspicuous and dangerous animal has escaped the notice of naturalists, and is not found described in Shaw nor Lacepede. Having seen two of them near Fishkill, in the summer of 1817, I endeavoured to describe them completely, and investigate their history. They were both killed in a meadow, and one of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence; a slight stroke of a rod was sufficient, as usual with venomous snakes. It appears that they are killed much easier than the innocent snakes; these are often seen to revive after an apparent death, and do not really die until the next sunset; while venomous snakes do not easily revive, particularly if the head is slightly bruised.

This snake is known by a variety of names in different parts of the State of New-York, since he has every where attracted the attention of the inhabitants: these names are, _copper-head_, _copper-snake_, _chunk-head_, _copper-adder_, _copper-viper_, _copper-belly_, _pilot-snake_, _deaf-adder_, _deaf-snake_; and in New-England, by the names _rattlesnake's mate_ and _red adder_, &c. They have all been given in reference to his colour, or to some presumed peculiarities in his manners, &c. _Chunk-head_ is a vulgar expression, meaning thick-head or blunt-head. He has been called sometimes _pilot-snake_, on a false supposition that he was the pilot or guide of the rattlesnake; and he has been considered as deaf, because he is easily surprised, and does not appear to hear the noise of your approach.

It belongs to the genus _scytalus_ of Daudin, &c., which differs from the _Boa_ of Linnæus, as the genus _Vipera_ does from _Coluber_, being provided with fangs. I have given to it the name of _Scytalus Cupreus_, which means coppered scytalus. The following definition of the species may be considered as comparative and characteristic.

_Scytalus Cupreus._ Tail one-eighth of total length, with 45 caudal plates entirely brown; 150 abdominal plates, the last very broad; head oval, coppered above, yellow underneath; scales carinated on the back, which is coppered, with reddish brown rings cross-shaped; belly variegated of brownish.

_Description._ Total length about three feet; body thicker than in the innocent snakes. Head large, broad, oval, obtuse, very distinct from the neck, nearly two inches long, flattened, coppered brown above, and covered with large, smooth scales; yellow underneath, as well as the neck, and with rhomboidal smooth scales. Mouth very large; fangs yellowish white. Back flattened anteriorly, a little angular in the middle, covered with small rhomboidal, obtuse, keeled scales; those of the sides larger and smooth, not keeled; centre of the back of a brownish copper colour; sides of a bright copper; broad bands or rings, becoming forked on each side, and assuming nearly the shape of a St. Andrew's cross; they are of a reddish brown: there is a round spot opposite to the sinusses, and the scales of the sides are minutely dotted of brown. The abdominal plates are 150, beginning under the head; the last, covering the vent, is very broad, double the other: they are of a shining, pale copper colour, with two longitudinal and lateral rows of great, irregular, brown spots, with some light brownish clouds between them, and each plate is marginated of whitish. The belly is very flat and broad, about 1¼ inch in diameter; and the skin may be distended on the sides, when, the animal is not fed. Tail short, tapering gradually, about four inches long, cylindrical, brown, without spots, with 45 plates underneath, and having at the end a small, obtuse, horn claw, of an oblong, compressed, obtuse shape, and carinated underneath.

This snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake; he is very slow in his motions, rather clumsy, owing to his thick shape and short tail. He retires in winter into caves, hollow rocks, and trees, where he lies, in a torpid state, from November to April; several have been found coiled up together, the head lying over the back: it is in the same situation he sleeps in the fields. When found in the torpid state, they may be carried without waking; but might wake in a warm room. They do not eat during all that time: their food consists of birds, frogs, mice, and even squirrels, which they catch by surprise, as they do not climb on trees. They kill their large prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia, crushing it in their folds, and they swallow it whole after covering it with their clammy saliva. They can remain a very long time without a meal, and one meal is a long time digesting.

They are generally found in meadows, pastures, and the edge of woods. They creep slovenly through the grass, and if surprised by the sight of man, they assume an erect and threatening posture, darting their tongue and swelling their head; but they do not attack men, unless alarmed and struck. They are considered more dangerous than the rattlesnake, because they do not give notice of their vicinity, and lie concealed in the grass; but they are easily killed, when assuming the threatening posture, by a slight touch of a cane, spade, or any other instrument. The effects of their bite is similar to that of the rattlesnake, and cured in the same way, by the prompt application of the _Aristolochia serpentaria_, _Polygala senega_, _Prenanthes serpentaria_, _Macrotry serpentaria_, &c. and other plants, bearing in consequence the name of snakeroots.

This snake is found in New-England, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c., and perhaps all over the United States.

ART. XIX. _On a Method of Augmenting the Force of Gunpowder._

Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Colonel GEORGE GIBBS.

I employed, the last year, a man in blowing rocks, and having seen an account of a method of substituting a portion of quick lime for a part of the gunpowder usually employed, I was induced to make a number of experiments upon it. I now send you the results in the certificate of the person employed, whose statement might be relied on, even if I had not superintended myself a number of the experiments.

"_Sunswick Farms, Oct. 19, 1817._--I certify that, having been employed by Colonel Gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm, I, by his orders, made use of a composition of one part quick lime and two parts gunpowder, and uniformly found the same charge to answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder. I made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner, as well as several hundreds in the usual way, and can therefore depend upon the accuracy of this statement. I found, however, that when the powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before, that the effect was diminished. It should be always used the day it is mixed.

(Signed) T. POMEROY."

This preparation was made generally in the morning, put in a bottle and well corked, to prevent the access of the external air. The rationale of the process was not explained in the original recommendation, but it soon occurred to me, that it must be owing to the desiccation of the gunpowder by the lime.

The attraction of moisture by gunpowder, is known to be very great: according to Rees's Cyclopedia, upwards of 16 per cent. has been absorbed, and that the removal, simply, from near the fire to the corner of the room, produces a considerable change in its weight. I presume, therefore, that the lime, which in its caustic state has also a great affinity to water, attracts a portion of it from the powder, and leaves it in a state of dryness best fitted for inflammation. But if the lime should remain too long mixed with the powder, it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre, and, according to Count Rumford's idea, destroy a great part of the power. If also left exposed, attractions of moisture would take place from the atmosphere, the gunpowder would remain surcharged with humidity as before, and the lime would be only an inert mass.

The examination of this subject led me to consider the increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its use in the field. It is well known that after a few discharges a cannon becomes heated, and the range is much greater, as well as the recoil. The charge of powder is therefore reduced about one quarter, to produce the original effect. As I have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact I shall take this opportunity of mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first explained, viz. the desiccation of the powder. No person will dispute the heat acquired by a cannon, or even a musket, after repeated discharges; and this heat must volatilize or destroy a great portion of the moisture combined with the powder, assist its speedy inflammation, and perhaps add to its power, by causing a more perfect combustion of the inflammable parts of the gunpowder. This would cause a much greater volume of gas to be produced, and the high temperature would also greatly augment its elasticity; and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder depend upon the rapid production and high degree of elasticity of a great quantity of aeriform fluids or gases.

ART. XX. _On The Connexion between Magnetism and Light._ By Col. GIBBS.

_Extract from a Letter to the Editor._

I visited, the last year, the mine of magnetic iron at Succassunny, belonging to Governor Dickerson of New-Jersey. The mine had not been worked for a year past, and I did not descend it. The proprietor, a gentleman of distinguished science, informed me of a singular circumstance attending it, which was too important to be left unnoticed. The mine is worked at the depth of 100 feet; direction of the bed, northeast and southwest; inclination nearly perpendicular. The ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic, and has polarity; but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism at first, but acquires it after it has been some time exposed to the influence of the atmosphere. This fact, of which there is no doubt, struck me as most singular. I could not recollect any similar observation; and it is only lately that I have found that Werner had observed, that iron sand, raised from the depth of 100 feet, had no magnetism. See Rees's Cyclopedia, Art. Sand.

I could only account for this circumstance by supposing that magnetism existed not in the interior of the earth, as was supposed, but only on the surface, and in such bodies as received this principle from atmospheric, or celestial influence.

The late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet rays of light, by M. Morechini, a notice of which has since reached us in the journals, connected with the above fact, leads me to believe that light is the great source of magnetism. A learned foreigner,[13] whose residence in this country has contributed much to its scientific improvement, has also informed me that other substances than metallic have been found, by compression, to be magnetic.

It is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible, or has the most attraction to matter. But there are other rays, which Herschel, who some years since discovered them, calls invisible rays, which are still more refrangible, are next beyond the violet, when refracted, and partake of most of its properties, except that they are invisible. I have not yet seen any account of the experiments of M. Morechini, other than the notice in the journal; but I trust I shall soon be able to determine whether those invisible rays do not possess the magnetic power as well as the violet; or, perhaps, possess it exclusively.

As the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles, is at least ten times greater than in the tropics, a greater quantity of the magnetic rays will there be separated and combined than elsewhere; and of course arises excess of magnetism. Hence the direction of magnetic bodies towards the northern and southern extreme regions. The great absorption and emission of light in the polar regions, by the ice and snow, may cause the extraordinary illumination of that country during the absence of the sun, and the emission of the magnetic rays with electricity may, perhaps, give us the aurora borealis.

The coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with the solar influence, deserves particular notice, and will have considerable weight on this subject.

That there are many facts which cannot readily be explained by the theory of light, I shall not deny; but in the infancy of this system we may be allowed to hope that future observations may enable us to remove present difficulties. One thing must be admitted, that no theory has heretofore been published relating to magnetism, which has received or seems entitled to much confidence. In your next number I hope to be able to furnish you with further remarks on this subject; but, I have no doubt that philosophy will finally determine that we owe to the solar ray light, heat, electricity, and magnetism.

G. GIBBS.

_Sunswick, January, 1818._

ART. XXI. _On a new Means of producing Heat and Light, with an Engraving, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. of Boston._

BOSTON, May 7, 1818.

_To Professor Silliman._

SIR,

If the following account of a method of using tar and steam as fuel, recently invented by Mr. Samuel Morey, should be found sufficiently interesting to occupy a place in the Journal of Science, I am sensible its usefulness will be much extended through that medium of information.

The inventor, not unskilled in chemistry, and aware of the attraction of oxygen for carbon, conceived it practicable to convert the constituents of water into fuel, by means of this affinity.

Whatever may be the fact, chemically considered, the operation, in various experiments, promises to afford a convenient method of applying to use several of the most combustible substances, not hitherto employed as fuel. By the process I shall briefly describe, _all carbonaceous fluids_ may be conveniently burnt, and derive great force from their combination with the oxygen and hydrogen gases of water or steam, before or at the moment of ignition.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.]

A tight vessel, cylindrically shaped, was first employed, containing rosin, connected with a small boiler by a pipe which entered near the bottom, and extended nearly its length, having small apertures, over which were two inverted gutters, inclining or sloping upwards over each other; the upper one longer than the other, intended to detain the steam in the rosin, in its way to the surface. The rosin being heated, _carburetted hydrogen gas_ would issue from the outlet, or pipe, inserted near the top of the vessel, and being ignited, afforded a small blaze, about as large as that of a candle; but, when the steam was allowed to flow, this blaze would instantly shoot out many hundred times its former bulk, to the distance of two or three feet.

It is presumed the steam was decomposed, and carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, produced as the steam passed, very near the hot bottom of the vessel.

Another apparatus was constructed, consisting of two vessels, one within the other, having a cover common to both; the inner one to contain _tar_, (as a more convenient substance than rosin;) the outer vessel to contain water, which surrounds the other, and lies under its bottom; or, in other words, a vessel of tar set into a vessel of boiling water. The boiler has a lining of sheet copper, or tin, to promote the ebullition. The tar vessel being riveted to the cover, holes are made through its sides, near to the cover, to allow the steam to pass in, and act on its surface. The cover being secured on, a safety valve is provided for the steam vessel, and two cocks; one over the tar, the other over the water, are fixed contiguously; the first has a tube, or is elongated to reach nearly to the bottom of the tar, which ascends, and is driven out by the pressure of the steam on its surface. Both cocks conduct to a pipe, wherein is placed a large wire, or metallic rod, which about fills the tube, and is perforated obliquely, or zig zag, to increase the length of the passage, and to mingle the tar and steam more intimately. The gases, or vapours, issue from a small orifice at the end of the pipe; and, being ignited by a little fire, into which it is directed, an intense and voluminous blaze is produced, and continues as long as the materials remain unexhausted. A hot brick, instead of the fire, answers the same purpose.

This apparatus contained but about one quart of tar, (which must always be nicely strained,) and it lasted one and a half hour, and the flame was sufficient to fill a common fireplace, if not allowed to escape, by its violence, up the chimney. Its force will be according to the elasticity of the steam. I regret being unable, since, to make more exact and varied experiments, to demonstrate the economy of this fuel. This point, however, and the chemical facts, will be the subject of a future communication. And probably a form of a stove may be devised, wherein it may be used for the purposes of warmth, light, and cooking; and another apparatus to light streets.

But this invention will be of more special use _as fuel for steam engines applied to navigation_--the purpose principally for which I have purchased the patent right.

This may be the subject of another communication.

ART. XXII. _On the Changes which have taken place in the Wells of Water situated in Columbia, South-Carolina, since the Earthquakes of 1811-12._ By EDWARD DARRELL SMITH, M. D., _Professor of Chemical and Experimental Philosophy and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina College_.

_To Professor Silliman._

DEAR SIR,

In answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells, since the memorable period of the earthquakes, I would make the following observations:

These tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in December, 1811, and were continued, at intervals, until the latter end of the succeeding month of March, with different degrees of violence, in this and some of the adjacent states. In November, 1812, I visited this town, and then understood that the wells, which are generally very deep, had an abundance of water in them. This continued to be the case for about one year after; and in the College well, in particular, which was a remarkably fine one, there were always about twelve feet of water, notwithstanding its daily consumption by more than two hundred persons. Shortly after this time, many of the wells in the town began to fail in their usual supply of water, although they were frequently cleaned out and occasionally deepened. Their state became worse every year, until, at length, about three years since, some of them proved to be entirely dry, and most of the others had their water turbid, and diminished to the depth of only two or three feet. A little anterior to this period, what were called the dry years had commenced, and there were, comparatively, very scanty falls of rain until the last spring; since when there has been a very large quantity. To elucidate the subject more fully, it may not be amiss to give some topographical account of the town of Columbia. About a mile from the eastern bank of the Cogaree the town begins to be thickly built up, and at this distance the elevation of ground is supposed to be one hundred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary state. The hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or more in its western extent, and its soil is principally composed of a loose, porous sand, with which few, if any, stones are intermixed at any depth that has yet been penetrated. In attempting to account for the failure of the well-waters, it was supposed by some that the earthquakes had produced such changes in the loose texture of the soils, that the veins of water which used to supply the wells, had sunk beneath the level of these reservoirs; but on this head it is to be observed, that there was no remarkable failure of water for one or two years after these changes were supposed to have been effected. Others again, connecting the greatest failure of water with the concurring dearth of rain, conceived that the fact might be explained by the droughts occasioning a deficiency in the river-water, and thus cutting off the supply which they supposed had heretofore percolated from the margin of the river into the wells. If their hypothesis was correct, it was believed that the difficulty would be removed, either by deepening the wells, or by subsequent large supplies of rain. Many wells were immediately deepened from two to eight or ten feet, but the remedy proved very inadequate. And since the great falls of rain, within a year past, although there are somewhat larger supplies of water in some wells, yet there is not the half as much as existed before the earthquakes. The College well, although deepened several feet, does not now contain generally more than four or five feet of water. I must not omit to remark, that two wells, situated in a longitudinal line from north to south, with regard to each other, and also in a lower spot of ground, never failed entirely, although they diminished considerably, and now yield more copious supplies than any others.

Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the effects are so inconvenient, and it is so generally believed that they are likely to be permanent, that the inhabitants of the town are beginning to build cisterns, in order to accumulate artificial reservoirs of water.

ART. XXIII. _Respiration of Oxygen Gas._

It is not extraordinary, when oxygen gas was first discovered, and found to be the principle of life to the whole animal creation, that extravagant expectations should have been formed as to its medicinal application. Disappointment followed of course, and naturally led to a neglect of the subject; and, in fact, for some years, pneumatic medicine has gone into discredit, and public opinion has vibrated to the extreme of incredulity. Partaking in a degree in this feeling, we listened with some reluctance to a very pressing application on this subject during the last summer. A young lady, apparently in the last stages of decline, and supposed to be affected with hydrothorax, was pronounced beyond the reach of ordinary medical aid. As she was in a remote town in Connecticut, where no facilities existed towards the attainment of the object, we felt no confidence that, even if oxygen gas were possessed of any efficacy in such cases, it would _actually_ be applied in this case, in such a manner as to do any good. Yielding, however, to the anxious wishes of friends, we furnished drawings for such an apparatus as might be presumed attainable, and also written and minute directions for preparing, trying, and administering the gas. It was obtained from nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,) not because it was the best process, but because the substance could be obtained in the place, and because a common fire would serve for its extrication. The gas obtained had, of course, a variable mixture of nitrogen or azot, and probably on an average, might not be purer than nearly the _reversed_ proportions of the atmosphere--that is, 70 to 80 per cent. of oxygen to 20 or 30 nitrogen; and it is worthy of observation, whether this circumstance might not have influenced the result.

Contrary to our expectations, the gas (as we are since informed by good authority) was skilfully prepared and perseveringly used. From the first, the difficulty of breathing and other oppressive affections were relieved: the young lady grew rapidly better, and in a few weeks entirely recovered her health. A respectable physician, conversant with the case, states, in a letter now before us, "that the inhaling of the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of breathing, increased the operation of diuretics, _and has effected her cure_. Whether her disease was hydrothorax, or an anasarcous affection of the lungs, is a matter I believe not settled."

Should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of oxygen gas appear to be desired, it would not be difficult to simplify the apparatus and operations so as to bring them within the reach of an intelligent person, even although ignorant of chemistry: and this task, should there be occasion, we would cheerfully undertake to perform.

This interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed, not with the spirit of quackery, or of extravagant expectation, but with the sobriety of philosophical research; and it is more than probable that the nitrous oxyde which is now little more than a subject of merriment and wonder, if properly diluted and discreetly applied, would be productive of valuable effects.

ART. XXIV. _On the Compound Blowpipe. Extract from the Journal de Physique, of Paris, for January 1818._[14]

CONCERNING HEAT.

"Heat, considered as one of the most important agents, especially in relation to chemistry, and even to mineralogy, has also been the subject of numerous labours, both with regard to the means of augmenting and of diminishing its effects.

"To the former belong the numerous experiments made, especially in England, with the blowpipe, supplied by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases. Mr. Clarke has evidently been more extensively engaged in these researches than any other person, as our readers have perceived in the extracts which we have given from the labours of this learned chemist; but it is proper also to give publicity to the protest (réclamation) made to us in favour of Mr. Silliman.

"We have already stated that Mr. Hare, of Philadelphia, first conceived the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas; but as we have not been conversant with the memoirs of the Society of Arts and Sciences of Connecticut, we have not made mention of Mr. Silliman.

"The fact is, that this chemist, Professor at New-Haven, published, on the 7th of May,[15] 1812, a memoir containing the results of experiments made upon a very great number of bodies, until that time reputed to be infusible; and, among others, upon the alkaline earths, the decomposition of which he effected.

"The experiments of Mr. Clarke were therefore subsequent; but, having been made upon a still more extensive list of substances, they are scarcely less interesting.

"It results then, from the experiments of Messrs. Hare, Silliman, Clarke, Murray, and Ridolfi, that there is really no substance which is infusible in the degree of heat produced by this kind of blowpipe.

"In this new department of physics, it is attempted not only to apply the blowpipe to a very great number of bodies, but so to modify the instrument or apparatus as to give it the highest degree of convenience, and especially to obviate the danger of explosion."

pp. 38 & 39.

REMARKS.

As the results produced by Mr. Hare's Compound Blowpipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, continue to be mentioned in Europe, in many of the Journals, without any reference to the results long since obtained in this country, we republish the following statement of facts, which was, in substance, first published in New-York, more than a year since. It should be observed, that Mr. Tilloch has since published, in the Philosophical Magazine in London, the memoir which contained the American results, and there have been some other allusions to it in different European Journals, and to Mr. Hare's previous experiments; but still this interesting class of results continue to be attributed to others than their original discoverers.

_Yale College, April 7, 1817._

Various notices, more or less complete, chiefly copied from English newspapers, are now going the round of the public prints in this country, stating that "_a new kind of fire_" has been discovered in England, or, at least, new and heretofore unparalleled means of exciting heat, by which the gems, and all the most refractory substances in nature, are immediately melted, and even in various instances dissipated in vapour, or decomposed into their elements. The first glance at these statements, (which, as regards the effects, I have no doubt are substantially true,) was sufficient to satisfy me, that the basis of these discoveries was laid by an American discovery, made by Mr. Robert Hare of Philadelphia, in 1801. In December of that year, Mr. Hare communicated to the Chemical Society of Philadelphia his discovery of a method of burning oxygen and hydrogen gases in a united stream, so as to produce a very intense heat.

In 1802, he published a detailed memoir on the subject, with an engraving of his apparatus, and he recited the effects of his instrument; some of which, in the degree of heat produced, surpassed any thing before known.

In 1802, and 1803, I was occupied with him, in Philadelphia, in prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale; and a communication on the subject was made to the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. The memoir is printed in their transactions; and Mr. Hare's original memoir was reprinted in the Annals of Chemistry, in Paris, and in the Philosophical Magazine, in London.

Mr. Murray, in his System of Chemistry, has mentioned Mr. Hare's results in the fusion of several of the earths, &c. and has given him credit for his discovery.

In one instance, while in Europe, in 1806, at a public lecture, I saw some of them exhibited by a celebrated Professor, who mentioned Mr. Hare as the reputed author of the invention.

In December, 1811, I instituted an extended course of experiments with Mr. Hare's blowpipe, in which I melted lime and magnesia, and a long list of the most refractory minerals, gems, and others, the greater part of which had never been melted before, and I supposed that I had decomposed lime, barytes, strontites, and magnesia, evolving their metallic basis, which burnt in the air as fast as produced. I communicated a detailed account of my experiments to the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, who published it in their Transactions for 1812; with their leave it was communicated to Dr Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, and it was printed in the 4th number of that work. Hundreds of my pupils can testify that Mr. Hare's splendid experiments, and many others performed with his blowpipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, have been for years past annually exhibited, in my public courses of chemistry in Yale College, and that the fusion and volatilization of platina, and the combustion of that metal, and of gold and silver, and of many other metals; that the fusion of the earths, of rock crystal, of gun flint, of the corundum gems, and many other, very refractory substances; and the production of light beyond the brightness of the sun, have been familiar experiments in my laboratory. I have uniformly given Mr. Hare the full credit of the invention, although my researches, with his instrument, had been pushed farther than his own, and a good many new results added.

It is therefore with no small surprise that, in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, for September, 1816, I found a translation of a very elaborate memoir, from a Scientific Journal, published at the Royal Institution in London, in which a full account is given of a very interesting series of experiments performed by means of Mr. Hare's instrument; or rather one somewhat differently arranged, but depending on the same principle. Mr. Hare's invention is slightly mentioned in a note, but no mention is made of his experiments, or of mine.

On a comparison of the memoir in question with Mr. Hare's and with my own, I find that very many of the results are identical, and all the new ones are derived directly from Mr. Hare's invention, with the following differences.--In Mr. Hare's, the two gases were in distinct reservoirs, to prevent explosion; they were propelled by the pressure of a column of water, and were made to mingle, just before their exit, at a common orifice. In the English apparatus, the gases are both in one reservoir, and they are propelled by their own elasticity, after condensation, by a syringe.

Professor Clarke, of Cambridge University, the celebrated traveller, is the author of the memoir in question; and we must presume that he was ignorant of what had been done by Mr. Hare and myself, or he would candidly have adverted to the facts.

It is proper that the public should know that Mr. Hare was the author of the invention, by means of which, in Europe, they are now performing the most brilliant and beautiful experiments; and that there are very few of these results hitherto obtained there, by the use of it, (and the publication of which has there excited great interest,) which were not, several years ago, anticipated here, either by Mr. Hare or by myself.

As I have cited only printed documents, or the testimony of living witnesses, I trust the public will not consider this communication as indelicate, or arrogant, but simply a matter of justice to the interests of American science, and particularly to Mr. Hare.

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,
_Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale College._

ART. XXV. _The Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland Ice._

In looking over the foreign journals, we find no articles of intelligence so interesting as those which respect the three subjects mentioned above. Indeed, as they have found their way into most of our newspapers, it is now generally known in this country, that, in consequence of the reported breaking up of the Greenland ice, an expedition has already left England, in two divisions, the one for the purpose of exploring a northwest passage to Asia, around the North American continent, by the way of Davis's Straits; the other, for effecting the same object _by passing over the north pole_.

If Horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first adventured upon the open sea, what shall we say of the hardihood of the attempt to visit THE POLE?--the pole, which it is impossible to contemplate without awe--which, in all probability, has never been visited by any living being--where the dreary solitude has never been broken by human voice--where the sound of war has never been heard, and darkness and cold exert an almost undisputed dominion! What must be the emotions of that man who first stands upon the point of the earth's axis! Who, no longer partaking of the revolution, in circles of latitude, slowly revolves on the axis of his own body, once in twenty-four hours--to whom the sun does not rise or set, but, moving in a course very oblique to the horizon, makes scarcely a perceptible progress in twenty-four hours, and at the end of three months, when he has attained his noon, is only 23° 28′, on the arc of a vertical circle, above the horizon--to whom longitude is extinct, and who can move in no possible direction but south--to whom the stars are a blank, and to whom the polar star, could he see it, would appear in the zenith. Such are some of the most obvious results of a position on the pole. The man who first establishes himself on this sublime point, will have more reason for self-congratulation than he who led the Persian myriads into Greece, or he who pushed the Macedonians to the Indus.

On these interesting subjects, we beg leave to refer our readers to a very able treatise in the Quarterly Review for February, 1818, where all the topics at the head of this article are discussed with much learning and ability.--We extract the following passage: