Chapter XXVIII: Death, and Funeral Rites (1)

When a learned or pious Muslim feels that he is about to die, he sometimes performs the ordinary ablution, as before prayer, that he may depart from life in a state of bodily purity; and generally he repeats the profession of the faith, “There is no deity but God: Mohammad is God’s Apostle.” It is common, also, for a Muslim, on a military expedition, or during a long journey, especially in the desert, to carry his grave-linen with him. Not unfrequently does it happen that a traveller, in such circumstances, has even to make his own grave: completely overcome by fatigue or privation, or sinking under a fatal disease, in the desert, when his companions, if he have any, cannot wait for his recovery or death, he performs the ablution (with water, if possible, or, if not, with sand or dust, which is allowable in such case), and then, having made a trench in the sand, as his grave, lies down in it, wrapped in his grave-clothes, and covers himself, with the exception of his face, with the sand taken up in making the trench; thus he waits for death to relieve him, trusting to the wind to complete his burial.

When any one of the eminent ’Ulama of Cairo dies, the muëddins of the Azhar, and those of several other mosques, announce the event by chanting from the mád’nehs the cry called the “Abrár;” the words of which I have given in the account of the customs observed during Ramadán, in the second of the chapters on periodical public festivals, etc.

The ceremonies attendant upon death and burial are nearly the same in the cases of men and women. When the rattles in the throat, or other symptoms, show that a man is at the point of death, an attendant (his wife, or some other person) turns him round to place his face in the direction of Mekkeh,[610] and closes his eyes. Even before the spirit has departed, or the moment after, the male attendants generally exclaim, “Alláh! There is no strength nor power but in God! To God we belong; and to Him we must return! God have mercy on him!” while the women of the family raise the cries of lamentation called “welwel’eh” or “wilwál;” uttering the most piercing shrieks, and calling upon the name of the deceased. The most common cries that are heard on the death of the master of a family, from the lips of his wife, or wives, and children, are “O my master!” “O my camel!” (that is, “O thou who broughtest my provisions, and hast carried my burdens,”) “O my lion!” “O camel of the house!” “O my glory!” “O my resource!” “O my father!” “O my misfortune!”—The clothes of the deceased are taken off as soon as he has ceased to breathe; and he is attired in another suit, placed on his bed or mattress, and covered over with a sheet. The women continue their lamentations; and many of the females of the neighbourhood, hearing the conclamation, come to unite with them in this melancholy task. Generally, also, the family of the deceased send for two or more “neddábehs” (or public wailing women[611]); but some persons disapprove of this custom; and many, to avoid unnecessary expense, do not conform with it. Each neddábeh brings with her a “tár” (or tambourine), which is without the tinkling plates of metal which are attached to the hoop of the common tár. The neddábehs, beating their társ, exclaim, several times, “Alas for him!”—and praise his turban, his handsome person, etc.; and the female relations, domestics, and friends of the deceased (with their tresses dishevelled, and sometimes with rent clothes), beating their own faces, cry in like manner, “Alas for him!”—This wailing is generally continued at least an hour.

If the death took place in the morning, the corpse is buried the same day;[612] but if it happened in the afternoon, or at night, the deceased is not buried until the following day: in this case, the neddábehs remain all the night, and continue the lamentation with the other women; and a fikee is brought to the house to recite chapters of the Kur-án during the night; or several fikees are employed to perform a complete khatmeh.

The “mughassil” (or washer of the dead) soon comes, with a bench, upon which he places the corpse, and a bier.[613] The fikees who are to take part in the funeral procession (if the deceased were a person of respectable rank, or of the middle order) are also now brought to the house. These, during the process of washing, sit in an apartment adjoining that in which the corpse is placed, or without the door of the latter apartment; and some of them recite, or rather chant, the “Soorat el-An’ám” (or 6th chapter of the Kur-án): others of them chant part of the “Burdeh,” a celebrated poem in praise of the Prophet. The washer takes off the clothes of the deceased, which are his perquisite. The jaw is bound up; and the eyes are closed. The ordinary ablution preparatory to prayer having been performed upon the corpse, with the exception of the washing of the mouth and nose, the whole body is well washed, from head to foot, with warm water and soap, and with “leef” (or fibres of the palm-tree); or, more properly, with water in which some leaves of the lote-tree (“nabk,” or “sidr”) have been boiled.[614] The nostrils, ears, etc., are stuffed with cotton; and the corpse is sprinkled with a mixture of water, pounded camphor, and dried and pounded leaves of the nabk, and with rose-water. Sometimes, other dried and pounded leaves are added to those of the nabk. The ankles are bound together, and the hands placed upon the breast.

The “kefen,” or grave-clothing, of a poor man consists of a piece or two of cotton;[615] or is merely a kind of bag. The corpse of a man of wealth is generally wrapped first in muslin, then in cotton cloth of thicker texture; next, in a piece of striped stuff of silk and cotton intermixed, or in a kuftán of similar stuff, merely stitched together; and over these is wrapped a Kashmeer shawl. The corpse of a woman of middling rank is usually clothed with a yelek. The colours most approved for the grave-clothes are white and green; but any colour is used, excepting blue, or what approaches to blue.—The body, prepared for interment, as above described, is placed in the bier, which is usually covered over with a red or other Kashmeer shawl. The persons who are to compose the funeral-procession then arrange themselves in order.—The more common funeral-processions may be thus described.

The first persons are about six or more poor men, called “Yemeneeyeh;” mostly blind, who proceed two and two, or three and three, together. Walking at a moderate pace, or rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a melancholy tone, the profession of faith (“There is no deity but God: Mohammad is God’s Apostle: God favour and preserve him!”); as follows:—

[Stanza]

[Stanza]

[Stanza]

Lá i - lá - ha il - la-l láh: Mo - ham - ma-
dur ra - - soo - lu-l - láh: Sal - la-l-
lá - hu ’a - ley - hi wa - sel -lem!

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or sometimes other words. They are followed by some male relations and friends of the deceased, and, in many cases, by two or more persons of some sect of darweeshes, bearing the flags of their order. This is a general custom at the funeral of a darweesh. Next follow three or four or more schoolboys; one of whom carries a “mus-haf” (or copy of the Kur-án), or a volume consisting of one of the thirty sections of the Kur-án, placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-sticks, and covered over, generally with an embroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a higher and livelier voice than the Yemeneeyeh, usually some words of a poem called the “Hashreeyeh,” descriptive of the events of the last day, the judgment, etc.; to the air here noted.

[Stanza]

Sub - há - na men an - sha-s - su - war Wa-
’a-l - ’e - bád[616] bi-l - mót ka - har.

The following is a translation of the commencement of this poem:—

“[I extol] the perfection of Him who hath created whatever hath form; And subdued His servants by death: Who bringeth to nought [all] His creatures, with mankind: They shall all lie in the graves: The perfection of the Lord of the east:[617] The perfection of the Lord of the west:[618] The perfection of the illuminator of the two lights; The sun, to wit, and the moon: His perfection: how bountiful is He! His perfection: how clement is He! His perfection: how great is He! When a servant rebelleth against Him, He protecteth.”

The school-boys immediately precede the bier, which is borne head-foremost. Three or four friends of the deceased usually carry it for a short distance: then three or four other friends bear it a little farther; and then these are in like manner relieved. Casual passengers also often take part in this service, which is esteemed highly meritorious. Behind the bier walk the female mourners; sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or twenty; with their hair dishevelled, though generally concealed by the head-veil; crying and shrieking, as before described; and often the hired mourners accompany them, celebrating the praises of the deceased. Among the women, the relations and domestics of the deceased are each distinguished by a strip of linen or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blue, bound round the head, and tied in a single knot behind, the ends hanging down a few inches.[619] Each of these also carries a handkerchief, usually dyed blue; which she sometimes holds over her shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head, or before her face. The cries of the women, the lively chanting of the youths, and the deep tones uttered by the Yemeneeyeh, compose a strange discord.

The wailing of women at funerals was forbidden by the Prophet; and so, also, was the celebration of the virtues of the deceased. Mohammad declared, that the virtues thus ascribed to a dead person would be subjects of reproach to him, if he did not possess them, in a future state. It is astonishing to see how some of the precepts of the Prophet are every day violated by all classes of the modern Muslims; the Wahhábees alone excepted.—I have sometimes seen mourning women of the lower classes, following a bier, having their faces (which were bare), and their head-coverings and bosoms, besmeared with mud.[620]

The funeral-procession of a man of wealth, or of a person of the middle classes, is sometimes preceded by three or four or more camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb; and is composed of a more numerous and varied assemblage of persons. The foremost of these are the Yemeneeyeh, who chant the profession of the faith, as described above. They are generally followed by some male friends of the deceased, and some learned and devout persons who have been invited to attend the funeral. Next follows a group of four or more fikees, chanting the “Soorat el-Anám” (the 6th chapter of the Kur-án); and sometimes, another group, chanting the “Soorat Yá-Seen” (the 36th chapter); another, chanting the “Soorat el-Kahf” (the 18th chapter); and another, chanting the “Soorat ed-Dukhán” (the 44th chapter). These are followed by some munshids, singing the “Burdeh;” and these by certain persons called “As-háb el-Ahzáb,” who are members of religious orders founded by celebrated sheykhs. There are generally four or more of the order of the Hezb es-Sádát; a similar group of the Hezb Esh-Sházilee; and another of the Hezb Esh-Shaaráwee: each group chants a particular form of prayer. After them are generally borne two or more half-furled flags, the banners of one or other of the principal orders of darweeshes. Then follow the schoolboys, the bier, and the female mourners, as in the procession before described; and, perhaps, the led horses of the bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo, to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes closes the procession.

The funeral of a devout sheykh, or of one of the great Ulama, is still more numerously attended; and the bier of such a person is not covered with a shawl. A “welee” is further honoured in his funeral by a remarkable custom. Women follow his bier; but, instead of wailing, as they would after the corpse of an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the shrill and quavering cries of joy called “zagháreet;” and if these cries are discontinued but for a minute, the bearers of the bier protest that they cannot proceed; that a supernatural power rivets them to the spot on which they stand. Very often, it is said, a welee impels the bearers of his corpse to a particular spot.—The following anecdote, describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a dead saint in a case of this kind, was related to me by one of my friends.—Some men were lately bearing the corpse of a welee to a tomb prepared for it in the great cemetery on the north of the metropolis; but, on arriving at the gate called Báb en-Nasr, which leads to this cemetery, they found themselves unable to proceed farther from the cause above mentioned. “It seems,” said one of the bearers, “that the sheykh is determined not to be buried in the cemetery of Báb en-Nasr: and what shall we do?” They were all much perplexed: but being as obstinate as the saint himself, they did not immediately yield to his caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then advancing with a quick step, they thought, by such an impetus, to force the corpse through the gateway; but their efforts were unsuccessful; and the same experiment they repeated in vain several times. They then placed the bier on the ground to rest and consult; and one of them, beckoning away his comrades to a distance beyond the hearing of the dead saint, said to them, “Let us take up the bier again, and turn it round quickly several times till the sheykh becomes giddy; he then will not know in what direction we are going, and we may take him easily through the gate.” This they did; the saint was puzzled as they expected; and quietly buried in the place which he had so striven to avoid.

The biers used for the conveyance of the corpses of females and boys are different from those of men. They are furnished with a cover of wood, over which a shawl is spread, as over the bier of a man; and at the head is an upright piece of wood, called a “sháhid.” The sháhid is covered with a shawl; and to the upper part of it, when the bier is used to convey the body of a female of the middle or higher class, several ornaments of female head-dress are attached: on the top, which is flat and circular, is often placed a “kurs” (the round ornament of gold or silver set with diamonds, or of embossed gold, which is worn on the crown of the head-dress): to the back is suspended the “safa” (or a number of braids of black silk with gold ornaments along each, which are worn by the ladies, in addition to their plaits of hair, hanging down the back). The bier of a boy is distinguished by a turban, generally formed of a red Kashmeer shawl, wound round the top of the sháhid; which, in the case of a young boy, is also often decorated with the kurs and safa. The corpse of a very young child is carried to the tomb in the arms of a man, and merely covered with a shawl; or, in a very small bier borne on a mans head.

In the funerals of females and boys, the bier is usually only preceded by the Yemeneeyeh, chanting the profession of faith, and by some male relations of the deceased; and followed by the female mourners; unless the deceased were of a family of wealth, or of considerable station in the world; in which case, the funeral-procession is distinguished by some additional display. I shall give a short description of one of the most genteel and decorous funerals of this kind that I have witnessed: it was that of a young, unmarried lady.—Two men, each bearing a large, furled, green flag, headed the procession, preceding the Yemeneeyeh, who chanted in an unusually low and solemn manner. These fakeers, who were in number about eight, were followed by a group of fikees, chanting a chapter of the Kur-án. Next after the latter was a man bearing a large branch of “nabk” (or lote-tree), an emblem of the deceased.[621] On each side of him walked a person bearing a tall staff or cane, to the top of which were attached several hoops ornamented with strips of various-coloured paper. These were followed by two Turkish soldiers, side by side; one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt silver “kumkum” of rose-water; and the other bearing, on a similar tray, a “mibkhar′ah” of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous substance (as benzoin, or frankincense) was burning. These vessels diffused the odour of their contents on the way; and were afterwards used to perfume the sepulchral vault. Passengers were occasionally sprinkled with the rose-water. Next followed four men, each of whom bore, upon a small tray, several small lighted tapers of wax, stuck in lumps of paste of “henna.” The bier was covered with rich shawls; and its sháhid was decorated with handsome ornaments of the head; having, besides the safa, a “kussah almás” (a long ornament of gold and diamonds, worn over the forehead), and, upon its flat top, a rich diamond kurs. These were the jewels of the deceased; or were perhaps, as is often the case, borrowed for the occasion. The female mourners, in number about seven or eight, clad in the usual manner of the ladies of Egypt (with the black silk covering, etc.), followed the bier, not on foot, as is the common custom in funerals in this country, but mounted on high-saddled asses; and only the last two or three of them were wailing; these being, probably, hired mourners.—In another funeral-procession of a female, the daughter of a Turk of high rank, the Yemeneeyeh were followed by six black slaves, walking two by two. The first two slaves bore each a silver kumkum of rose-water, which they sprinkled on the passengers; and one of them honoured me so profusely as to wet my dress very uncomfortably; after which, he poured a small quantity into my hands; and I wetted my face with it, according to custom. Each of the next two bore a silver mibkhar′ah, with perfume; and the other two carried each a silver ázkee (or hanging censer), with burning charcoal and frankincense. The jewels on the sháhid of the bier were of a costly description. Eleven ladies, mounted on high-saddled asses, together with several neddábehs, followed.

The rites and ceremonies performed in the mosque, and at the tomb, and after the funeral, remain to be described.—If the deceased died in any of the northern quarters of the metropolis, the body is usually carried, in preference, to the mosque of the Hasaneyn; unless he were a poor man, not residing near to that venerated sanctuary; in which case, his friends generally carry his corpse to any neighbouring mosque, to save time, and avoid unnecessary expense. If he were one of the ulama (that is, of a learned profession, however humble), his corpse is usually taken to the great mosque El-Azhar. The people of the southern parts of the metropolis generally carry their dead to the mosque of the seyyideh Zeyneb, or to that of any other celebrated saint. The reason of choosing such mosques in preference to others, is the belief that the prayers offered up at the tombs of very holy persons are especially successful.

The bier, being brought into the mosque, is laid upon the floor, in the usual place of prayer, with the right side towards the kibleh, or the direction of Mekkeh. The “Imám” of the mosque stands before the left side of the bier, facing it and the kibleh; and a servant of the mosque, as a “muballigh” (to repeat the words of the Imám), at the feet. The attendants of the funeral range themselves behind the Imám; the women standing apart, behind the men; for on this occasion they are seldom excluded from the mosque. The congregation being thus disposed, the Imám commences the prayer over the dead; prefacing it with these words:[622]—“I purpose reciting the prayer of four ‘tekbeers,’[623] the funeral-prayer, over the deceased Muslim here present:”—or—“the deceased Muslims here present:” for two or more corpses are often prayed over at the same time. Having said this, he exclaims (raising his open hands on each side of his head, and touching the lobes of his ears with the extremities of his thumbs), “God is most great!” The muballigh repeats this exclamation; and each individual of the congregation behind the Imám does the same; as they also do after the subsequent tekbeers. The Imám then recites the Fát’hah; and a second time exclaims, “God is most great!” after which he adds, “O God, favour our lord Mohammad, the Illiterate Prophet, and his Family and Companions, and preserve them”—and the third time exclaims, “God is most great!” He then says, “O God, verily this is thy servant and son of Thy servant: he hath departed from the repose of the world, and from its amplitude,[624] and from whatever he loved, and from those by whom he was loved in it, to the darkness of the grave, and to what he experienceth. He did testify that there is no deity but Thou alone: that Thou hast no companion: and that Mohammad is thy servant and thine apostle; and Thou art all-knowing respecting him. O God, he hath gone to abide with Thee; and Thou art the best with whom to abide. He hath become in need of Thy mercy; and Thou hast no need of his punishment. We have come to Thee, supplicating that we may intercede for him. O God, if he were a doer of good, over-reckon his good deeds; and if he were an evil-doer, pass over his evil doings; and of Thy mercy grant that he may experience Thine acceptance; and spare him the trial of the grave, and its torment; and make his grave wide to him; and keep back the earth from his sides;[625] and of Thy mercy grant that he may experience security from Thy torment, until Thou send him safely to Thy Paradise, O Thou most merciful of those who show mercy!” Then, for the fourth and last time, the Imám exclaims, “God is most great!”—adding,—“O God, deny us not our reward for him [for the service we have done him]; and lead us not into trial after him: pardon us and him and all the Muslims, O Lord of all creatures!”—Thus he finishes his prayer; greeting the angels on his right and left with the salutation of “Peace be on you, and the mercy of God;” as is done at the close of the ordinary prayers. Then, addressing the persons present, he says, “Give your testimony respecting him.” They reply, “He was of the virtuous.”—The bier is now taken up; and if it be in the mosque of the Hasaneyn, or in that of any other celebrated saint, that the prayer has been performed, it is placed before the “maksoorah” (the screen or railing that surrounds the sepulchral monument or cenotaph). Here, some of the fikees and others who have attended the funeral recite the Fát’hah, and the last three verses of the “Soorat el-Bakarah” (or 2nd chapter of the Kur-án); beginning, “Whatever is in heaven and on earth is God’s.”—These rites performed, the funeral-train proceeds with the corpse, in the same order as before, to the burial-ground.[626]

Here I must give a short description of a tomb.—It is an oblong vault, having an arched roof; and is generally constructed of brick, and plastered. It is made hollow, in order that the person or persons buried in it may be able with ease to sit up when visited and examined by the two angels, “Munkar” (vulgarly “Nákir”) and “Nekeer.” One side faces the direction of Mekkeh; that is, the south-east. At the foot, which is to the north-east, is the entrance; before which is constructed a small square cell, roofed with stones extending from side to side, to prevent the earth from entering the vault. This is covered over with earth. The vault is generally made large enough to contain four or more bodies. If males and females be buried in the same vault, which is not commonly the case, a partition is built to separate the corpses of one sex from those of the other. Over the vault is constructed an oblong monument (called “tarkeebeh”), of stone or brick, with a stela, or upright stone (called a “sháhid”), at the head and foot. The stelæ are mostly plain; but some of them are ornamented; and that at the head is often inscribed with a text from the Kur-án,[627] and the name of the deceased, with the date of his death. A turban, cap, or other head-dress, is also sometimes carved on the top of the head-stone; showing the rank or class of the person or persons buried in the tomb.—Over the grave of an eminent sheykh, or other person of note, a small square building, crowned with a cupola, is generally erected.[628] Many of the tombs of Turkish and Memlook grandees have marble tarkeebehs, which are canopied by cupolas supported by four columns of marble; and have inscriptions in gilt letters upon a ground of azure on the head-stone. There are numerous tombs of this description in the great southern cemetery of Cairo. The tombs of the Sultáns are mostly handsome mosques: some of these are within the metropolis; and some, in the cemeteries in its environs.—I now resume the description of the funeral.

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The tomb having been opened before the arrival of the corpse, no delay takes place in the burial. The sexton and two assistants take the corpse out of the bier, and deposit it in the vault. Its bandages are untied; and it is laid upon its right side, or so inclined that the face is towards Mekkeh. It is supported in this position by a few crude bricks. If the outer wrapper be a Kashmeer shawl, this is rent; lest its value should tempt any profane person to violate the tomb. A little earth is gently placed by and upon the corpse, by one or more persons: and the entrance is closed by replacing the roofing-stones and earth over the small cell before it. But one singular ceremony remains to be performed, excepting in the case of a young child, who is not held responsible for his actions: a fikee is employed to perform the office of a “mulakkin” (or instructor of the dead):[629] sitting before the tomb, he says generally as follows:—“O servant of God! O son of a handmaid of God! know that, at this time, there will come down to thee two angels commissioned respecting thee and the like of thee: when they say to thee, ‘Who is thy Lord,’ answer them,‘God is my Lord,’ in truth; and when they ask thee concerning thy Prophet, or the man who hath been sent unto you, say to them, ‘Mohammad is the Apostle of God,’ with veracity; and when they ask thee concerning thy religion, say to them, ‘El-Islám is my religion;’ and when they ask thee concerning thy book of direction, say to them, ‘The Kurán is my book of direction, and the Muslims are my brothers;’ and when they ask thee concerning thy Kibleh, say to them, ‘The Kaabeh is my Kibleh; and I have lived and died in the assertion, that there is no deity but God, and Mohammad is God’s Apostle:’ and they will say, ‘Sleep, O servant of God, in the protection of God.’”—The soul is believed to remain with the body during the first night after the burial; and on this night to be visited and examined, and perhaps the body tortured, by the two angels above mentioned.—The Yemeneeyeh and other persons hired to attend the funeral are paid at the tomb: the former usually receive a piaster each. If the funeral be that of a person of rank or wealth, two or three skins of water, and as many camel-loads of bread, being conveyed to the burial ground, as before mentioned, are there distributed, after the burial, to the poor, who flock thither in great numbers, on such an occasion. It has also been mentioned that a buffalo is sometimes slaughtered, and its flesh in like manner distributed. This custom is called “el-kaffárah” (or the expiation): being supposed to expiate some of the minor sins of the deceased; but not great sins. The funeral ended, each of the near relations of the deceased is greeted with a prayer that he may be happily compensated for his loss; or is congratulated that his life is prolonged.

The first night after the burial is called “Leylet el-Wahsheh” (or the Night of Desolation); the place of the deceased being then left desolate. On this night the following custom is observed:—At sunset, two or three fikees are brought to the house: they take a repast of bread and milk in the place where the deceased died; and then recite the “Soorat el-Mulk” (or 67th chapter of the Kur-án). As the soul is believed to remain with the body during the first night after the burial, and then to depart to the place appointed for the residence of good souls until the last day, or to the appointed prison in which wicked souls await their final doom, this night is also called “Leylet el-Wahdeh” (or the Night of Solitude).[630]

Another ceremony, called that of the “Sebhah” (or Rosary), is performed on this occasion, to facilitate the entrance of the deceased into a state of happiness: it usually occupies three or four hours. After the “’eshë” (or nightfall), some fikees, sometimes as many as fifty, assemble in the house; or, if there be not a court, or large apartment, for their reception, some matting is spread for them to sit upon in front of the house. One of them brings a sebhah composed of a thousand beads; each about the size of a pigeon’s egg. They commence the ceremony by reciting the “Soorat el-Mulk” (mentioned above); then say three times, “God is one.” After this they recite the “Soorat el-Falak” (or last chapter but one of the Kur-án), and the opening chapter (the “Fát’hah”); and then three times say, “O God, favour, with the most excellent favour, the most happy of thy creatures, our lord Mohammad, and his Family and Companions, and preserve them:” to which they add, “All who commemorate Thee are the mindful; and those who omit commemorating Thee are the negligent.” They next repeat, thrice one thousand times, “There is no deity but God;” one of them holding the sebhah, and counting each repetition of these words by passing a bead through his fingers. After each thousand repetitions they sometimes rest and take coffee. Having completed the last thousand, and rested, and refreshed themselves, they say, a hundred times, “[I extol] the perfection of God, with his praise:” then, the same number of times, “I beg forgiveness of God, the Great:” after which they say, fifty times, “[I extol] the perfection of the Lord, the Eternal—the perfection of God, the Eternal:” they then repeat these words of the Kur-án—“[Extol] the perfection of thy Lord, the Lord of Might; exempting Him from that which they [namely, Christians and others] ascribe to Him [that is, from the having a son, or partaker of his godhead]; and peace be on the Apostles; and praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures!”[631] Two or three or more of them then recite, each, an “’ashr,” or about two or three verses of the Kur-án. This done, one of them asks his companions, “Have ye transferred [the merit of] what ye have recited to the soul of the deceased?” They reply, “We have transferred it;” and add, “And peace be on the Apostles,” etc., as above. This concludes the ceremony of the sebhah, which, in the houses of the rich, is also repeated on the second and third nights. This ceremony is likewise performed in a family on their receiving intelligence of the death of a near relation.

The men make no alteration in their dress in token of mourning; nor do the women on the death of an elderly man; but they do for others. In the latter cases, they dye their shirts, head-veils, face-veils, and handkerchiefs, of a blue, or of an almost black, colour, with indigo; and some of them, with the same dye, stain their hands and their arms as high as the elbow; and smear the walls of the chambers. When the master of the house, or the owner of the furniture, is dead, and sometimes in other cases, they also turn upside-down the carpets, mats, cushions, and covering of the deewáns. In general, the women, while in mourning, leave their hair unbraided, cease to wear some of their ornaments, and, if they smoke, use common reed pipes.

Towards the close of the first Thursday after the funeral, and often, early in the morning of this day, the women of the family of the deceased again commence a wailing, in their house, accompanied by some of their female friends; and in the afternoon or evening of this day, male friends of the deceased also visit the house; and three or four fikees are employed to perform a khatmeh.—On the Friday morning the women repair to the tomb; where they observe the same customs which I have described in speaking of the ceremonies performed on the two grand “’eeds,” in the second of the chapters on periodical public festivals, etc.; generally taking a palm-branch, to break up, and place on the tomb; and some cakes or bread, to distribute to the poor. These ceremonies are repeated on the same days of the next two weeks; and again, on the Thursday and Friday which complete, or next follow, the first period of forty days[632] after the funeral: whence this Friday is called “el-Arba’-een,” or “Gum’at el-Arba’-een.”

It is customary among the peasants of Upper Egypt for the female relations and friends of a person deceased to meet together by his house on each of the first three days after the funeral, and there to perform a lamentation and a strange kind of dance. They daub their faces and bosoms, and part of their dress, with mud; and tie a rope girdle, generally made of the coarse grass called “halfa,” round the waist.[633] Each flourishes in her hand a palm-stick, or a nebboot (a long staff), or a spear, or a drawn sword; and dances with a slow movement, and in an irregular manner; generally pacing about, and raising and depressing the body. This dance is continued for an hour or more; and is performed twice or three times in the course of the day. After the third day, the women visit the tomb, and place upon it their rope-girdles; and usually a lamb, or a goat, is slain there, as an expiatory sacrifice, and a feast made, on this occasion.

Having now described the manners and customs of the Muslims of Egypt in the various stages and circumstances of life, from the period of infancy to the tomb, I close my account of them, as a writer of their own nation would in a similar case, with “thanks and praise to Him who dieth not.”

-----

Footnote 610:

Some Muslims turn the _head_ of the corpse in the direction of Mekkeh;
others, the _right side_, inclining the _face_ in that direction: the
latter, I believe, is the general custom.

Footnote 611:

See 2 Chron. xxxv. 25; Jer. ix. 17; and Matt. ix. 23.

Footnote 612:

The Egyptians have a superstitious objection to keep a corpse in the
house during the night after the death, and to burying the dead after
sunset; but the latter is sometimes done: I have witnessed one
instance of it.

Footnote 613:

It is hardly necessary to state that the corpse of a female is always
washed by a woman.

Footnote 614:

The leaves of the lote-tree, dried and pulverized, are often used by
the poor instead of soap.

Footnote 615:

The kefen is often sprinkled with water from the well of Zemzem, in
the Temple of Mekkeh.

Footnote 616:

“’A-l-’ebád” is a vulgar contraction, for “’ala-l-’ebád.”—It will be
observed (from the specimen here given, in the first two lines) that
this poem is not in the _literary_ dialect of Arabic.

Footnote 617:

Literally, “the two easts,” or “the two places of sunrise:” the point
where the sun rises in summer, and that where it rises in winter.

Footnote 618:

Or, “the two places of sunset.”

Footnote 619:

In the funeral scenes represented on the walls of ancient Egyptian
tombs, we often see females with a similar bandage round the head.

Footnote 620:

This was a custom of the ancient Egyptians: it is described by
Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 85.—Passengers in the streets and roads,
when a corpse is borne by to the tomb, often say,—“God is most great!
God is most great! That is what God and his Apostle have promised: and
God and his Apostle have spoken truth. O God, increase our faith and
submission!”—The women, pointing with the finger at the bier, say,—“I
testify that there is no deity but God.”

Footnote 621:

This is only borne in funerals of young persons.

Footnote 622:

I give the form of prayer used by the Sháfe’ees, as being the most
common in Cairo. Those of the other sects are nearly similar to this.

Footnote 623:

A “tekbeer” has been explained in a former chapter, as being the
exclamation of “Alláhu Akbar” or “God is most great!”

Footnote 624:

Or, according to one of my sheykhs, “its business.”

Footnote 625:

It is believed that the body of the wicked is painfully oppressed by
the earth against its sides in the grave; though this is always made
hollow.

Footnote 626:

The burial-grounds of Cairo are mostly outside the town, in the desert
tracts on the north, east, and south. Those within the town are few,
and not extensive.

Footnote 627:

The Prophet forbade engraving the name of God, or any words of the
Kur-án, upon a tomb. He also directed that tombs should be low, and
built only of crude bricks.

Footnote 628:

Like that seen in the distance in the engraving here inserted.

Footnote 629:

The Málikees disapprove of this custom, the “talkeen” of the dead.

Footnote 630:

The opinions of the Muslims respecting the state of souls in the
interval between death and the judgment are thus given by Sale
(“Preliminary Discourse,” sect. iv.):—“They distinguish the souls of
the faithful into three classes: the first, of prophets, whose souls
are admitted into paradise immediately; the second, of martyrs, whose
spirits, according to a tradition of Mohammad, rest in the crops of
green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the rivers of
paradise; and the third, of other believers, concerning the state of
whose souls before the resurrection there are various opinions. For,
1. Some say that they stay near the sepulchres, with liberty, however,
of going where-ever they please; which they confirm from Mohammad’s
manner of saluting them at their graves, and his affirming that the
dead heard those salutations as well as the living. Whence perhaps
proceeded the custom of visiting the tombs of relations, so common
among the Mohammadans. 2. Others imagine they are with Adam in the
lowest heaven, and also support their opinion by the authority of
their prophet, who gave out that in his return from the upper heavens
in his pretended night-journey, he saw there the souls of those who
were destined to paradise on the right hand of Adam, and those who
were condemned to hell on his left. 3. Others fancy the souls of
believers remain in the well Zemzem, and those of infidels in a
certain well in the province of Hadramót, called Barahoot [so in the
Kámoos, but by Sale written Borhût]; but this opinion is branded as
heretical. 4. Others say they stay near the graves for seven days; but
that whither they go afterwards is uncertain. 5. Others, that they are
all in the trumpet, whose sound is to raise the dead. And, 6. Others,
that the souls of the good dwell in the forms of white birds, under
the throne of God. As to the condition of the souls of the wicked,
besides the opinions that have been already mentioned, the more
orthodox hold that they are offered by the angels to heaven, from
whence being repulsed as stinking and filthy, they are offered to the
earth; and being also refused a place there, are carried down to the
seventh earth, and thrown into a dungeon, which they call Sijjeen,
under a green rock, or, according to a tradition of Mohammad, under
the devil’s jaw, to be there tormented till they are called up to be
joined again to their bodies.” I believe that the opinion respecting
the Well of Barahoot commonly prevails in the present day.

Footnote 631:

Chapter xxxvii., last three verses.

Footnote 632:

See Genesis 1. 3.

Footnote 633:

As the ancient Egyptian women did in the same case.—See a passage in
Herodotus, before referred to, lib. ii., cap. 85.

----------------------------

SUPPLEMENT.

I.—THE COPTS.

The fame of that great nation from which the Copts mainly derive their origin renders this people objects of much interest, especially to one who has examined the wonderful monuments of Ancient Egypt: but so great is the aversion with which, like their illustrious ancestors, they regard all persons who are not of their own race, and so reluctant are they to admit such persons to any familiar intercourse with them, that I had almost despaired of gaining an insight into their religious, moral, and social state. At length, however, I had the good fortune to become acquainted with a character of which I had doubted the existence—a Copt of a liberal as well as an intelligent mind; and to his kindness I am indebted for the knowledge of most of the facts related in the following brief memoir.

The Copts, at present, compose less than one fourteenth part of the population of Egypt; their number being not more than about one hundred and fifty thousand. About ten thousand of them reside in the metropolis. In some parts of Upper Egypt are villages exclusively inhabited by persons of this race; and the district called the Feiyoom particularly abounds with them. The vast number of ruined convents and churches existing in various parts of Egypt shows that the Copts were very numerous a few centuries ago; but every year many of them have embraced the faith of El-Islám, and become intermixed by marriage with Muslims; and thus the number of genuine and Christian Copts has been reduced to its present small amount.

The Copts are undoubtedly descendants of the ancient Egyptians; but not an unmixed race; their ancestors in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with Greeks, Nubians, Abyssinians, and other foreigners. Their name is correctly pronounced either “Kubt” or “Kibt;” but more commonly, “Gubt” or “Gibt,” and (in Cairo and its neighbourhood, and in some other parts of Egypt), “’Ubt” or “’Ibt:” in the singular it is pronounced “Kubtee, Kibtee, Gubtee, Gibtee, ’Ubtee,” or “’Ibtee.” All of these sounds bear a great resemblance to the ancient Greek name of Egypt (Αίγυπτος): but it is generally believed that the name of “Kubt” is derived from “Coptos” (once a great city in Upper Egypt), now called “Kuft,” or, more commonly, “Guft;” to which vast numbers of the Christian Egyptians retired during the persecution with which their sect was visited under several of the Roman Emperors. The Copts have not altogether lost their ancient language; their liturgy and several of their religious books being written in it: but the Coptic has become a dead language, understood by very few persons; and the Arabic has been adopted in its stead.

With respect to their personal characteristics, we observe some striking points of resemblance, and yet, upon the whole, a considerable difference, between the Copts and the ancient Egyptians, judging of the latter from the paintings and sculptures in their tombs and temples. The difference is, however, easily accounted for by the fact of the intermarriages of the ancestors of the modern Copts with foreigners, above mentioned. The people who bear the greatest resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, at present, are the Noobeh (or more genuine Nubians); and next to these, the Abyssinians and the Copts; who are, notwithstanding, much unlike each other. The Copts differ but little from the generality of their Muslim countrymen: the latter being chiefly descended from Arabs and from Copts who have embraced the faith of the Arabs, and having thus become assimilated to the Copts in features. I find it difficult, sometimes, to perceive any difference between a Copt and a Muslim Egyptian, beyond a certain downcast and sullen expression of countenance which generally marks the former; and the Muslims themselves are often deceived when they see a Copt in a white turban. We observe, in the latter, the same shades of complexion, in different latitudes of the country, as in the former; varying from a pale yellowish colour to a deep bronze or brown. The eyes of the Copt are generally large and elongated, slightly inclined from the nose upwards, and always black: the nose is straight, excepting at the end, where it is rounded, and wide: the lips are rather thick; and the hair is black and curly. The Copts are, generally speaking, somewhat under the middle size; and so, as it appears from the mummies, were the ancient Egyptians. Their women, of the higher and middle classes in particular, blacken the edges of their eyelids with kohl; and those of the lower orders tattoo blue marks upon their faces, hands, etc., in the same manner as other Egyptian females, but usually introduce the cross among these ornaments. Most of the Copts circumcise their sons; and another practice which prevailed among their pagan ancestors, mentioned by Strabo, and alluded to in a note subjoined to page 48 of this work, is observed among the Copts without exception.

The dress of the Copts is similar to that of the Muslim Egyptians; excepting that the proper turban of the former is black or blue, or of a greyish or light-brown colour; and such Copts as wear cloth generally choose dull colours, and often wear a black cotton gown, or loose shirt, over their cloth and silk dress. In the towns, they are usually careful thus to distinguish themselves from the Muslims; but in the villages, many of them wear the white or red turban. Other Christians, and Jews who are subjects of the Turkish Sultán, are distinguished from the Muslims in the same manner; but not all: many Armenians, Greeks, and Syrian Christians wear the white turban. Subjects of European Christian powers are allowed to do the same, and to adopt altogether the Turkish dress. The occasions which originally caused the Copts to be distinguished by the black and blue turbans will be mentioned in some historical notes respecting this people hereafter.—The Copt women veil their faces, not only in public, but also in the house, when any men, excepting their near relations, are present. The unmarried ladies, and females of the lower orders, in public, generally wear the white veil: the black veil is worn by the more respectable of the married ladies; but the white is adopted by many, from a desire to imitate the Muslim′ehs.

The Copts, with the exception of a small proportion who profess the Romish or the Greek faith, are Christians of the sect called Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites; whose creed was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon, in the reign of the Emperor Marcion. They received the appellation of “Jacobites” (“Ya’ákibeh,” or “Yaakoobees”), by which they are generally known, from Jacobus Baradæus, a Syrian, who was a chief propagator of the Eutychian doctrines. Those who adhered to the Greek faith were distinguished from the former by the name of “Melekites” (“Melekeeyeh,” or “Melekees”), that is to say, “Royalists,” because they agreed in faith with the Emperor of Constantinople. The secession of the great majority of the Copts from what was generally considered the orthodox Church gave rise to an implacable enmity between them and the Greeks, under whom they suffered much persecution, and with whom they would no longer even contract marriages. This enmity was, of course, more bitter on the part of the Copts: they gladly received the Arab invaders of their country, and united with them to expel the Greeks. Their revenge was gratified; but they were made to bow their necks to a heavier yoke: yet the hatred with which even the modern Copts regard the Greeks and all other Christians who are not of their own sect is much greater than that which they bear towards the Muslims.—Saint Mark, they assert, was the first who preached the Gospel in Egypt; and they regard him as the first Patriarch of Alexandria. The Nubians and Abyssinians embraced Christianity soon after the Egyptians; and, following the same example, they adopted the Jacobite doctrines. The Nubians, however, have become Muslims; and boast that there is not a single Christian among their race, and that they will never allow one to live among them; for, as they are more ignorant, so are they also more bigoted, than the generality of Muslims. In Abyssinia, Jacobite Christianity is still the prevailing religion.

The religious orders of the Coptic Church consist of a Patriarch, a Metropolitan of the Abyssinians, Bishops, Archpriests, Priests, Deacons, and Monks.

The Patriarch (“el-Batrak”) is the supreme head of the church; and occupies the chair of Saint Mark. He generally resides in Cairo; but is styled “Patriarch of Alexandria.” He is chosen from among the order of monks; with whose regulations he continues to comply; and it is a point of these regulations that he remains unmarried. He is obliged to wear woollen garments next his body; but these are of the finest and softest quality, like the shawls of Kashmeer; and are concealed by habits of rich silks and cloth. So rigid are the rules with which he is obliged to conform, that, whenever he sleeps, he is waked after every quarter of an hour.[634] A patriarch may be appointed by his predecessor; but, generally, he is chosen by lot; and always from among the monks of the Convent of Saint Anthony (“Deyr Antooniyoos”), in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, near the western Gulf of the Red Sea. The bishops and principal priests, when a patriarch is to be elected, apply to the superior of the convent above mentioned, who names about eight or nine monks whom he considers qualified for the high office of head of the Church: the names of these persons are written, each upon a separate slip of paper, which pieces of paper are then rolled into the form of little balls, and put into a drawer: a priest draws one, without looking; and the person whose name is thus drawn is invested as patriarch. Formerly, a young child was employed to draw the lot; being supposed to be more under the direction of heaven.

The property at the disposal of the patriarch is very considerable: it chiefly consists in houses; and can only be employed for pious uses. Modern patriarchs have done little more than augment their property: generally, when a Copt sells a house in Cairo, the patriarch bids for it; and no one ventures to bid against him; so that the owner of the house is obliged to part with it for considerably less than its just value.

The patriarch and bishops wear a turban of a wider and rounder form than those of other persons; much resembling the mukleh of the Muslim ’Ulama; but of the same dark colour as those of the other Copts.

The Metropolitan of the Abyssinians (“el-Matrán”) is appointed by the Patriarch. He retains his office for life; and resides in Abyssinia.

A bishop (“Uskuf”) is generally (or, I am told, always) chosen from among the monks; and continues, like the patriarch, to conform with their regulations. The canons of the Church do not require that bishops should be monks; but unmarried men, or widowers, were formerly always chosen for the episcopal office. The number of bishops is twelve.

An Archpriest (“Kummus”) is elevated from the order of common priests. The archpriests are numerous.