Chapter XXVIII: Death, and Funeral Rites (3)

A Jew has often been sacrificed to save a Muslim, as happened in the following case.—A Turkish soldier, having occasion to change some money, received from the seyrefee (or money-changer), who was a Muslim, some Turkish coins called ’adleeyehs, reckoned at sixteen piasters each. These he offered to a shopkeeper, in payment for some goods; but the latter refused to allow him more than fifteen piasters to the ’adleeyeh; telling him that the Básha had given orders, many days before, that this coin should no longer pass for sixteen. The soldier took back the ’adleeyehs to the seyrefee, and demanded an additional piaster to each; which was refused: he therefore complained to the Básha himself, who, enraged that his orders had been disregarded, sent for the seyrefee. This man confessed that he had been guilty of an offence; but endeavoured to palliate it by asserting that almost every money-changer in the city had done the same, and that he received ’adleeyehs at the same rate. The Básha, however, disbelieving him, or thinking it necessary to make a public example, gave a signal with his hand, intimating that the delinquent should be beheaded. The interpreter of the court, moved with compassion for the unfortunate man, begged the Básha to spare his life. “This man,” said he, “has done no more than all the money changers of the city: I, myself, no longer ago than yesterday, received ’adleeyehs at the same rate.” “From whom?” exclaimed the Básha, “From a Jew,” answered the interpreter, “with whom I have transacted business for many years.” The Jew was brought, and sentenced to be hanged; while the Muslim was pardoned. The interpreter, in the greatest distress of mind, pleaded earnestly for the life of the poor Jew: but the Básha was inexorable: it was necessary that an example should be made; and it was deemed better to take the life of a Jew than that of a more guilty Muslim. I saw the wretched man hanging at a window of a public fountain which forms part of a mosque in the main street of the city.[647] One end of the rope being passed over one of the upper bars of the grated window, he was hauled up; and as he hung close against the window, he was enabled, in some slight degree, to support himself by his feet against the lower bars; by which his suffering was dreadfully protracted. His relations offered large sums of money for his pardon; but the only favour they could purchase was that of having his face turned towards the window, so as not to be seen by the passengers. He was a man much respected by all who knew him (Muslims, of course, excepted); and he left a family in a very destitute state; but the interpreter who was the unintending cause of his death contributed to their support.

The Jews in Egypt generally lead a very quiet life: indeed, they find few but persons of their own sect who will associate with them. Their diet is extremely gross; but they are commonly regarded as a sober people. The more wealthy among them dress handsomely at home; but put on a plain or even shabby dress before they go out: and though their houses have a mean and dirty appearance from without, many of them contain fine and well-furnished rooms. In the house they are not so strict as most other Orientals in concealing their women from strange men, or, at least, from persons of their own nation, and from Franks: it often happens that a European visitor is introduced into an apartment where the women of the Jew’s family are sitting unveiled, and is waited upon by these women. The same custom also prevails among many of the Syrian Christians residing in Cairo. Intrigues are said to be common with the Jewesses; but there are no avowed courtesans among them. The condition of the lower orders is very wretched; many of them having no other means of subsistence than alms bestowed upon them by their superiors of the same sect.

Avarice is more particularly a characteristic of the Jews in Egypt than of those in other countries where they are less oppressed. They are careful, by every means in their power, to avoid the suspicion of being possessed of much wealth. It is for this reason that they make so shabby a figure in public, and neglect the exterior appearance of their houses. They are generally strict in the performance of their religious ordinances; and, though over-reaching in commercial transactions, are honest in the fulfilment of their contracts.

Many of the Egyptian Jews are “sarráfs” (or bankers and money-lenders): others are seyrefees, and are esteemed men of strict probity. Some are goldsmiths or silversmiths; and others pursue the trades of retail grocers or fruiterers, etc. A few of the more wealthy are general merchants.

III.—OF LATE INNOVATIONS IN EGYPT.

THE exaggerated reports which have been spread in Europe respecting late innovations, and the general advance of civilization, in Egypt, induce me to add a few lines on these subjects. European customs have not yet begun to spread among the Egyptians themselves; but they probably will ere long; and in the expectation that this will soon be the case, I have been most anxious to become well acquainted (before it be too late to make the attempt) with a state of society which has existed, and excited a high degree of interest, for many centuries, and which many persons have deemed almost immutable.

The account which I have given of the present state of the government of this country shows how absurd is the assertion, that Egypt possesses a legislative assembly that can, with any degree of propriety, be called representative of the people. The will of the Básha is almost absolute; but he has certainly effected a great reform, by the introduction of European military and naval tactics, the results of which have already been considerable, and will be yet more extensive, and, in most respects, desirable. Already it has removed a great portion of that weight of prejudice which has so long prevented the Turks from maintaining their relative rank among the nations of the civilized world: by convincing them that one of our branches of science and practice is so far superior to that to which they were accustomed, it has made them in general willing, if not desirous, to learn what more we are able to teach them. One of its effects already manifest might be regarded by an unreflecting mind as of no importance; but is considered by the philosophical Muslim as awfully portentous, and hailed by the Christian as an omen of the brightest promise. The Turks have been led to imitate us in our luxuries: several of the more wealthy began by adopting the use of the knife and fork: the habit of openly drinking wine immediately followed; and has become common among a great number of the higher officers of the government. That a remarkable indifference to religion is indicated by this innovation is evident; and the principles of the dominant class will doubtless spread (though they have not yet done so) among the inferior members of the community. The former have begun to undermine the foundations of El-Islám: the latter as yet seem to look on with apathy, or at least with resignation to the decrees of Providence; but they will probably soon assist in the work; and the overthrow of the whole fabric may reasonably be expected to ensue at a period not very remote.

The acquisition of a powerful empire, independent of the Porte, appears to have been the grand, and almost the sole, object of the present Básha of Egypt. He has introduced many European sciences, arts, and manufactures; but all in furtherance of this project; for his new manufactures have impoverished his people. He has established a printing office; but the works which have issued from it are almost solely intended for the instruction of his military, naval, and civil servants.[648] A newspaper is printed at another press, in the Citadel: its paragraphs, however, are seldom on any other subject than the affairs of the government. It is in Turkish and Arabic. Sometimes, three numbers of it appear in a week: at other times, only one is published in a month.[649]

I have candidly stated my opinion, that the policy of Mohammad ’Alee is in several respects erroneous; and that his people are severely oppressed: but the circumstances in which he has been placed offer large excuses for his severity. To judge of his character fairly, we should compare him with another Turkish reformer, his [late] nominal sovereign, the Sultán Mahmood. In every point of view, he has shown his superiority to the latter; and especially in the discipline of his forces. While the Sultán was more closely imitating us in trivial matters (as, for instance, in the new military dress which he introduced), Mohammad ’Alee aimed at, and attained, more important objects.[650] When we would estimate his character by the massacre of the Memlooks, a fact most painful to reflect upon, we should admit that he had recourse to this horrid expedient for a most desirable end; and may at the same time place in the opposite scale the asylum which he granted to the Greek refugees when the blood of their countrymen ran in the gutters of Constantinople.

Since the publication of the previous editions of this work, events have occurred which will doubtless occasion still more important changes in Egypt. Many changes in its government have, indeed, already been made; but the country is still in a state of transition; and under such circumstances, I can only express a hope, that Mohammad ’Alee, knowing his true interests, and acting upon those sentiments which he has frequently avowed, of anxiety for the welfare of his people, and for the general improvement of his territories, will fulfil those expectations which his numerous admirers have so often and so strongly expressed. It is difficult even to form a just estimate of the general conduct of Mohammad ’Alee in _past_ times, since the commencement of his career in Egypt, on account of the secrecy which is maintained in the East in the most important political affairs: this, however, may be said with certainty—the people whom he governs have been greatly impoverished under his rule; but they have exchanged anarchy for tranquillity, and undisguised fanaticism for an affected toleration; while many of them have been instructed in sciences and arts which must eventually be highly beneficial to the nation at large.

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Footnote 634:

Καθαριότητος εἵνεκεν. Compare the account given by Herodotus of the
habits of the priests of ancient Egypt: lib. ii., cap. 37.

Footnote 635:

I have neglected to write the name of this appendage; but if my memory
do not deceive me, I was told that it is termed “kalás’weh,” which
word seems to be a corruption of “kalensuweh.” Mengin calls it
“kaloucyeh” (“Hist. de l’Egypte sous Mohammed-Aly,” tome ii., p. 290).

Footnote 636:

Mengin, _ubi supra_, pp. 284-289.

Footnote 637:

This has been shown by Quatremère, in his “Researches on the Language
and Literature of Egypt.”

Footnote 638:

They chant nearly in the same manner as the Muslims reciting the
Kur-án.

Footnote 639:

Acts xv. 20 and 29.

Footnote 640:

The ball and bird are called “el-kubbeh wa-t-teyr.” It is said that
the Muslims of Egypt, on some occasions, as on the inauguration of a
Sultán, used to observe the custom here described; but this appears to
be an error, arising from a misunderstanding of the term “el-kubbeh
wa-t-teyr” applied by historians to an umbrella surmounted by the
figure of a bird, which was borne over the head of a Sultán in certain
pompous processions.

Footnote 641:

The custom mentioned by Burckhardt, in his Arabic Proverbs, page 117,
as prevailing “among the lower classes of Muslims at Cairo,” is
observed by the Copts.

Footnote 642:

Thus pronounced for “Mo’allim.” It signifies “teacher” or “master;”
and is a title given to all Copts but those of the poorer class, or
peasants. The registrar of the taxes of a village is simply called
“the M’allim of the village.”

Footnote 643:

If the reader desire further and fuller details on this subject, he
may consult Et. Quatremère’s ‘Mémoires Géogr. et Hist. sur l’Egypte,’
tome ii., pp. 220-266.

Footnote 644:

Equivalent (at that period) to about thirteen shillings, or, as some
say, a little more than half a guinea.

Footnote 645:

It should be observed here, that the cases alluded to form exceptions
to the general toleration exhibited by the Muslims; and that the Copts
who have been converted to El-Islám by oppression have been few in
comparison with those who have changed their religion voluntarily.
Many have done this through love of Muslim women.

Footnote 646:

Chap. v., ver. 85.

Footnote 647:

It is surprising that Muslims should hang a _Jew_ against a window of
a _mosque_, when they consider him so unclean a creature that his
blood would defile the sword. For this reason a Jew, in Egypt, is
never beheaded.

Footnote 648:

I have transmitted a list of these works to the Royal Asiatic Society.

Footnote 649:

One of the less important acts of Mohammad ’Alee I should mention, as
it is one which renders my description of the streets and shops of
Cairo not altogether applicable to their present state. He has lately
caused the mastab′ahs in most of the thoroughfare-streets to be pulled
down, and only allowed them to be rebuilt in the wider parts,
generally to the width of about two spans. At the same time, he has
obliged the tradesmen to paint their shops, and to remove the
unsightly “sakeefehs” (or coverings) of matting which shaded many of
the sooks; prohibiting the replacing of them unless by coverings of
wood. Cairo has, in consequence, lost much of its Arabian aspect.

Footnote 650:

The dress worn by the military and some other officers of the Básha of
Egypt is still quite Turkish in everything but the want of the turban,
which is now worn by few of those persons, and only in winter; the red
cap alone, over which the muslin or Kashmeer shawl used always to be
wound, being at present the regular head-dress. The trousers are very
full from the waist to a little below the knee, overhanging a pair of
tight leggings which form parts of them. A tight vest (the sleeves of
which are divided from the wrist nearly to the elbow, but generally
buttoned at this part), a girdle, a jacket with hanging sleeves,
socks, and a pair of red shoes, complete the outward dress generally
worn: but the jacket is sometimes made with sleeves like those of the
vest above described, and the vest without sleeves; and black European
shoes are worn by some persons. The sword is now hung in our manner,
by a waist-belt. The dress of the private soldiers consists of a vest
and trousers (the latter similar to those above described, but not so
full), of a kind of coarse red serge, or, in summer, of white cotton,
with the girdle, red cap, and red shoes.

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