An Easy Introduction to Spanish Conversation

Chapter V: Part I: A Synopsis of the Castilian Language

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THE LETTERS.

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, y.

Pronounce them, _ah_, _ay_, _ee_, _oh_, _oo_, _ee_. They have invariably the same sound, and must be fully and distinctly pronounced.

The vowels are never silent, except _u_, in the syllables _gue_, _gui_, _que_, _qui_. When the _u_ is to be sounded in them, it is marked with a diæresis (¨) over it; thus, _argüir_, ar-goo-ir.

The syllables in which the consonants are pronounced differently from the English, are the following. The letters in _italics_ under them express their respective sounds.

C.
Ca, co, cu, cua, cuo.
_Kah_, _koh_, _koo_, _kwah_, _kwo_.

ce, ci.
_Th_ lisped, _thay_, _thee_.

CH. Pronounce it invariably as in the English words _chap_, _chess_, _cheese_.

G.
Ga, go, gu, gue, gui.
_Gah_, _goh_, _goo_, _gay_, _gee_.

J. _J_ before all the vowels, and _g_ before _e_ or _i_, have the sound of the English _h_, more harshly aspirated.

Ja, je, ji, jo, ju.
_Hah_, _hay_, _hee_, _hoe_, _who_.

Ge, gi.
_Hay_, _hee_.

LL. LL is not a double consonant in Spanish, consequently it must not be divided in spelling. It sounds like _ll_ in English in _million_; but it must be pronounced more quickly and stronger. In some parts of the Mexican states it is sounded somewhat like the Spanish _y_ consonant, with which they confound it in writing; and in manuscript we frequently see _cabayo_ instead of _caballo_.

Lla, lle, lli, llo, llu.
_Lyah_, _lye-ay_, _lyee_, _lyoh_, _lyoo_.

N. N has a strong nasal sound, like _n_ in _poniard_. The _gn_ in French gives its sound.

Na, ñe, ñi, ño, ñu.
_Nyah_, _nye-ay_, _nyee_, _nyoh_, _nyoo_.

Q. The syllables _qua_, _qüe_, _qüi_, _quo_, are at present written with _c_, which see above.

Que, qui.
_Kay_, _kee_.

V. V must be pronounced as in English. Its sound is so slender in Spanish, that most generally it is confounded with the _b_: but such pronunciation must not be imitated. It is frequently used in manuscript instead of the capital U; thus,

=_Vnion y Libertad_=, instead of =_Union y Libertad_=.

X. X, in conformity with the new orthography, is to represent solely the sound of _cs_; but the greater part of the people pronounce and write only the _s_; thus, _estranjero_, instead of _extranjero_, (ex-tran-her´-oh.)

Y. Y is a vowel when it is followed by a consonant, or terminates a word, and then it sounds like _ee_. It is a consonant when it is before a vowel, and then it sounds somewhat like English _j_. In some parts of America it is generally pronounced as _ee_; thus, _suyo_, soo´-ee-o.

N. B.—Of late years, some persons write _i_ instead of _y_ in _ai_, _y_, _convoi_, &c., but the Academy retains the _y_. In manuscript, _Y_ is to be used instead of _I_, whenever this letter must be a capital.

Z. Z, before all the vowels, is pronounced like _th_ lisped in the English words _thank_, _theft_, _thin_, _path_, _truth_.

Za, ze, zi, zo, zu.
_Thah_, _thay_, _thee_, _thoh_, _thoo_.

Az, ez, iz, oz, uz.
_Ath_, _eth_, _eeth_, _oth_, _ooth_.

In Spanish America _z_ is generally pronounced _s_, and also frequently written instead of that letter.

DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.

Gra-cio-so, cons-truc-cion, abs-te-ner-se, ha-bla-do-res, ca-ro, car-ro, des-en-re-dar, ca-ba-llo, con-flic-to, pers-pi-caz, flu-xion.

ACCENT.

This mark (´) is set over a vowel to point out that a particular stress of the voice must be laid on it. When the word has no mark on any of its letters, the penultimate, or last syllable but one, must be pronounced with particular emphasis.

Amo, este, ira, oso, _Amó_, _esté_, _irá_, _osó_.

Nouns ending in a consonant (plurals excepted) have the last syllable long, and consequently do not require the mark: otherwise, they have it on the syllable on which the stress of the voice lies; as,

_Caridad_, _animal_, _capitan_, | Césped, fácil, órden, carácter,
_favor_, _interes_. | ménos.

ARTICLES.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
THE {masculine _El_ _Los_
{feminine _La_ _Las_

_A_ or _an_ {masculine _Un_ SOME _unos_
{feminine _Una_ “ _unas_

NOUN

Nouns are substantive or adjective, and have _number_, _gender_, and _case_.

NUMBER

_Singular and Plural_.—Nouns terminating in a short, or unaccented vowel, add an _s_ for the plural; as, boy, _muchacho_; boys, _muchachos_. Nouns ending in an accented vowel, or in a consonant, or in _y_, add _es_ to the singular; as, ruby, _rubí_; rubies, _rubíes_; lion, _leon_; lions, _leones_; ox, _buey_; oxen, _bueyes_. Nouns terminating in _z_, change it into _c_ to form the plural; as, cross, _cruz_; crosses, _cruces_.

GENDER

Every he, or male animal, is of the masculine gender; as, man, _hombre_; every she, or female, is of the feminine gender; as, woman, _mujer_. Nouns of inanimate objects or things ending in _a_, _ad_, _bre_, _ion_, are for the most part feminine; and those terminating in _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, _on_, are masculine. The exceptions, however, are very numerous.

Common nouns ending in _o_, change it into _a_ to form the feminine; as, son, _hijo_; daughter, _hija_. There are some that express their gender by a different word or termination; as, father, _padre_; mother, _madre_; bull, _toro_; cow, _vaca_; poet, _poeta_; poetess, _poetisa_. (See Ollendorff, p. 246.)

Common nouns terminating in _an_, _on_, _or_, add an _a_ to form the feminine; as lion, _leon_; lioness, _leona_; shepherd, _pastor_; shepherdess, _pastora_.

CASE.

There are two cases, the _Nominative_ and the _Objective_. The _Nominative_ case expresses the subject of the verb; as, The man gives, _El hombre da_. The _Objective_ case is either _direct_ or _indirect_. It is _direct_ when it is the immediate object of the action of the verb; as, The man gives alms, _El hombre da limosna_. It is _indirect_ (called also _complement_) when it is the term, or end of the action expressed by the verb; as, The man gives alms to the poor, _El hombre da limosna á los pobres_. When the _object direct_ of an active verb is the noun of a _rational being_, or a _proper noun_, or _thing personified_, it must be preceded by the preposition _á_; as, The brother loves his sister, _El hermano ama á su hermana_. The brother loves his money, _El hermano ama su dinero_.

AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.

_Augmentative_ nouns are those that increase the extent of their signification by adding _on_, _ote_, or _azo_, to the masculine nouns, and _ona_, _ota_, or _aza_, to the feminine, suppressing their last letter, should it be _a_, _e_, or _o_; as, a boy, _un muchacho_; a big boy, _un muchachon_; a girl, _una muchacha_; a big girl, _una muchachona_. The termination _azo_ frequently signifies the blow, or injury caused by the object to which it is added; as, whip, _látigo_; a very large whip, _un latigazo_; a stroke with a whip, _un latigazo_.

_Diminutive_ nouns are formed by adding _ito_, _illo_, _ico_, or _uelo_ for the masculine, and _ita_, _illa_, _ica_, or _uela_ for the feminine, to the noun, which suppresses its last letter if it be _a_ or _e_; as, a boy, _un muchacho_; a little boy, _un muchachito_, _un muchachillo_, _un muchachuelo_; a girl, _una muchacha_; a little girl, _una muchachita_, _una muchachilla_, _una muchachuela_.

N. B.—The terminations, _ito_, _ita_, &c., added to christian names, or those that express relationship, indicate love, affection, and regard towards the object; thus, _hermanita_, dear sister; _Juanito_, esteemed John, &c.

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives ending in _o_ are masculine, and change it into _a_ to form the feminine; as, fine, _fino_, _fina_. Those ending in any other letter are common to both genders; as, prudent, _prudente_; useful, _útil_.

Except adjectives expressing the natives of a country, or things belonging to it; and also most of those terminating in _an_ or _on_, which add an _a_ for the feminine; as, Spaniard, or Spanish, _español_, _española_; idle, _haragan_, _haragana_; clamorous, _griton_, _gritona_.

Adjectives form their plural according to the rules set forth for the nouns; as, white, _blanco_, blancos, _blanca_, blancas; deep blue, _turquí_, _turquíes_; natural, _natural_, _naturales_; happy, _feliz_, _felices_, or _felizes_.

_Uno_, one; _alguno_, some; _ninguno_, none; _primero_, first; _bueno_, good; _malo_, bad; suppress the _o_ when they are immediately followed by a substantive masculine in the singular, whether it be alone, or preceded by an adjective; as, no heart, _ningun corazon_; _ningun_ humano _corazon_.

_Ciento_, hundred, loses the last syllable before a substantive masculine or feminine; the same does _Santo_ before a noun masculine in the singular. _Grande_, great, generally loses it also when it refers to qualities; as, _El Gran Capitan_.

COMPARATIVE.

More, (or the termination _er_,) _mas_——than, _que_.
He is _richer_, or _more_ rich than | _El es_ mas _rico_ que _ella_.
she.
Less, _ménos_——than, _que_.
|
She is _less_ rich _than_ he. | _Ella es_ ménos _rica_ que _él_.

As, (or so,) _tan_——as, _como_.
He is _as_ rich _as_ she. | _El es_ tan _rico_ como _ella_.

As much, (so much,) _tanto_ or _tanta_——as, _como_.
She has as much money as | _Ella tiene_ tanto _dinero_ como
he. | _él_.
She has as much beauty as | _Ella tiene_ tanta _hermosura_
modesty. | como _modestia_.

As many, (so many,) _tantos_ or _tantas_——as, _como_.
He has as many books as his | _El tiene_ tantos _libros_ como
brother. | _su hermano_.
As many houses. | _Tantas casas_.

The more, _cuanto mas_——the more, _tanto mas_.
The more he studies, the more | _Cuanto mas estudia, tanto
he learns. | mas aprende_.

The less, _cuanto ménos_——the less, _tanto ménos_.
The less he works, the less | _Cuanto ménos trabaja, tanto
he earns. | ménos gana_.

Greater, _mayor_; less, _menor_; better, _mejor_; worse, _peor_, superior, _superior_, &c.

SUPERLATIVE.

It is formed, first, by literally translating the adverb very, _muy_; as, very high, _muy alto_. Secondly, by adding the termination _ísimo_, or _ísima_, to the adjective, which suppresses the last letter if it be an _o_, or _e_: very fine, _finísimo_; very sweet, _dulcisimo_; very useful, _utilísimo_. Adjectives in _ble_ change it into _bilísimo_; those in _co_, into _quísimo_; and those in _go_, into _guísimo_; as, _amabilísimo_, _riquísimo_, _prodiguísimo_. Thirdly, by prefixing _el_, _los_, _la_, _las mas_, or _ménos_ to the adjective; as, The most industrious, _El mas industrioso_; the most humane, _el_, or _los mas humanos_; _la_, or _las mas humanas_.

Best, _óptimo_, worst, _pésimo_; greatest, _máximo_; least, _mínimo_; lowest, _ínfimo_; supreme, _supremo_.

PRONOUNS.

_You_, in familiar polite style, is translated _usted_ for both genders, and the verb agrees with it in the singular or the plural, according to the sense. _Usted_ and its plural are always written in abbreviation, thus: _V_. or _Vm_. for the first, and _VV_. or _Vms_. for the latter.

_Mí_, _tí_, _sí_, are always preceded by prepositions.

_Me_, _te_, _se_, _le_, _los_, _la_, _las_, _les_, are governed by verbs, and never placed after prepositions. When the verbs are in the indicative, or in the subjunctive mood, they are placed before the verb; as, He esteems her, _él la estima_. Should the verb be in the infinitive, or in the imperative mood, the pronouns must be placed after it, and joined to it so as to appear one word; thus, Give it to him, (give, _da_, it, _le_, to him, _se_,) _dásele_.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVE.
_My_, mi, mis. _His_, su, sus. _Its_, su, sus.
_Thy_, tu, tus. _Her_, su, sus. _Their_, su, sus.
_Your_, with reference to _Usted_, or _Ustedes_, su, sus.

These pronouns agree in number with the noun that follows them; as, He sold _his_ horses, _él vendió_ sus _caballos_; they fulfilled _their_ promise, _ellos cumplieron_, su _promesa_.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ABSOLUTE.
_Mine_, mio, mios. _His_, suyo, suyos. _Its_, suyo, suyos.
mia, mias. suya, suyas. suya, suyas.
_Thine_, tuyo, tuyos. _Hers_, suyo, suyos. _Theirs_, suyo, suyos.
tuya, tuyas. suya, suyas. suya, suyas.
_Our_, nuestro, nuestros. _Your_, vuestro, vuestros. _Your_, de Usted.
nuestra, nuestras. vuestra, vuestras. de Ustedes.
_Your_, with reference to _Usted_, is translated also suyo, suyos,
suya, suyas.

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
_Who_, _which_, que, quien, quienes. _What_, _that_, que.
_Which_, _what_, cual, cuales; _also_, el cual, los cuales,
la cual, las cuales.
_Whose_, cuyo, cuyos, cuya, cuyas; _also_, de quien, de cual, &c.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
_This_, este. _These_, estos. | _That_, aquel. _Those_, aquellos.
“ esta. “ estas. | “ aquella. “ aquellas.
_That_, ese. _Those_, esos. | _This_, esto. _That_, aquello.
“ esa. “ esas. | _That_, eso. _It_, ello, lo.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
_One_, uno. | _Such_, tal.
_Each_, cada. | _Something_, algo.
_Nobody_, {nadie. | _Nothing_, nada.
{ninguno. | _Each one_, cada cual.
_Somebody_, alguien. | _Each other_, uno y otro.
_Anybody_, } | _One another_, uno á otro.
_Any_, _some_,} alguno. | _Every one_, cada uno.
_Some one_, } | _Every one_, }
_Somebody_, } | _Everybody_, } todo, todos.
_Whichever_, cualquiera. | _Every thing_, }
_Whomsoever_, quienquiera. | _All_, _every_, }
{ámbos. |
_Both_, {entrámbos. |
{ámbos á dos. |

VERBS.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.

_All the verbs_ in the Spanish language are _formed out of the present of the infinitive mood_, which invariably terminates in AR, ER, or IR, which syllables are called its TERMINATION; and the letters that remain of the said present of the infinitive, after separating one of the said terminations, whatever they may be, are said to be its ROOT, and the letters of such root are called its RADICAL LETTERS; as, to esteem, _estim-ar_; to offend, _ofend-er_; to permit, _permit-ir_: in which verbs _ar_, _er_, _ir_ are the TERMINATIONS; and _estim_, _ofend_, _permit_, the RADICAL LETTERS of each respectively, to which the other combinations must be added to form the various persons and tenses of a verb.

All the Spanish verbs are, therefore, classed into _three conjugations_. Verbs ending in _ar_ belong to the _first_; those in _er_ to the _second_; and those in _ir_ to the _third_.

_Obs_. 1. It is not necessary to express the pronouns _subject_ or _nominative_, in the colloquial style, (_usted_ and _ustedes_ excepted;) but they must be used whenever elegance or clearness requires it.

_Obs_. 2. The numbers before the terminations point out the different persons. N. 2, before _usted_ and _ustedes_, denotes that they are of the second person, but that the verb agrees with them in the third, (by Enallage.)

TERMINATIONS OF ALL THE REGULAR VERBS.

_Obs_. 3. The _grave accent_ (`) upon a vowel in the following terminations, points out the syllable on which the stress of the voice is laid, but over which the mark of it must not be set. The _acute accent_ (') marks the syllable on which the stress of the voice lays, and over which the accent is to be written. When there is no mark of an accent in the termination, the syllable that precedes it is long.

SIMPLE TENSES.
INFINITIVE MOOD.

=First Conjugation.= =Second Conjugation.= =Third Conjugation.=

PRESENT. PRESENT. PRESENT.
To arm, _armar_. To offend, _ofender_. To unite, _unir_.

Termination, _ar_. Termination, _er_. Termination, _ir_.

Radical letters, _arm_. Radical letters, _ofend_. Radical letters, _un_.

GERUND.[1] GERUND. GERUND.
Arm_ing_, _ando_. Offend_ing_, _iendo_. Unit_ing_, _iendo_.

PARTICIPLE PAST.[2] PARTICIPLE PAST. PARTICIPLE PAST.
Arm_ed_, _ado_. Offend_ed_, _ido_. Unit_ed_, _ido_.

[1] The _Gerundio_ (gerund) never changes its termination for gender or number.

[2] The participle past coming immediately after any of the tenses of the verb _haber_, (to have,) does not admit of any change of gender or number. After other verbs, it changes its termination to agree with that of the person or thing it refers to.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

=First Conjugation.=
PRESENT.
1. I arm, _arm-o_.
2. Thou armest, _as_.
3. He arms, _a_.
2. You arm, _V_.—_a_.[3]
1. We arm, _àmos_.
2. You arm, _àis_.
3. They arm, _an_.
2. You arm, _VV_.—_an_.[4]

IMPERFECT.
1. I armed,[5] _arm-àba_.
2. Thou armedst, _àbas_.
3. He armed, _àba_.
2. You armed, _V_.—_àba_.
1. We armed, _ábamos_.
2. You armed, _ábais_.
3. They armed, _àban_.
2. You armed, _VV_.—_àban_.

PERFECT.
1. I armed,[10] _arm-é_.
2. Thou armedst, _àste_.
3. He armed, _ó_.
2. You armed, _V_.—_ó_.
1. We armed, _ámos_.
2. You armed, _ásteis_.
3. They armed, _áron_.
2. You armed, _VV_.—_áron_.

FUTURE.
1. I shall arm, _arm-aré_.
2. Thou wilt arm, _arás_.
3. He will arm, _ará_.
2. You will arm, _V_.—_ará_.
1. We shall arm, _arémos_.
2. You will arm, _aréis_.
3. They will arm, _arán_.
2. You will arm, _VV_.—_arán_.

=Second Conjugation.=
PRESENT.
1. I offend, _ofend-o_.
2. Thou offendest, _es_.
3. He offends, _e_.
2. You offend, _V_.—_e_.[6]
1. We offend, _èmos_.
2. You offend, _èis_.
3. They offend, _en_.
2. You offend, _VV_.—_en_.[7]

IMPERFECT.
1. I offended, _ofend-ía_.
2. Thou offendedst, _ías_.
3. He offended, _ía_.
2. You offended, _V_.—_ía_.
1. We offended, _íamos_.
2. You offended, _íais_.
3. They offended, _ían_.
2. You offended, _VV_.—_ían_.

PERFECT.
1. I offended, _ofend-í_.
2. Thou offendedst, _iste_.
3. He offended, _ió_.
2. You offended, _V_.—_ió_.
1. We offended, _imos_.
2. You offended, _isteis_.
3. They offended, _iéron_.
2. You offended, _VV_.—_éron_.

FUTURE.
1. I shall offend, _ofend-eré_.
2. Thou wilt offend, _erás_.
3. He will offend, _erá_.
2. You will offend, _V_.—_erá_.
1. We shall offend, _erémos_.
2. You will offend, _eréis_.
3. They will offend, _erán_.
2. You will offend, _VV_.—_erán_.

=Third Conjugation.=
PRESENT.
1. I unite, _un-o_.
2. Thou unitest, _es_.
3. He unites, _e_.
2. You unite, _V_.—_e_.[8]
1. We unite, _imos_.
2. You unite, _is_.
3. They unite, _en_.
2. You unite, _VV_.—_en_.[9]

IMPERFECT.
1. I united, _un-ía_.
2. Thou unitedst, _ías_.
3. He united, _ía_.
2. You united, _V_.—_ía_.
1. We united, _íamos_.
2. You united, _íais_.
3. They united, _ían_.
2. You united, _VV_.—_ían_.

PERFECT.
1. I united, _un-í_.
2. Thou unitedst, _iste_.
3. He united, _ió_.
2. You united, _V_.—_ió_.
1. We united, _imos_.
2. You united, _isteis_.
3. They united, _iéron_.
2. You united, _VV_.—_iéron_.

FUTURE.
1. I shall unite, _un-iré_.
2. Thou wilt unite, _irás_.
3. He will unite, _irá_.
2. You will unite, _V_.—_irá_.
1. We shall unite, _irémos_.
2. You will unite, _iréis_.
3. They will unite, _irán_.
2. You will unite, _VV_.—_irán_.

REMARK.—Those scholars who desire a more detailed explanation of this subject, are referred to Lesson XL. page 157 of _Ollendorff’s New Method of Learning to Read and Write the Spanish Language_, published by D. Appleton & Co., No. 200 Broadway. This work contains every rule necessary to render easy the study of that language.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
=First Conjugation.=
1. Let me arm,[11] _arm-e_.
2. Arm thou, _a_.
2. Arm thou not,[12] _no—es_.
3. Let him arm, _e_.
2. Arm you, _eV_.
1. Let us arm, _èmos_.
2. Arm ye, _ad_.
2. Arm you not, _no—èis_.
3. Let them arm, _en_.
2. Arm you, _en VV_.

=Second Conjugation.=
1. Let me offend, _ofend-a_.
2. Offend thou, _as_.
2. Offend thou not, _no—as_.
3. Let him offend, _a_.
2. Offend you, _a V_.
1. Let us offend, _àmos_.
2. Offend ye, _ed_.
2. Offend ye not, _no—ais_.
3. Let them offend, _an_.
2. Offend you, _an VV_.

=Third Conjugation.=
1. Let me unite, _un-a_.
2. Unite thou, _e_.
2. Unite thou not, _no—as_.
3. Let him unite, _a_.
2. Unite you, _a V_.
1. Let us unite, _àmos_.
2. Unite ye, _id_.
2. Unite ye not, _no—ais_.
3. Let them unite, _an_.
2. Unite you, _an VV_.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
1. I may arm, _arm-e_.
2. Thou mayst arm, _es_.
3. He may arm, _e_.
2. You may arm, _V_.—_e_.
1. We may arm, _èmos_.
2. You may arm, _èis_.
3. They may arm, _en_.
2. You may arm, _VV_.—_en_.

IMPERFECT.
_Termination—àra_.
1. I might arm, _arm-àra_.
2. Thou mightst arm, _àras_.
3. He might arm, _àra_.
2. You might arm, _V.—àra_.
1. We might arm, _áramos_.
2. You might arm, _árais_.
3. They might arm, _àran_.
2. You might arm, _VV.—àran_.

_Termination—aría_.
1. I might arm, _arm-aría_.
2. Thou mightst arm, _arías_.
3. He might arm, _aría_.
2. You might arm, _V.—aría_.
1. We might arm, _aríamos_.
2. You might arm, _aríais_.
3. They might arm, _arían_.
2. You might arm, _VV.—arían_.

First Conjugation.
_Termination—àse_.
1. I might arm, _arm-àse_.
2. Thou mightst arm, _àses_.
3. He might arm, _àse_.
2. You might arm, _V.—àse_.
1. We might arm, _àsemos_.
2. You might arm, _àseis_.
3. They might arm, _àsen_.
2. You might arm, _VV.—àsen_.

FUTURE.
1. If I should arm, _arm-àre_.
2. If thou shouldst arm, _àres_.
3. If he should arm, _àre_.
2. If you should arm, _V.—àre_.
1. If we should arm, _àremos_.
2. If you should arm, _àreis_.
3. If they should arm, _àren_.
2. If they should arm, _VV.—àren_.

PRESENT.
1. I may offend, _ofend-a_.
2. Thou mayst offend, _as_.
3. He may offend, _a_.
2. You may offend, _V_.—_a_.
1. We may offend, _àmos_.
2. You may offend, _àis_.
3. They may offend, _an_.
2. You may offend, _VV_.—_an_.

IMPERFECT.
_Termination—ièra_.
1. I might offend, _ofend-ièra_.
2. Thou mightst offend, _ièras_.
3. He might offend, _ièra_.
2. You might offend, _V.—ièra_.
1. We might offend, _ièramos_.
2. You might offend, _ièrais_.
3. They might offend, _ièran_.
2. You might offend, _VV.—ièran_.

_Termination—ería_.
1. I might offend, _ofend-ería_.
2. Thou mightst offend, _erías_.
3. He might offend, _ería_.
2. You might offend, _V.—ería_.
1. We might offend, _eríamos_.
2. You might offend, _eríais_.
3. They might offend, _erían_.
2. You might offend, _VV.—erían_.

Second Conjugation.
_Termination—ièse_.
1. I might offend, _ofend-ièse_.
2. Thou mightst offend, _ièses_.
3. He might offend, _ièse_.
2. You might offend, _V.—ièse_.
1. We might offend, _ièsemos_.
2. You might offend, _ièseis_.
3. They might offend, _ièsen_.
2. You might offend, _VV.—ièsen_.

FUTURE.
1. If I should offend, _ofend-ière_.
2. If thou shouldst offend, _ières_.
3. If he should offend, _ière_.
2. If you should offend, _V_.—_ière_.
1. If we should offend, _ièremos_.
2. If you should offend, _ièreis_.
3. If they should offend, _ièren_.
2. If they should offend, _ièren_.

PRESENT.
1. I may unite, _un-a_.
2. Thou mayst unite, _as_.
3. He may unite, _a_.
2. You may unite, _V_.—_a_.
1. We may unite, _àmos_.
2. You may unite, _àis_.
3. They may unite, _an_.
2. You may unite, _VV_.—_an_.

IMPERFECT.
_Termination—ièra_.
1. I might unite, _un-ièra_.
2. Thou mightst unite, _ièras_.
3. He might unite, _ièra_.
2. You might unite, _V.—ièra_.
1. We might unite, _ièramos_.
2. You might unite, _ièrais_.
3. They might unite, _ièran_.
2. You might unite, _VV.—ièran_.

_Termination—iría_.
1. I might unite, _un-iría_.
2. Thou mightst unite, _irías_.
3. He might unite, _iría_.
2. You might unite, _V.—iría_.
1. We might unite, _iríamos_.
2. You might unite, _iríais_.
3. They might unite, _iríain_.
2. You might unite, _VV.—irían_.

Third Conjugation.
_Termination—ièse_.
1. I might unite, _un-ièse_.
2. Thou mightst unite, _ièses_.
3. He might unite, _ièse_.
2. You might unite, _V.—ièse_.
1. We might unite, _ièsemos_.
2. You might unite, _ièseis_.
3. They might unite, _ièsen_.
2. You might unite, _VV.—ièsen_.

FUTURE.
1. If I should unite, _un-ière_.
2. If thou shouldst unite, _ières_.
3. If he should unite, _ière_.
2. If you should unite, _V.—_ière_.
1. If we should unite, _ièremos_.
2. If you should unite, _ièreis_.
3. If they should unite, _ièren_.
2. If they should unite, _VV.—_ièren_.

REMARK.—_Could_, _would_, or _should_ express as well as _might_ any of the above tenses, but the translation of the verb preceded by them in English, depends entirely on the meaning of the Spanish verb or conjunction that governs, or requires it in the subjunctive mood, as it is explained in Lesson LXXIX. p. 356 of _Ollendorff’s Method_, which the learner must study with attention.

The future of the subjunctive might be translated in English _when I shall_, and the verb in the usual way.

[3] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[4] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[5] When the English imperfect tense, for instance, _he united_, may 1be expressed by _he was uniting_, or _he used_ or _was accustomed to unite_, preserving the same sense, then it is to be translated by the imperfect tense in Spanish; thus—_él unía_. When that cannot be done, but it may be changed into _did_, then the preterit must be used—_él unió_. The same must be understood of all the verbs in the imperfect tense.

[6] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[7] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[8] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[9] _V_. in the singular, must be read _Usted_; _VV_. means _Ustedes_, and must be pronounced so.

[10] When the English imperfect tense, for instance, _he united_, may be expressed by _he was uniting_, or _he used_ or _was accustomed to unite_, preserving the same sense, then it is to be translated by the imperfect tense in Spanish; thus—_él unía_. When that cannot be done, but it may be changed into _did_, then the preterit must be used—_él unió_. The same must be understood of all the verbs in the imperfect tense.

[11] The imperative mood is set as it is found in _Murray’s English Grammar_, with the object that the student may learn how to translate it. When the emphasis is laid on the auxiliary _let_, it may be translated by the verbs _permitir_ or _dejar_, in the second person singular or plural; or in the third person singular or plural, if _Usted_ or _Ustedes_ is used.

[12] The terminations of the second person singular or plural, when the verb is used negatively, are _es_, _eis_, _as_, _ais_, thus—offend thou not, _no ofendas_; unite ye not, _no unais_.

COMPOUND TENSES.

_Obs_. 4. These tenses being formed by placing after the verb _haber_, (to have,) the participle past of the principal verb, or the verb that is conjugated, only one participle for each conjugation is here given, in all the tenses.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PERFECT, OR PRETERIT DEFINITE.

It is compounded of the _present_ of the indicative of the verb _haber_, (to have,) and the perfect, or _participle past_ of the verb which is conjugated. For brevity’s sake, the English is prefixed only to the first person of all these tenses.

_I have armed_. Yo he armado.
_I have offended_. Yo he ofendido.
_I have united_. Yo he unido.
1. He } armado. Hemos } armado.
2. Has } ofendido. Habeis } ofendido.
3. Ha } unido. Han } unido.
2. V. ha } VV. han }

PLUPERFECT.
_I had armed_. Yo habia armado.
_I had offended_. Yo habia ofendido.
_I had united_. Yo habia unido.
1. Habia } armado. Habíamos } armado.
2. Habias } ofendido. Habíais } ofendido.
3. Habia } unido. Habian } unido.
2. V. habia } VV. habian }

PRETERIT INDEFINITE, OR ANTERIOR.
_I had armed_. Yo hube armado.
_I had offended_. Yo hube ofendido.
_I had united_. Yo hube unido.
1. Hube } armado. Hubimos } armado.
2. Hubiste } ofendido. Hubisteis } ofendido.
3. Hubo } unido. Hubieron } unido.
2. V. hubo } VV. hubieron }

FUTURE DEFINITE.

_I shall have armed_. Yo habré armado.
_I shall have offended_. Yo habré ofendido.
_I shall have united_. Yo habré unido.
1. Habré } armado. Habrémos } armado.
2. Habrás } ofendido. Habréis } ofendido.
3. Habrá } unido. Habrán } unido.
2. V. habrá } VV. habrán }

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PERFECT, OR PRETERIT DEFINITE.
_I may have armed_. Yo haya armado.
_I may have offended_. Yo haya ofendido.
_I may have united_. Yo haya unido.

1. Haya } armado. Háyamos } armado.
2. Hayas } ofendido. Háyais } ofendido.
3. Haya } unido. Hayan } unido.
2. V. haya } VV. hayan }

PLUPERFECT.
_Termination_ IERA.
_I might have armed_. Yo hubiera armado.
_I might have offended_. Yo hubiera ofendido.
_I might have united_. Yo hubiera unido.

1. Hubiera } armado. Hubiéramos } armado.
2. Hubieras } ofendido. Hubiérais } ofendido.
3. Hubiera } unido. Hubieran } unido.
2. V. hubiera } VV. hubieran }

PLUPERFECT.
_Termination_ RIA.
_I might (would) have armed_. Yo habria armado.
_I might (would) have offended_. Yo habria ofendido.
_I might (would) have united_. Yo habria unido.

1. Habria } armado. Habríamos } armado.
2. Habrias } ofendido. Habríais } ofendido.
3. Habria } unido. Habrian } unido.
2. V. habria } VV. habrian }

PLUPERFECT.
_Termination_ IESE.
_I might have armed_. Yo hubiese armado.
_I might have offended_. Yo hubiese ofendido.
_I might have united_. Yo hubiese unido.

1. Hubiese } armado. Hubiésemos } armado.
2. Hubieses } ofendido. Hubiéseis } ofendido.
3. Hubiese } unido. Hubiesen } unido.
2. V. hubiese } VV. hubiesen }

FUTURE DEFINITE.
_Should I have armed_. Si yo hubiere armado.
_Should I have offended_. Si yo hubiere ofendido.
_Should I have united_. Si yo hubiere unido.

1. Hubiere } armado. Hubiéremos } armado.
2. Hubieres } ofendido. Hubiéreis } ofendido.
3. Hubiere } unido. Hubieren } unido.
2. V. hubiere } VV. hubieren }

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
_To have_. _To be_.
Haber. Tener. Ser. Estar.

GERUND.
_Having_. _Being_.
Habiendo. Teniendo. Siendo. Estando.

PAST PARTICIPLE.
_Had_. _Been_.
Habido. Tenido. Sido. Estado.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
_I have_. _I am_.
1. He. Tengo. Soy. Estoy.
2. Has. Tienes. Eres. Estas.
3. Ha. Tiene. Es. Está.
2. V. ha. V. tiene. V. es. V. está.
1. Hemos. Tenemos. Somos. Estamos.
2. Habeis. Teneis. Sois. Estais.
3. Han. Tienen. Son. Estan.
2. VV. han. VV. tienen. VV. son. VV. estan.

IMPERFECT.
_I had_. _I was_.
1. Habia. Tenia. Era. Estaba.
2. Habias. Tenias. Eras. Estabas.
3. Habia. Tenia. Era. Estaba.
2. V. habia. V. tenia. V. era. V. estaba.
1. Habíamos. Teníamos. Éramos. Estábamos.
2. Habíais. Teníais. Érais. Estábais.
3. Habian. Tenian. Eran. Estaban.
2. VV. habian. VV. tenian. VV. eran. VV. estaban.

PRETERIT.
_I had_. _I was_.
1. Hube. Tuve. Fui. Estuve.
2. Hubiste. Tuviste. Fuiste. Estuviste.
3. Hubo. Tuvo. Fué. Estuvo.
2. V. hubo. V. tuvo. V. fué. V. estuvo.
1. Hubímos. Tuvímos. Fuímos. Estuvimos.
2. Hubisteis. Tuvisteis. Fuísteis. Estuvísteis.
3. Hubiéron. Tuviéron. Fuéron. Estuviéron.
2. VV. hubiéron. VV. tuviéron. VV. fuéron. VV. estuviéron.

FUTURE.
_I shall have_. _I shall be_.
1. Habré. Tendré. Seré. Estaré.
2. Habrás. Tendrás. Serás. Estarás.
3. Habrá. Tendrá. Será. Estará.
2. V. habrá. V. tendrá. V. será. V. estará.
1. Habrémos. Tendrémos. Serémos. Estarémos.
2. Habréis. Tendréis. Seréis. Estaréis.
3. Habrán. Tendrán. Serán. Estarán.
2. VV. habrán. VV. tendrán. VV. serán. VV. estarán.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
_Let me have_. _Let me be_.
1. Let me have. Tenga yo. Sea. Esté.
2. Have thou. Ten tú. Se. Está.
2. Have not. No tengas. Nó seas. No estes.
3. Let him have. Tenga él. Sea. Esté.
2. Have. Tenga V. Sea V. Esté V.
1. Let us have. Tengamos. Seamos. Estemos.
2. Have ye. Tened. Sed. Estad.
2. Have not. No tengais. No seais. No estais.
3. Let them have. Tengan. Sean. Esten.
2. Have you. Tengan VV. Sean VV. Esten VV.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
_I may have_. _I may be_.
1. Haya. Tenga. Sea. Esté.
2. Hayas. Tengas. Seas. Estes.
3. Haya. Tenga. Sea. Esté.
2. V. haya. V. tenga. V. sea. V. esté.
1. Háyamos. Tengamos. Seamos. Estemos.
2. Háyais. Tengais. Seais. Esteis.
3. Hayan. Tengan. Sean. Esten.
2. VV. hayan. VV. tengan. VV. sean. VV. esten.

IMPERFECT.
FIRST TERMINATION.
_I would have_. _I would be_.
1. Hubiera. Tuviera. Fuera. Estuviera.
2. Hubieras. Tuvieras. Fueras. Estuvieras.
3. Hubiera. Tuviera. Fuera. Estuviera.
2. V. hubiera. V. tuviera. V. fuera. V. estuviera.
1. Hubiéramos. Tuviéramos. Fuéramos. Estuviéramos.
2. Hubiérais. Tuviérais. Fuérais. Estuviérais.
3. Hubieran. Tuvieran. Fueran. Estuvieran.
2. VV. hubieran. VV. tuvieran. VV. fueran. VV. estuvieran.

SECOND TERMINATION.
_I would have_. _I would be_.
1. Habria. Tendria. Seria. Estaria.
2. Habrias. Tendrias. Serias. Estarias.
3. Habria. Tendria. Seria. Estaria.
2. V. habria. V. tendria. V. seria. V. estaria.
1. Habríamos. Tendríamos. Seríamos. Estaríamos.
2. Habríais. Tendríais. Seríais. Estaríais.
3. Habrian. Tendrian. Serian. Estarian.
2. VV. habrian. VV. tendrian. VV. serian. VV. estarian.

THIRD TERMINATION.
_I should have_. _I should be_.
1. Hubiese. Tuviese. Fuese. Estuviese.
2. Hubieses. Tuvieses. Fueses. Estuvieses.
3. Hubiese. Tuviese. Fuese. Estuviese.
2. V. hubiese. V. tuviese. V. fuese. V. estuviese.
1. Hubiésemos. Tuviésemos. Fuésemos. Estuviésemos.
2. Hubiéseis. Tuviéseis. Fuéseis. Estuviéseis.
3. Hubiesen. Tuviesen. Fuesen. Estuviesen.
2. VV. hubiesen. VV. tuviesen. VV. fuesen. VV. estuviesen.

FUTURE.
_When I shall have_. _When I shall be_.
1. Hubiere. Tuviere. Fuere. Estuviere.
2. Hubieres. Tuvieres. Fueres. Estuvieres.
3. Hubiere. Tuviere. Fuere. Estuviere.
2. V. hubiere. V. tuviere. V. fuere. V. estuviere.
1. Hubiéremos. Tuviéremos. Fuéremos. Estuviéremos.
2. Hubiéreis. Tuviéreis. Fuéreis. Estuviéreis.
3. Hubieren. Tuvieren. Fueren. Estuvieren.
2. VV. hubieren. VV. tuvieren. VV. fuéren. VV. estuviéren.

IDIOMATICAL TRANSLATION OF SOME TENSES.

N.B.—The (i) stands for the present of the infinitive mood, and the (p) for the past participle.

I am to, (i,) | _He de_, (i,) (139-153)[13]
Thou art to, (i,) &c. | _Has de_, (i,) &c.
I was to, (i,) &c. | _Habia de_, (i,) &c.
I shall be obliged to, (i,) &c. | _Habré de_, (i,) &c.
I have just, (p,) &c. | _Acabo de_, (i,) _acabas de_,
| (i,) &c. (211.)
I had just, &c. | _Acababa de_, (i,) _acababas
| de_, (i,) &c.
I am going to, (i,) &c. |{ _Voy á_, (i,) _vas á_, (i,)
|{ _va á_, (i.)
|{ _Vamos á_, (i,) _vais á_, (i,)
|{ _van á_, (i.)
I was going to, (i,) &c. | _Iba á_, (i,) _ibas á_,(i,)
| _iba á_, (i,) &c.
|{ _Volver á_, (i.)
|{ _Vuelvo á_, (i,) _vuelves á_,
|{ (i,)
To (i) again, &c. |{ _vuelve á_, (i.)
|{ _Volvemos á_, (i,) _volveis á_,
|{ (i,)
|{ _vuelven á_, (i.)
I liked to have, (p.) | _Estuve para_, (i.)
To be near. } Pres. |{ _Estar á pique de_, (i.)
To come near.} participle. |{ _Estar á punto de_, (i.)
|{ _Estar para_, (i.)
To be about, (p. or i.) | _Estar para_.
To be to, (i.) | _Ser de. Haber de. Deber_.
It is to be observed. |{ _Es de notar. Se ha de notar_.
|{ _Debe notarse_.

[13] The numbers within a parenthesis refer to the pages in _Ollendorff’s Method_ which the scholar is advised to consult.

TABLE SHOWING HOW TO PLACE THE DIFFERENT PRONOUNS IN A SENTENCE, (69.)

Él me le (los, la, las, lo) da.
Él no te le (los, la, las, lo) envia.
¿Nos le (los, la, las, lo) ofrece él?
¿Nos le (los, la, las, lo) trae él?
V. no se le (los, la, las, lo) promete.

A VERB AFFIRMATIVELY, NEGATIVELY, AND INTERROGATIVELY CONJUGATED.

I recompense, _or_ do recompense. | _Recompenso_.
I do not recompense. |{ _Yo no recompenso_, or
|{ _No recompenso_.
Do I recompense? |{ _¿Recompenso?_ or
|{ _¿Recompenso yo?_
Do I not recompense? |{ _¿No recompenso?_
|{ _¿No recompenso yo?_
I have corresponded. | _He correspondido_.
I have not corresponded. | _No he correspondido_.
Have I corresponded? |{ _¿He correspondido?_ or
|{ _¿He correspondido yo?_
Have I not corresponded? | _¿No he correspondido yo?_

PASSIVE VERBS. (175.)

_Passive verbs_ are formed from active-transitive verbs by adding their _participle past_, or _passive_, to the auxiliary verb _ser_, (to be,) through all its changes, as in English; thus, from the active verb _amar_, (to love,) is formed the passive verb _ser amado_, (to be loved.)

_Obs. 5_. The participle must agree in gender and number with the nominative it refers to; consequently it changes the _o_ into _a_ when the subject is feminine, and adds _s_ for the plural; thus,

SINGULAR.
He is loved. | _El es amado_.
She is loved. | _Ella es amada_.
You are loved. | _V. es amado_, (_amada_.)

PLURAL.
They are loved. | _Ellos son amados_.
They are loved. | _Ellas son amadas_.
You are loved. | _VV. son amados_, (_amadas_.)

_Obs. 6_. In the compound tenses the participle of the principal verb is the only one that admits the change; the participle of the auxiliary verb _to be_ (been, _sido_) is unchangeable; as,

_Obs. 7_. _Passive impersonal verbs_, and those referring to inanimate objects or things, are translated by placing the verb which is in the participle past in English, in the same person and number in which the verb _to be_ is in the English sentence, placing the pronoun _se_ before it; thus,—This ship was built in less than three months; _Esta fragata se construyó en ménos de tres meses_, instead of _fué construida_. It is said; _Se dice_, instead of _Es dicho_.

PRONOMINAL, OR REFLECTIVE VERBS.

A _pronominal_, or _reflective verb_, is that which has the same person or thing as subject and object; as,

He arms himself. | _El se arma á sí mismo_.

These verbs terminate their present of the infinitive mood by the pronoun _se_, which must be suppressed in order to find out the conjugation, thus—

To approach. | _Acercarse_.
To be sorry. | _Dolerse_.
To repent. | _Arrepentirse_.

Taking off the _se_ we here have, _acercar_, 1st conjugation, _doler_, 2d conjugation; and _arrepentir_, 3d conjugation. (80.)

These verbs are conjugated by placing the pronouns _me_, _te_, _se_, _se_, _nos_, _os_, _se_, _se_, according to the number and person of the nominative they refer to, immediately before the verb, if the subject be expressed before it; and either before or after the verb, if the subject be not expressed or placed after it. When they are placed, after the verb, they must be written so as to form one word with it.

In the imperative mood they are always placed after the verb, which suppresses the _s_ in the first person plural, and the _d_ in the second person of the same number. When the second person singular or plural is used with the adverb _no_, the pronouns are placed before the verb. Examples:—

1. I congratulate myself. | _Yo me congratulo_.
2. Thou congratulatest thyself. | _Tú te congratulas_.
3. He congratulates himself. | _El se congratula_.
2. You congratulate yourself. | _V. se congratula_.
1. We congratulate ourselves. | _Nosotros nos congratulamos_.
2. You congratulate yourselves. | _Vosotros os congratulais_.
3. They congratulate themselves. | _Ellos se congratulan_.
2. You congratulate yourselves. | _VV. se congratulan_.
1. I had congratulated myself. | _Me habia congratulado_.
2. I have armed myself. | _Yo me he armado_.
3. They had flattered themselves. | _Ellos se habian lisonjeado_.

GERUND.—_Gerundio_.

The _gerund_ is that part of the verb that terminates in _ando_ in the verbs of the first conjugation, and in _iendo_ in those of the second and third; as, _publicando_, (publishing,) from _publicar_; _prometiendo_, (promising,) from _prometer_; _asistiendo_, (assisting,) from _asistir_. It does not admit any change of gender or number.

It is translated by the English present participle, and conjugated with the verb _estar_, (to be;) as,

Anastasia is reading, and Maria | _Anastasia está leyendo, y Maria_
Ann is playing on the piano. | _Ana está tocando el piano_.

It is used also absolutely; as,

By practising virtue thou wilt | _Practicando la virtud, serás feliz_.
be happy. |

VERBS THAT ALTER THEIR RADICAL LETTERS.

Verbs ending in _car_ change the _c_ into _que_, when the first letter of the termination is _e_; as, to mark, _marcar_, marc-ar, (perfect tense) _marqué_.

Verbs ending in _gar_ add a _u_ immediately after the _g_ in the terminations beginning by _e_; as, to pay, _pagar_, pag-ar, (perfect tense) _pagué_.

Verbs in _cer_ change the _c_ into _z_ }
“ _ger_ “ _g_ “ _j_ } when the first letter of
“ _gir_ “ _g_ “ _j_ } the termination is either
“ _quir_ “ _qu_ “ _c_ } _o_ or _a_.
“ _guir_ lose the _u_ }

Examples:—To vanquish, _vencer_, venzo; to choose, _escoger_ escojo; to elect, _elegir_, elijo; to transgress the law, _delinquir_ delinco; to follow, _seguir_, sigo.

REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1. The imperfect tense of the subjunctive has three terminations; the first in _ra_, the second in _ria_, the third in _se_.

The termination _ra_ (or _se_) must be used when the verb is governed by a conditional conjunction, or an interjection expressing a _wish_; and if any other verb be in the same phrase to complete its sense, it must be placed in the termination _ria_; as, If you studied more, you would learn very much; _Si usted estudiara mas, V. aprenderia mucho_.

2. When the verb begins without a conditional conjunction, the termination _ra_ or _ría_ may be used, and the verb requisite to complete the sentence must be placed in the termination _se_; as, It would be proper that you should write to him; _Fuera_ (or _seria_) _bueno que V. le escribiese_.

3. Verbs denoting _admiration_, _command_, _desire_, _duty_, _fear_, _ignorance_, _intention_, _permission_, _prohibition_, _application_, _surprise_, _will_, and also the _impersonal verbs_, govern the next verb in the subjunctive with _que_. If the _governing_ verb is in the present or future of the indicative, or subjunctive, the verb governed must be placed in the present of the subjunctive. If the _governing_ verb be in any of the past tenses of the indicative, the verb governed must be placed in the _first_ or _third_ termination of the imperfect tense of the subjunctive; as, They beg you to come early; _Suplican a V. que venga temprano_. I requested him to send you my letter; _Le encargué que enviara á V. mi carta_.

PARTICIPLE.

The passive or past participle terminates in _ado_ in the first conjugation, and in _ido_ in the second and third. It changes its termination according to the number and gender of the person it refers to; except when it follows immediately after the verb _haber_, or any other auxiliary, in which case it does not admit of any change.

All passive participles that do not terminate in _ado_ or _ido_ are called irregular; such are the following, from the verbs—

To open, _abrir, abierto_. | To print, _imprimir, impreso_.
To cover, _cubrir, cubierto_. | To die, _morir, muerto_.
To say, _decir, dicho_. | To solve, _solver, suelto_.
To write, _escribir, escrito_. | To see, _ver, visto_.
To fry, _freir, frito_. | To put, _poner, puesto_.
To do, _hacer, hecho_. | To turn, _volver, vuelto_.

Their compounds have the same irregularity.

_Obs. 8_. The participles past of _haber_, _ser_, _estar_, and _tener_, do not admit any variation. The first and the last had it formerly.

VERBS THAT HAVE TWO PARTICIPLES.

There are some verbs that have _two passive participles_, the one regular and the other irregular. Such are:—To bless, _bendecir_, bendecido, _bendito_; to compel, _compeler_, compelido, _compulso_; to convert, _convertir_, convertido, _converso_; to awake, _despertar_, despertado, _despierto_; to elect, _elegir_, elegido, _electo_; to express, _expresar_, expresado, _expreso_; to fix, _fijar_, fijado, _fijo_; to satiate, _hartar_, hartado, _harto_; to include, _incluir_, incluido, _incluso_; to join, _juntar_, juntado _junto_; to arrest, _prender_, prendido, _preso_; to provide, _proveer_, proveido, _provisto_; to break, _romper_, rompido, _roto_; to loosen, _soltar_, soltado, _suelto_; to suspend, _suspender_, suspendido, _suspenso_, &c.

The _regular_ participles of these verbs are used to form the compound tenses with _haber_; as,

He has awaked early. | _El ha dispertado temprano_.

The irregular participles are used as verbal adjectives, and with the verbs _ser_, &c., and do not form compound tenses with _haber_; excepting _preso_, _prescrito_, _provisto_, _roto_, and a few others; as,

He is early awaked. | _El está despierto temprano_.
They have provided. | _Ellos han provisto_, (_proveido_.)

ADVERBS.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives of one termination by adding to them _mente_; as, _dulce_, dulcemente: and from those of two terminations by adding _mente_ to the feminine; as, _gracioso_, graciosamente. They admit the superlative; as, _graciosísimamente_.

When two or more adverbs ending in _ly_ occur in the same sentence, the termination _mente_ is added to the last only; as,

He speaks elegantly and correctly. _El habla correcta y elegantemente_.

A FEW OF THE ADVERBS.

SOME ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS.

On all fours, _á gatas_.
In heaps, _á montones_.
Hardly, _á pénas_.
On credit, _á plazo_.
Sometimes, _á veces_.
Truly, _á la verdad_.
Knowingly, _á sabiendas_.
On the back, _á cuestas_.
At the utmost delay, _á mas tardar_.
Slyly, _á la sordina_.
Secretly, _á escondidas_.
Rashly, Imprudently, _á ojos cerrados_.
Instantly, _al punto_.
Very nearly, _casi casi_.
As soon as possible. _cuanto ántes_.
How long, _cuanto tiempo_.
At most, _cuando mucho_.
At least, _cuando ménos_.
Gratis, for nothing, _de balde_.
Readily, _de contado_.
Of course, _de seguro_.
From time to time, } _de cuando en cuando_.
Now and then, }
To and fro, } _de aquí para allí_.
Here and there, }
On a sudden, } _de improviso_.
Unexpectedly, }
Purposely, _de intento_.
Across, _de traves_.
In fact, actually, _de hecho_.
Pell-mell, _de tropel_.
By chance, }
Cheaply, } _de lance_.
Second-hand, }
Truly, _de véras_.
In good earnest, _en conciencia_.
Forthwith, _en seguida_.
In the future, _en adelante_.
Hereafter, _en lo sucesivo_.
In a direct way, _en derechura_.
Briefly, { _en resumen_.
In short, { _en breve_.
To the utmost, _hasta no mas_.
Long time ago, _mucho tiempo ha_.
Behold, _he aquí_, or _allí_.
Not long since, _no ha mucho_.
No sooner, Scarcely _no bien_.
Lately, _poco ha_.
By degrees, Softly, _poco á poco_.
Of course, _por supuesto_.
Nearly, _por poco_.
Superficially, _por encima_.
Short time ago, _poco ha_.
{ _sobre seguro_.
Confidently, { _á ciencia_.
{ _á cierta_.
Without motive } _sin ton ni son_.
or cause, }
Some time ago, _rato ha_.
Perhaps, _tal vez, acaso_.
Once, _una vez_.
At once, _de una vez_.
Sometimes, _á véces_.

PREPOSITIONS.

The most frequent are—

The following prepositions require _de_ after them, when they are followed by a noun or pronoun as,

That man comes after. | _Ese hombre viene despues_.
Sir, he will go after you. | _Señor, él irá despues de V_.

About, { _á cerca_, _al rededor_, _en torno_.
{ _á cerca de_, _al rededor de_, _en torno de_.
Before, _ántes, delante_. | Within, in, _dentro_.
Above, up, _encima_. | After, _despues_.
Below, _abajo_. | Behind, _detras, tras_.
Under, _bajo_. | Beneath, _debajo_.
Out of, _fuera_. | Opposite, _enfrente_.
Near, _cerca_. | On, upon, _encima_.

CONJUNCTIONS.

They are classed as follows:

COPULATIVE.
That, _que_.
Also, _tambien_.
Moreover, _además_.
And, _y_ or _i_, _é_.[14]
Neither, nor, _ni_.

DISJUNCTIVE.
Or, either, } _ó, ú, ya_.[15]
Whether, }
Whether, _sea que_.
Neither, _tampoco_.

ADVERSATIVE.
But, _mas, pero_.
Even, { _aun cuando_.
{ _aun, cuando_.
Although, } _aunque_.
Though, }

CAUSAL.
Because, _porque, que_.
Why? _¿porqué?_
Since, _pues, pues que_.
By, for, _por_.
Therefore, _por tanto_.
Whereas, _por cuanto_.
That, _para que_.
That, {_para que_.
In order that, {_á fin de_.

CONDITIONAL.
If, _si_.
But, _sino_.
Provided, _con tal que_.
Unless, { _á ménos de_.
{ _á ménos que_.

CONTINUATIVE.
Since, _pues, puesto que_.

COMPARATIVE.
As, _como, así como_.
So, _así_.

[14] _E_ is used instead of _y_ when the following word begins with _i_ or _hi_, as,

Wise men and ignorant. | _Sabios é ignorantes_.
Mother and daughter. | _Madre é hija_.

[15] _U_ is employed instead of _ó_, when the word immediately following it begins with _o_ or _ho_; as,

Silver or gold. | _Plata ú oro_

INTERJECTIONS.

Alas! _¡Ay!_ Take care! _¡Tate!_
Ah! _¡Ah!_ Hurrah! _¡Viva!_
Wo to me! _¡Ay de mí!_ Here! _¡Ce!_
Lo! _¡He!_ Fie! _¡Puf!_
Well! _¡Ea!_ God grant! _¡Ojalá!_
Holla! _¡Ola!_

SOME OF THE MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.

A _or_ a, _Arroba_, Twenty-five pounds weight.
AA. _Autores_, Authors.
A.C. _Año Cristiano_, Christian year.
Art. _or_ art. _Artículo_, Article.
{ _Beso, besamos, besa_, } I, we kiss; he, she kisses;
B.L.M. { _besan la mano_, or } they kiss the hands.
{ _las manos_, }
B.L.P. _Beso_ or _besa los piés_, I kiss _or_ he kisses the feet.
D. Dn. _Don_, Mr.
Da. _Doña_, Mrs.
Dr., D.D. _Doctor, Doctores_, Doctor, Doctors.
Exmo., Esmo., } _Excelentísimo_, Most Excellent.
Escmo. }
Fr. _Fray, Frey_, Friar, Brother.
Ib. _Ibidem_, The same.
Ill^e. Ill^{mo}. { _Ilustre_, } Illustrious,
{ _Ilustrísimo_, } Most Illustrious.
Ill^{ma}. { _Ilustrísima_, }
Ill. P.S. _Muy poderoso Señor_, Most powerful Sir.
N. _Fulano_, Such a one.
N^o. _or_ Núm. _Número_, Number.
Nro. Nra. _Nuestro, a_, Our.
Onz. _Onza_, Ounce.
Orn. _Orden_, Order.
P.D. _Post data_, Postscript.
R.P.M. _or_ Mtro. { _Reverendo Padre_ } Reverend Father and Master.
{ _Maestro_, }
R^{do}. P. _Reverendo Padre_, Reverend Father.
S.S^{n}. Sto. Sta. _San, Santo_, or _Santa_, Saint.
S.A. _Su Alteza_, His Highness.
S.A.A. _Su afecto amigo_, Your affectionate friend.
S.M. _Su Magestad_, His Majesty.
Sr. Sor. _or_ S^{ra}. _Señor_ or _Señora_, Sir, Lord, Madam, Lady.
S. Sria. _or_ S^{ra}. _Su Señoria_, His Lordship, Her Ladyship.
S.S.S. _Su seguro servidor_, Your assured servant.
V. Vd. Vm. _or_ Vmd. _Usted_, Your worship, you.
VV. Vs. Vms. _or_ } _Ustedes_, Your worships, you.
Vmds. }
V.E. _or_ V. Esc^a _Vueclelencia_, Your Excellency.
V.M. _Vuestra Majestad_, Your Majesty.
V.S. _Usia_, (_Vueseñoria_,) Your Lordship.
V.S.I. _Usía Ilustrísima_, Your Grace.

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An Easy Introduction to Spanish ConversationChapter V: Part I: A Synopsis of the Castilian Language

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