Chapter IX: The Order Ungulata (3)

=Telemetacarpalia.=—This section includes all the Deer of the New World, together with some Old World forms, and is characterised by retaining the distal extremities of the lateral (second and fifth) metacarpals. With the exception of _Alces_, _Capreolus_, and _Hydropotes_ (which are either partly or entirely Old World types), the vomer is so much ossified as to divide the posterior bony nares into two distinct orifices (Fig. 132).

_Rangifer._[200]—The Reindeer, or Caribou as it is termed in North America, is the sole representative of the genus _Rangifer_, which is sufficiently distinguished from all its allies by the presence of antlers in both sexes. The lachrymal vacuity is small. This animal is distributed over the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America; the differences which may be observable in specimens from different regions not being sufficient to allow of specific distinction. The Reindeer is a heavily built animal, with short limbs, in which the lateral hoofs are well developed, and the cleft between the two main hoofs is very deep, so that these hoofs spread out as the animal traverses the snow-clad regions in which it dwells. The antlers (Fig. 131) are of very large relative size. There is a bez as well as a brow tine, which are peculiar in being either branched or palmated. In the American race (Caribou), as well as in some of the specimens found fossil in the English Pleistocene (Fig. 131), one of the brow tines is generally aborted to allow of the great development of the other. The dentition of the Reindeer is frequently remarkable for the very small size of the posterior lobe of the last lower molar. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 11.

The Reindeer has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, and is of especial value to the Laplanders, whom it serves as a substitute for the Horse, Cow, Sheep, and Goat. It is capable of drawing a weight of 300 lbs., and its fleetness and endurance are remarkable. Harnessed to a sledge it will travel without difficulty 100 miles a day over the frozen snow, on which its broad and deeply cleft hoofs are admirably adapted for travelling. During the summer the Lapland Reindeer feeds chiefly on the young shoots of the willow and birch; and since at this season migration to the coast seems necessary to the well-being of this animal, the Laplander, with his herds, sojourns for several months in the neighbourhood of the sea. In winter its food consists chiefly of the so-called reindeer-moss and other lichens which the animal makes use of its hoofs in seeking for beneath the snow. The wild Reindeer grows to a much greater size than the tame breed; but in Northern Europe the former are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and domesticating them. The tame breed found in Northern Asia is much larger than the Lapland form, and is there used to ride on. Remains referable to the existing species are found in the cavern and other Pleistocene deposits of Europe.

_Alces._[201]—The Elk or Moose (_Alces machlis_) has the same general distribution as the Reindeer, and is likewise the single existing representative of its genus. It is the largest existing member of the family, attaining sometimes a height of 8 feet at the withers. The antlers (Fig. 133) have neither brow nor bez tine, but form an enormous basin-shaped palmation, primarily composed of an anterior and a posterior branch; their weight may be as much as 60 lbs. The nasal bones are very short, and the narial aperture of great size. The Elk is covered with a thick coarse fur of a brownish colour, longest on the neck and throat. Its legs are long and its neck short, and as it is thus unable to feed close to the ground, it browses on the tops of low plants, the leaves of trees, and the tender shoots of the willow and birch. Its antlers attain their full length by the fifth year, but in after years they increase in breadth and in the number of snags, until fourteen of these are produced. Although spending a large part of their lives in forests, Elks do not suffer much inconvenience from the great expanse of their antlers, as in making their way among trees they are carried horizontally to prevent entanglement with the branches. Their usual pace is a shambling trot, but when frightened they break into a gallop. The natural timidity of the Elk forsakes the male at the rutting season, and he will then attack whatever animal comes in his way. The antlers and hoofs are his principal weapons, and with a single blow from the latter he has been known to kill a wolf. The female often gives birth to two fawns, and with these she retires into the deepest recesses of the forest, the young remaining with her till their third year. The Elk ranges, but in scanty numbers, over the whole of Northern Europe and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North China, and over North America from the New England States westward to British Columbia. Fossil species are found in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe.

_Cervalces._[202]—A remarkable extinct Deer from the Pleistocene of North America, described as _Cervalces_, appears in some respects (although a true Telemetacarpalian) to connect _Alces_ with _Cervus_. Thus the palmated antlers are divided into anterior and posterior branches, but below this division there are two tines apparently corresponding to the bez and posterior tines of _Cervus giganteus_ (Fig. 130).

_Capreolus._[203]—Antlers (in the existing species) less than twice the length of the head, usually with three tines on each. Brow tine developed from the anterior surface of the upper half of the antler, and directed upwards. Lachrymal vacuity small. Premaxillæ not always articulating with nasals. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated, rugose externally. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 6, C 8. Tail very short. Glands in fore feet rudimentary; large in hind feet.

The Roe, or Roe Deer (_Capreolus caprea_), is a small form distributed over Europe and Western Asia, being one of the species found in the British Isles. The male is somewhat over two feet in height at the withers, of a dark reddish-brown colour in summer, with a white patch on the rump. The small antlers are approximated at their bases, and consist of a rugged beam rising vertically for some distance, then bifurcating, and the posterior branch again dividing. The Roe dates from the Pleistocene period. Extinct Deer from the Continental Pliocene have been provisionally referred to _Capreolus_.

_Hydropotes._[204]—No antlers in either sex. Lachrymal fossa deep and short (Fig. 134); lachrymal vacuity of moderate size. Orbits small and but slightly prominent. Auditory bulla much inflated. Angle of mandible much produced backwardly (Fig. 134); alveolar margins of mandible in diastema sharp and everted. Canines of male very large, and slightly convergent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 6, S 4, C 10. No tufts on metatarsals. Foot glands small in fore feet, deep in hind ones.

The Chinese Water Deer (_H. inermis_) is the sole representative of this genus. In the absence of antlers and the large canines of the male it resembles _Moschus_, although very different in other respects. Thus the brain (Fig. 135) has the hemispheres much convoluted, as in other _Cervinæ_, and approximates to that of _Pudua_; while the placenta and viscera likewise agree with those of the true Deer. In the total absence of any ossification of the vomer to divide the posterior nares _Hydropotes_ resembles _Capreolus_ and differs from all the following genera. The Chinese Water-Deer is nearly of the same size as the Indian Muntjac. It has short legs and a long body, the hair covering the latter being of a light reddish-brown. It is a remarkably prolific animal, differing from all other Deer in producing five or six young at a time.

The mandible of a ruminant from the Middle Miocene of Gers in France, described under the name of _Platyprosopus_, presents such a marked resemblance to _Hydropotes_ in the form of the angle as to suggest a more or less intimate affinity.

_Cariacus._[205]—Skull (Fig. 132) with the vomer dividing the posterior nares into two distinct chambers; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Antlers never greatly exceeding the length of the head. Lachrymal vacuity very large, and lachrymal fossa small. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 13. Tail long or short. Colour uniform in adult.

This genus, which agrees with the Reindeer in the division of the posterior nares by the ossified vomer, comprises a number of species confined to the New World, none of which attain very large dimensions, and the antlers of which are relatively smaller than in the existing species of _Cervus_. The genus may be divided into groups.

The typical _Cariacine_ group, as represented by _C. virginianus_, has well-developed antlers, with a short brow tine rising from the inner side of the beam, and directed upwards, and several branches; a long tail; and no upper canines. In this species, as well as in _C. mexicanus_ and other forms, the antlers do not divide dichotomously, and the lachrymal fossa is of moderate depth. The Mule Deer (_C. macrotis_) of North America is distinguished by the dichotomous branching of the antlers and the deeper lachrymal fossa. The Virginian Deer is somewhat smaller than the Fallow Deer, and of a uniform reddish-yellow colour in summer, and light gray in winter.

The _Blastocerine_ group of South America is represented by _C. paludosus_ and _C. campestris_, and has dichotomous antlers, with no brow tine, and the posterior branch the larger, a short tail, and no upper canines. The _Furciferine_ group includes _C. chilensis_ and _C. antisiensis_, confined to western South America. The antlers are not longer than the head, with a large anterior tine curving forwards at right angles to the simple posterior one. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated, and rugose. Upper canines may be present. The species are of medium size. _C. clavatus_, of Central America, while resembling this group in the characters of the skull and the arrangement of the hair on the face, agrees with the next one in having simple spike-like antlers.

The South American _Coassine_ group comprises the small forms known as Brockets, in which the antlers form simple spikes not exceeding half the length of the head. Some six species are known.

Remains of _Cariacus_, mostly or entirely referable to existing species, are of common occurrence in the Brazilian cave-deposits. _Blastomeryx_, of the Pliocene of North America, is believed to be an allied type.

_Pudua._[206]—Antlers in the form of minute simple spikes. Distinguished from the Coassine group of _Cariacus_ by the articulation of the premaxillæ with the nasals (as in the _Furciferine_ group), and the coalescence of the ectocuneiform with the naviculo-cuboid, as well as by various external characters. No upper canines. Represented only by the very small _P. humilis_ of the Chilian Andes.

_Extinct Genera._—In the European and other Tertiary deposits several genera of extinct _Cervidæ_ occur, of which the more important may be briefly mentioned. _Amphitragulus_, of the Lower Miocene of the Continent, has four lower premolars, brachydont molars, and no antlers; the largest species being somewhat bigger than the Musk-Deer. The closely allied _Palæomeryx_ (_Dremotherium_ or _Micromeryx_) generally has but three lower premolars, and the brachydont upper molars (Fig. 122), like those of _Amphitragulus_, want the small accessory inner column[207] found in modern Deer. In _P. feignouxi_, of the Lower Miocene, the lateral metacarpals, although slender, were complete, and the males had large canines, but no antlers. _P. furcatus_, of the Middle Miocene, had small antlers, and the canines appear to have been reduced in size. This genus, besides being represented in the European Miocene, also occurs in the Pliocene of India and China; some of the species being as large as the Red Deer.

_Family_ GIRAFFIDÆ.

In the existing genus the frontal appendages consist of a pair of short, erect, permanent bony processes placed over the union of the frontal and the parietal bones, ossified from distinct centres, though afterwards ankylosed to the skull, covered externally with a hairy skin, present in both sexes, and even in the new-born animal. Anterior to these is a median protuberance on the frontal and contiguous parts of the nasal bones, which increases with age, and is sometimes spoken of as a third horn. Skull with a lachrymal vacuity. No upper canines. Molars brachydont, with rugose enamel; the upper ones having no inner accessory column. Lateral digits entirely absent on both fore and hind feet, even the hoofs not developed. Humerus with double bicipital groove. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 20. Gall-bladder generally absent. Male reproductive organs and placenta of a Bovine type. Dentition: _i_ ⁰⁄₃, _c_ ⁰⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃.

_Giraffa._[208]—The Giraffe (_G. camelopardalis_) is the sole existing representative of the genus, now confined to the Ethiopian region.

In addition to the characters noticed above, the Giraffe is characterised by its great size and peculiar proportions; the neck and limbs being of great length, and the back inclining upwards from the loins to the withers.

To produce the extremely elongated neck the seven cervical vertebræ are proportionately long, which gives a somewhat stiff and awkward motion to the neck. The ears are large, the lips long and thin, the nostrils closable at the will of the animal, the tongue very long and extensile, and the tail of considerable length, with a large terminal tuft. An adult male may have a total height of 16 feet. The coloration consists of large blotches of darker or lighter chestnut-brown on a paler ground, the lower limbs and under parts being of a uniform pale colour. The Giraffe feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of trees, showing a preference for certain varieties of mimosa, and for the young shoots of the prickly acacia, for browsing on which its prehensile tongue and large free lips are specially adapted. It is gregarious in its habits, living in small herds of about twenty individuals, although Sir S. Baker, who hunted it in Abyssinia, states that he has seen as many as a hundred together.

Fossil species of _Giraffa_ occur in Pliocene deposits over Greece, Persia, India, and China, thus affording one of many striking instances of the former wide distribution of the generic types now confined to the Ethiopian region.

_Allied Extinct Types._—The Pliocene deposits of many parts of the Old World yield remains of a number of large Ruminants which show such evident signs of affinity with the Giraffe that it is difficult to draw up a definition by which they can be separated in characters of family value from that genus. On the other hand, some of these forms approximate in the characters of the skull to some of the brachydont members of the _Bovidæ_, although it is quite clear from the nature of the cranial appendages that they cannot be included in that family. All these forms have brachydont molars, with rugose enamel, like those of the Giraffe; while several of them have limb-bones approximating to those of the latter—the humerus, when known, having a double bicipital groove. The nature of the cranial appendages (when present) is not fully understood, but it appears that in some cases these approximated more to the type of an antler than to that of a horn; although, from the absence of a “burr,” they appear never to have been shed. A gradual diminution in the length of the limbs and neck can be traced from the more Giraffoid to the more Bovoid forms of this extinct group; and it is manifest that if these animals be included in the _Giraffidæ_ the definition of that family as given above must be somewhat modified. Only brief mention can be made of the more important genera.

The imperfectly known _Vishnutherium_, of the Pliocene of India and Burma, seems to make the nearest approach to the Giraffe, but the limbs and cervical vertebræ were decidedly shorter, although of a similar slender type. _Helladotherium_, of the Pliocene of Greece and India, is represented by a species of considerably larger size than the Giraffe, with no appendages or lachrymal vacuity to the skull, and with shorter and stouter limbs and neck.

_Hydaspitherium_, _Bramatherium_, and _Sivatherium_ are Indian genera, characterised by the presence of large palmated and antler-like cranial appendages, varying considerably in arrangement. The former genus has a large lachrymal vacuity which is absent in the two latter. In the first and second genera all the appendages rise from a common base; but in _Sivatherium_ there is a pair of simple horn-like projections on the orbits in addition to the posterior palmated antlers. _Sivatherium_ was an animal of huge bulk, being the largest known representative of the Pecora.

Another apparently allied type is _Samotherium_, of the Pliocene of the Isle of Samos, which appears also to have some affinity with the Antelopes. The skull is nearly as large as that of the Giraffe, and is of the same elongated shape, although depressed between the conical horn-cores, which rise vertically above the orbits, and without a median bony prominence on the frontals. The horn-cores form mere processes of the frontals. The diastema and the mandibular symphysis are shorter than in the Giraffe, and the latter is less deflected. The teeth, although larger, are almost indistinguishable from those of the Giraffe, the only well-marked difference being that the last lower premolar has a double in place of a single postero-internal column.

_Family_ ANTILOCAPRIDÆ.

Closely allied to the _Bovidæ_, but the horns deciduous and branched.

_Antilocapra._[209]—The Prong-buck, or Prong-horned Antelope (_Antilocapra americana_), as the single existing member of this family is called, is an animal of nearly the same size as the Fallow Deer, but of a lighter and more graceful build. It is an inhabitant of the prairies of North America, where it is one of the few representatives of the Cavicorn Pecora. The bony horn-cores are unbranched, and form vertical, blade-like projections immediately above the orbit. The horns themselves are compressed, and nearly one foot in length, having a gentle backward curvature, the short branch arising somewhat above the middle of its height, and inclining forwards. When the horn is about to be cast off it becomes loosened, and a new one is formed upon the bony core beneath it. The ears are long and pointed, and the tail is short. The neck has a thick mane of long chestnut-coloured hair, and there is a white patch on the rump.

_Family_ BOVIDÆ.

Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of non-deciduous horns. Molars frequently hypsodont. Usually only one orifice to the lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent in both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but more often they are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular nodules of bone. Distal ends of the lateral metapodials never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. The number of cotyledons in the placenta generally varies from 60 to 100; whereas in the _Cervidæ_ the number is usually from 5 to 12, _Capreolus_ and _Hydropotes_ having the fewest. In _Giraffa_ the number is upwards of 180. The nature of the horns and horn-cores has been already explained; in the majority of genera these appendages are present in both sexes, although much larger in the male (see p. 310).

The _Bovidæ_, or hollow-horned Ruminants (Cavicornia), form a most extensive family, with members widely distributed throughout the Old World, with the exception of the Australian region; but in America they are less numerous, and confined to the Arctic and northern temperate regions, no species being indigenous either to South or Central America. There is scarcely any natural and well-defined group in the whole class which presents greater difficulties of subdivision than this; consequently zoologists are as yet very little agreed as to the extent and boundaries of the genera into which it should be divided. For the present the genera provisionally adopted may be arranged under a number of sections or groups, which some writers regard as subfamilies. The series may be commenced with the Antelopes, the greater number of which are now characteristic of the Ethiopian region.

_Alcelaphine Section._—Includes large African Antelopes, of which the type genus ranges into Syria; generally characterised by their great height at the withers as compared with the rump. Skull with large frontal sinuses, extending into the horn-cores, and the horns lyre-shaped or recurved, and more or less approximated at the base. No large pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals; upper molars hypsodont and narrow. Horns in both sexes. General colour mostly uniform.

_Alcelaphus._[210]—If _Damalis_ be included, this genus is represented by some nine or ten living species. Head more or less long and narrow, with the muffle moderately broad and naked. Nostrils approximated, edged with stiff hairs. Horns compressed and ringed at the base, more or less lyrate, and bent back at the tips. Hoofs small. Tail of moderate length, and heavy. Two mammæ.

In the typical forms, such as the Bubaline Antelope (_A. bubalinus_), the Harte-beest (_A. caama_, Fig. 137), and the Tora Antelope (_A. tora_, Fig. 138), the horns, which present the peculiar curvature shown in the figures, are situated on a crest at the vertex of the skull, and the facial portion of the cranium is greatly elongated. The Harte-beest, which is found throughout Central and Southern Africa, stands nearly 5 feet high at the withers, and is a somewhat ungainly looking animal, with short hair, which is grayish-brown above and nearly white beneath. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India there occur remains of an _Alcelaphus_ (_A. palæindicus_) in which the skull had the long facial portion characteristic of the typical group, while the horns approximate to those of the Bontebok. The Blessbok (_A. albifrons_) and Bontebok (_A. pygargus_), belonging to the genus _Damalis_ of many authors, have the facial portion of the skull shorter, the horns situated more in advance of the plane of the occiput, and inclining regularly backwards. Of the Blessbok Mr. C. J. Anderson observes that “it is of a beautiful violet colour, and is found in company with black Wildebeests and Springboks in countless thousands on the vast green plains of short crisp, sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle and horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains, which afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin emits a most delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling herbs.” Since the time this was written these Antelopes have been greatly reduced in number. _A. (Damalis) hunteri_, from East Africa, appears to be allied to _A. senegalensis_, but in the more elongated facial portion of the skull approximates to the Harte-beest, and thus confirms the view that _Damalis_ should not form a distinct genus.

_Connochætes._[211]—Head short and massive, with the muffle very broad and bristly. Nostrils widely separated, hairy within. Horns on the vertex of the skull, immediately over the occiput, approximated at base, cylindrical, bent outwards, and recurving upwards at the tip. Extremities of premaxillæ much expanded laterally, and firmly ankylosed. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 16. Hoofs very narrow. Tail very long, covered throughout with long hairs. Four mammæ. Two species, _C. taurina_ and _C. gnu_ (Fig. 139), both from South Africa. The former, or Brindled Gnu, is distinguished by the absence of long hair on the face, the black (instead of white) tail, and the presence of dark vertical streaks on the shoulders; it is never found to the south of the Orange River.

The White-tailed Gnu stands about 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. These animals were formerly found in large herds, and are remarkable not only on account of their peculiar form, but also for their grotesque actions when alarmed. Some interesting observations have recently been published upon the mode of development of the horns of the Gnu,[212] from which it appears that in very young individuals the horns are straight and divergent, situated some distance below the vertex of the head, and separated by a wide hairy interval. These young horns form the straight tips of those of the adult, the basal downwardly curved portion being subsequently developed. In the fully adult animal the base of the horns forms a helmet-like mass on the forehead which completely obliterates the hairy frontal space of the young.

_Cephalophine Section._—Small or medium-sized African and Indian Antelopes, with simple horns present only in the males, a more or less elongated suborbital gland, a lachrymal depression in the skull, and square-crowned upper molars (Fig. 140). Lateral hoofs well developed.

_Cephalophus._[213]—One pair of horns, arising far back on the frontals, conical, short, angulated at the base, and erect or recurved. Suborbital gland opening in the form of a slit, or as a row of pores. Auditory bulla divided by a distinct septum. Muffle large and moist. Tail very short. Head tufted. Upper molars of larger species with an accessory internal column. Dorsal vertebræ fourteen in number. Some sixteen species, confined to southern and tropical Africa.

The Duikerboks, as the members of this genus are called, are among the most graceful of the African Antelopes, the smallest species not being larger than a rabbit. The West African _C. sylvicultor_ and _C. longiceps_ are the largest species.

_Tetraceros._[214]—Two pairs of conical horns, of which the anterior are much the smaller. Suborbital gland elongated, and lachrymal fossa very large. Upper molars (Fig. 140) without accessory internal column. One existing Indian species (_T. quadricornis_).

The Four-horned Antelope is found throughout the peninsula of India in jungle. The general colour is brown, lighter beneath and on the inside of the limbs. Remains of this species are found fossil in the cave-deposits of Madras, and a small Ruminant from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills has been provisionally referred to this genus.

_Cervicaprine Section._—Small or large Antelopes now confined to the Ethiopian region, with horns present only in the males, lachrymal vacuity generally large, more or less distinct pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina in the frontals, and narrow upper molars in which there is no accessory internal column.

_Neotragus._[215]—Distinguished from the next genus by having the crown of the head tufted, muzzle hairy, premaxillæ long and reaching the lachrymals, nasals very short, mesethmoid much ossified, third lobe of last lower molar either absent or very small, and the hinder lobe of the corresponding upper molar much reduced.

Three species, Salt’s Antelope (_N. saltianus_), from Abyssinia, and also _N. kirki_ and _N. damarensis_; the two latter having a small third lobe to the last molar. Writing of the first-named species, Mr. W. T. Blanford[216] observes that “the _Beni-Israel_, or _Om-dig-dig_, one of the smallest Antelopes known, abounds on the shores of the Red Sea and throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of Abyssinia. It is occasionally, but rarely, found at higher elevations; I heard of instances of its being shot both at Serafie and Dildi, but it is not often seen above about 6000 feet. It inhabits bushes, keeping much to heavy jungle on the banks of water-courses, and is usually single, or in pairs, either a male and female or a female and young being found together; less often the female is accompanied by two young ones, which remain with her until full grown.”

_Nanotragus._[217]—Horns small, parallel with frontals, and rising immediately above postorbital process of frontals, in front of the fronto-parietal suture. Lachrymal fossa very large, suddenly descending in front of the orbit, and extending on to the maxilla; lachrymal vacuity small. Auditory bulla large and smooth, without internal septum. Nasals of moderate length. Crown of the head smooth; naked part of muffle small; aperture of suborbital gland small. Lateral hoofs small or absent. Nine species.[218]

The typical species is the Royal Antelope (_N. pygmæus_) of Guinea, the smallest existing representative of the Pecora. This species, together with _N. moschatus_ and _N. tragulus_ have no lateral hoofs, or tufts on the knees. In the _Scopophorine_ group, comprising _N. scoparia_, _N. montanus_, and _N. hastatus_, both these appendages are present; while in the _Oreotragine_ group (_N. melanotis_ and _N. oreotragus_) the former are present and the latter absent.

_Pelea._[219]—Horns rather small, compressed, upright, scarcely diverging, and placed immediately over the orbits. No suborbital gland, nor lachrymal fossa; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Tail short and bushy. Colour uniform. One species—the Rehbok (_P. capreola_), South Africa, is nearly of the size of a Fallow Deer, although more resembling a Chamois in build and habits. The colour is of a uniform light gray. This animal inhabits bare rocky districts, and thus differs widely from the Water-buck and its allies.

_Cobus._[220]—Large Antelopes, with the horns large, elongate, sublyrate, and ringed at the base, and with rudimentary suborbital glands. Skull with a deep frontal hollow, no lachrymal depression, large lachrymal vacuity, and the premaxillæ reaching the very long nasals. Tail long, with a ridge of hair above, and slightly tufted at the end. Colour uniform. Six species, African.

The Antelopes of this genus are water-loving animals, the Water-buck (_C. ellipsiprymnus_) and the Singsing (_C. defassus_) being well-known examples. Both these species are much alike, standing as much as 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. The Water-buck of South and Eastern Africa is characterised by the coarseness of its long hair; while in the Singsing of West and Central Africa the hair is remarkably fine and soft. Fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India are referred to _Cobus_. _Helicophora_, from the Lower Pliocene of Attica, is regarded as allied to _Cobus_, but it has no distinct supraorbital pits.

_Cervicapra._[221]—An allied South African genus in which the tail is short and bushy and the premaxillæ do not reach the nasals. Three species.

The Reitbok (_C. arundineum_) is of a grizzly ochre colour; it stands nearly 3 feet in height, and has horns about 1 foot in length. The Nagor (_C. redunca_) is about 6 inches shorter, with horns of half the length, and fulvous brown above and white below; the West African _C. bohor_ being rather larger.

_Antilopine Section._—A large group of moderate-sized or small Antelopes, most abundant in the deserts bordering the Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Horns generally compressed and lyrate, or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral, ringed at base, sometimes present in both sexes. Skull with large pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina of frontals, and generally a distinct lachrymal fossa. Molars of upper jaw narrow, without inner accessory column, and resembling those of the Sheep and Goats. Tail moderate, compressed, hairy above.

_Antilope._[222]—Horns, present only in the male, long, cylindrical, subspiral, and diverging. Suborbital gland large, with a somewhat linear opening; lachrymal depression of skull very large, and a small lachrymal fissure. Glands in the feet; lateral hoofs present. One species, India.

The well-known Black-buck (_A. cervicapra_) is found on open plains all over India, except in lower Bengal and Malabar. Old males are deep blackish-brown in colour on the back and sides and the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under parts and inner surfaces of the limbs white, and the back of the head, nape, and neck yellowish. Young males and females are fawn-coloured above. Very large herds are seen in the plains about Delhi and Mattra, which are said in some instances to reach to thousands. Horn-cores are found in the Pleistocene deposits of the valley of the Jumna which cannot be distinguished from those of the existing species.

_Æpyceros._[223]—Horns compressed, lyrate, and wide-spreading; present only in male. No suborbital gland, or lachrymal depression in the skull. No lateral hoofs. Two species; one from South and the other from West Africa.

The Palla (_Æ. melampus_) is a large Antelope standing over 3 feet high at the withers, and readily distinguished by its dark red colour, gradually shading to white below. It is usually found on or near hills in herds of from twenty to thirty. _Æ. petersi_ is from the Congo.

_Saiga._[224]—Nose very large, convex, and inflated. Supraorbital gland present. Lachrymal fossa of skull small, and fissure absent; narial aperture very large; nasals extremely short; supraorbital pits rather small. Horns yellow, lyrate, of moderate length; present only in male. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10. One species, Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

The Saiga (_S. tatarica_) is a clumsily built and somewhat sheep-like Antelope inhabiting the steppes; it occurs fossil in the Pleistocene of France and England.

_Pantholops._[225]—Allied in the characters of the head and skull to _Saiga_, but the nose less convex, the nostrils of the male more swollen, and the horns of that sex black, very long, compressed, and lyrate; those of female very short. One species, Central Asia.

The Chiru (_P. hodgsoni_) inhabits the highlands of Western Tibet and Turkestan. In the former area it generally goes in small herds of from three to six, and in the summer may be found grazing in early morning on the level spaces frequently found in the river valleys at elevations of about 15,000 feet. It is excessively shy and difficult to approach. The large size of the narial aperture in the skull of Chiru is suggestive of a connection with respiration at a high altitude, but this appears to be negatived by the occurrence of the same feature in the Saiga.

_Gazella._[226]—Delicately built and sandy-coloured Antelopes, with lyrate or recurved horns, which may be absent in the female, and are always smaller and simpler in that sex than in the male. Skull with moderate lachrymal fossa, and a distinct lachrymal fissure. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 14. Suborbital gland frequently small, and covered with hair. Face with a white streak running from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down to the upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line (see Fig. 121, p. 310). The Gazelles, of which there are some twenty-four existing species, are typically Palæarctic desert forms, the Springbok (_G. euchore_) being an outlying South African species. _G. picticaudata_ and _G. gutturosa_ are respectively found in Western Tibet and Mongolia, the former at great elevations. The majority of the Gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in height, although _G. mohr_ is 36. Sir Victor Brooke classifies[227] the Gazelles as follows:—

A. No stripe on back; three lower premolars.

_a._ White of rump not encroaching on the fawn of the haunches.

I. Female with horns.

1. Horns lyrate or sublyrate—_G. dorcas_, _G. isabella_,
_G. rufifrons_, _G. lævipes_, _G. tilonura_, _G. naso_.

2. Horns non-lyrate—_G. cuvieri_, _G. leptoceros_, _G.
spekei_, _G. arabica_, _G. bennetti_, _G. fuscifrons_,
_G. muscatensis_.

II. Female without horns.

_G. subgutturosa_, _G. gutturosa_, _G. picticaudata_.

_b._ White of rump projecting forwards in an angle into the
fawn colour of the haunches. Horns in both sexes.

_G. dama_, _G. mohr_, _G. soemmerringi_, _G. granti_
(Fig. 121), _G. thomsoni_.

B. A white stripe down the back, two lower premolars. Horns in
both sexes.—_G. euchore._

The East African _G. walleri_ is an aberrant species, in which the females are hornless, which has been made the type of the genus _Lithocranius_. It is characterised by the extreme density of the horns and skull, the slenderness of the mandible, and the small size of the cheek-teeth, the upper molars being relatively broader and lower than usual. The cranium is remarkable for the shortness of its facial portion, the large size and production backwards of the supraoccipital, and for the circumstance that the long basicranial axis is nearly parallel with the plane of the palate.

Fossil species of _Gazella_ are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits of Europe and India. _G. deperdita_ (_brevicornis_), of the Lower Pliocene of France and Greece, appears to be a generalised species in which the lower molars frequently have accessory columns, traces of which are found in some of the existing forms.

_Hippotragine Section._—Includes very large African Antelopes, with long horns, present in both sexes, which are placed over or behind the orbit, and are either recurved, straight, or subspiral. Skull with no distinct pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals, no lachrymal fossa, and only a small lachrymal fissure. No suborbital gland. Tail long, cylindrical, and tufted at the end. Upper molars extremely hypsodont, very broad, and with large accessory columns, thus closely resembling those of the Oxen. Some authorities divide this section into two. In the Pliocene it occurs in India and Europe.

_Hippotragus._[228]—Horns stout, rising vertically from a crest over the orbit at an obtuse angle to the plane of the nasals, then recurved; lachrymal fissure in some instances almost obliterated. Neck with an erect recurved mane. Tail very distinctly tufted. Four species, tropical Africa and south to the Cape.

The Sable Antelope (_H. niger_) is one of the best-known examples of this genus, occurring in South and East Africa. It stands upwards of 4½ feet in height at the withers, and, except for some white streaks on the face and the whole of the under surface of the body, is of a black colour. The Blaubok (_H. leucophæus_) is distinguished by the glaucous hue of the hair. The other species are the Equine Antelope (_H. equinus_) and Baker’s Antelope (_H. bakeri_) from the Sudan, both closely allied, but the latter distinguished by its pale fulvous colour, pencilled ears, and black stripes on the shoulder.

Skulls of fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India have been referred to _Hippotragus_ (_H. sivalensis_), and Sir V. Brooke suggests that the European Pliocene _Antilope recticornis_ is not generically separable.

_Oryx._[229]—Horns long, slender, nearly straight or somewhat recurved, rising behind the orbit, and inclining backwards in the plane of the nasals; lachrymal fossa distinct. Nape maned; tail long, and more haired than in _Hippotragus_. Four species, ranging over all the African deserts to Arabia and Syria.

The Gemsbok (_O. gazella_, Fig. 141), is a South African species characterised by its straight horns, the presence of a tuft of hair on the throat, as well as by the large patches and stripes of black on the head, back, limbs, and flanks. It stands nearly 4 feet in height at the shoulder, and the horns are 2 feet 9 inches in length. The colour of the upper part of the body is a rusty gray, and of the under part white, while these are separated from each other by a well-defined black band on either side. These bands unite on the breast, and are continued as a single black band until reaching the lower jaw, where they again divide and form two transverse bands on the head, terminating at the base of the horns. The head otherwise is white, as also are the limbs, with the exception of the thighs, which are black. The Gemsbok generally goes in pairs, or in small herds of three or four. The Beisa (_O. beisa_) of Abyssinia is distinguished by the absence of the tuft of hair on the throat. Writing of this species in his _Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia_, Mr. W. T. Blanford observes that “the appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the motions being those of a wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. Their favourite pace appears to be either a steady quick walk or a trot; they rarely break into a gallop unless greatly alarmed. When frightened they dash off, sometimes snorting and putting their heads down as if charging, raising their long tails, and looking very formidable. They are wary animals, though far less so than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently attack when wounded, and their long straight horns are most deadly weapons.” The Arabian Beatrix Antelope (_O. beatrix_) is a much smaller animal, with the black markings confined to the head, fore limbs, and flanks. Finally, the Leucoryx (_O. leucoryx_) of North Africa, while agreeing in size with the Beatrix, differs by its curved horns and uniform coloration.

The extinct _Palæoryx_, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe and the Isle of Samos, appears to have been an ancestral form of _Oryx_, said to show some signs of affinity with _Hippotragus._

_Addax._[230]—Horns with the same inclination as in _Oryx_, but with a slight spiral twist. No mane on nape, but a slight one on the throat. Hoofs rounded. One species (_A. nasomaculatus_), from North Africa and Arabia, the colour of which is nearly white.

_Tragelaphine Section._—Includes large, so-called Bovine, Antelopes now mainly characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but with one Oriental genus. Horns usually present in the male only (if developed in the female smaller), with a more or less distinct ridge in front, and usually twisted spirally, the front ridge twisting outwards from the base of the horn. Skull without lachrymal fossa, but with a large or small lachrymal fissure; usually large pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina on the frontals; premaxillæ reaching nasals. Muffle large and moist; nostrils approximated. Molars hypsodont or brachydont. Vertical white stripes frequently present on the body.

_a._ _Hind limbs much shorter than the fore. Horns behind the orbit, short, conical, faintly angulated. Nose bovine. Body without vertical stripes. Molars_ (Fig. 123, p. 311) _hypsodont, with a large accessory column in those of the upper jaw. One Oriental genus._

_Boselaphus._[231]—The one genus of this subsection is represented only by the well-known Nilghai (_B. tragocamelus_) of India. The male stands over 4 feet in height at the shoulder, with horns about 8 inches in length; the hornless female being about one third smaller. Both sexes have a short erect mane, and the male has also a tuft of hair upon the throat. When adult the sexes are very different in colour, the male being of a dark iron gray or slate colour, approaching black on the head and legs, while the female and young are of a bright light brown or fawn colour. In both male and female at all ages the lips, chin, and under parts, as well as two transverse stripes on the inner sides of the ears and rings on the fetlocks, are white, and the mane and tip of the tail black. The Nilghai is one of the few Antelopes occurring in India, where it is found from near the foot of the Himalaya to the south of Mysore, though rare to the north of the Ganges and also in the extreme south. It is most abundant in Central India, and does not occur in Assam or the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal. It frequents forests and low jungles, though often found in tolerably open plains, associating in small herds. One, or very often two, young produced at a birth. Fossil remains of species of this genus occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits of India.

_b._ _Fore and hind limbs equal. Horns long, and spirally twisted. Nose cervine, and aperture of suborbital gland very small. Body generally striped. Molars brachydont, those of the upper jaw in existing forms with a smaller inner accessory column. Three existing Ethiopian genera._

_Tragelaphus._[232]—Female hornless. Horns of males (Fig. 142) over orbit, with one or two spiral turns, obscurely ridged, the posterior ridge being more developed than the anterior. Skull with small supraorbital pits, very small lachrymal fissure, and no deep intercornual depression in the frontals. Neck maned or smooth. Hoofs short or long. Coloration usually brilliant, differing markedly in the two sexes, and the white bands on the body, when present, numerous and distinct. Seven species.

The Harnessed Antelopes are among the handsomest of the whole group. The small Guib (_T. scriptus_) is not larger than a Goat, but _T. angasi_ is 3 feet 4 inches in height at the shoulder. In _T. scriptus_, _T. angasi_, and _T. euryceros_, the two sexes differ in colour, the body is marked by white stripes descending from a white dorsal streak, and the hoofs are short; the third species differing from the others by the absence of a mane on the neck, back, and belly. _T. gratus_ agrees with this group in coloration (the mane being absent), but differs in the extreme elongation of its hoofs. The Nakong, _T. spekei_, while having the long hoofs of _T. gratus_, has a perfectly plain body coloration, with a mane on the neck. The two species with elongated hoofs inhabit swampy districts, for which this peculiar structure is admirably adapted; and the Nakong, when frightened, will rush into the water and leave only its nostrils and the tips of the horns above the surface. The small Bushbuck (_T. sylvaticus_) of South Africa has no stripes, and short hoofs.

_Strepsiceros._[233]—Females hornless. Horns (Fig. 143) more twisted than in _Tragelaphus_, forming an open spiral, with the anterior ridge very strongly developed, and rising at an obtuse angle to the plane of the nasals. Skull with large supraorbital pits, large lachrymal fissure, and deep intercornual depression. Hoofs short. Body with white vertical stripes descending from a longitudinal dorsal streak. Two existing species.

The Kudu (_S. kudu_, Fig. 143) extends from South Africa to Abyssinia, and is only inferior in size to the Eland. The horns are about 4 feet in length, and form a very open spiral, and there is a fringe of long hair down the front of the neck. The Lesser Kudu (_S. imberbis_), of Somali-land is a much smaller form, without the fringe of hair on the neck, and with a much smaller axis formed by the spiral of the horns.

An imperfect skull from the Pliocene of Northern India has been referred to _Strepsiceros_.

_Oreas._[234]—Females horned. Horns twisted on their own axis, with very strong ridges, inclining upwards and outwards in the plane of the nasals. General characters of skull as in preceding genus. Stripes on body, if present, very faintly marked. One existing species.

The Eland (_O. canna_) is the largest of all the Antelopes, the males standing nearly 6 feet at the withers. One variety from South Africa is of a uniform pale fawn colour, while the Central African form is of a bright tan colour, marked by a number of thin pale vertical stripes descending from a dark dorsal ridge—these markings fading more or less in the adults. The males have a large dewlap, a tuft of brown hair on the forehead, and a small mane on the neck. The straight black horns of the male are usually about 18 inches long. Elands were formerly extremely abundant in Southern and Eastern Africa, but their destruction has been so relentless that they have totally disappeared from extensive areas, and are daily becoming scarcer.

Portions of upper jaws from the Pliocene deposits of India appear to indicate the former existence in that area of large Antelopes closely allied to the Eland, but distinguished from the living species by the greater size of the inner accessory column in the upper molars.

_Allied Extinct Types._—Large Antelopes with spirally twisted horns appear to have been common over Southern Europe in Pliocene times, but their exact affinity is in many cases difficult to determine. Of these, _Palæoreas_, which occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Europe and Algeria, appears to present affinities both to _Oreas_ and _Strepsiceros_, and may have been the ancestral type from which these two genera are derived; the upper molars have well-developed accessory columns.

The so-called _Antilope torticornis_, of the French Pliocene, resembles _Tragelaphus_ in the greater development of the posterior as compared with the anterior ridge of the horn-cores, and has accordingly been referred to that genus. _Protragelaphus_, of the Lower Pliocene of Attica, differs from all the other types in the absence of the anterior ridge on the horn-cores and of the supraorbital pits, while it has a distinct lachrymal fossa.

In this place it will be convenient to notice certain fossil forms which do not accord with any of the existing sections of the family, and for the reception of which the _Palæotragine_ section has been formed. In these types the horn-cores are laterally compressed like those of the modern Goats, but the upper molars resemble those of the brachydont Antelopes. The earliest of these genera, and the first representative of the Antelopes yet known, is _Protragoceros_, of the Middle Miocene of France, first described as _Antilope clavata_; _Palæotragoceros_ and _Tragoceros_, of the Lower Pliocene, are distinguished by their larger horns and wider molars.

A remarkable large Antelope from the Lower Pliocene of the Isle of Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, proposed to be described as _Criotherium_, appears to be unlike any other form. The horns, which are placed on the extreme vertex of the skull, are very short, tightly twisted, and project in front of the forehead. The upper molars have short and broad crowns, with no accessory column on the inner side.

_Rupicaprine Section._—The Caprine Antelopes, as the typical members of this section may be termed, appear to connect the true Antelopes with the Goats. They are mostly small or medium-sized forms, inhabiting portions of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, with one outlying North American genus. The typical forms present the following features. Horns present, and of nearly equal size in both sexes, rising behind the orbits, short, ringed at the base, conical or somewhat compressed, and recurved. Suborbital gland generally present, in some cases small. Build clumsy; hoofs large; tail short, tapering, hairy above. Skull with lachrymal fossa, but no fissure. Molars as in the Caprine section.

_Rupicapra._[235]—Horns short and cylindrical, rising perpendicularly from the forehead for some distance, then bending sharply backwards and downwards, forming hooks with pointed tips. Premaxillæ not reaching the nasals. One species, Palæarctic.

The Gemse, or Alpine Chamois (_R. tragus_), inhabits the high mountains of Europe from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. It stands about 2 feet in height at the withers. The body is covered in winter with long hair of a chestnut-brown colour, that of the head being paler, with a dark brown streak on each side. At other seasons the colour is somewhat lighter, in spring approaching to gray. Underneath the external covering the body is further protected from cold by a coat of short thick wool of a grayish colour. The tail is black; the ears are pointed and erect; the hoofs have the outer edges higher than the soles, and are thus admirably adapted for laying hold of the slightest projection or roughness on the face of the rocky precipices it frequents. The Chamois is gregarious, living in herds of fifteen or twenty, and feeding generally in the morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone, except in the rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the herds, driving off the young males, and engaging in contests with each other that often end fatally. The period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the shelter of a projecting rock, produces one and sometimes two young. In summer the Chamois ascends to the limits of perpetual snow, being only outstripped in the loftiness of its haunts by the Ibex; and during that season it shows its intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing grounds as have a northern exposure.

_Nemorhædus._[236]—Horns rounded, gradually recurving, without distinct hook at the end. Suborbital gland small or wanting; ears large; skull with a large lachrymal depression, and the premaxillæ not quite reaching the nasals. Some nine species, ranging from the Eastern Himalayas to North China and Japan, and southwards to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. The smallest species is the Himalayan Goral (_N. goral_). Of the larger forms we may mention the Himalayan Serow (_N. bubalinus_) the Cambing-Utan (_N. sumatrensis_) of Sumatra, and the Japanese _N. crispus_ (Fig. 144). Of the Serow, Colonel Kinloch remarks that “it is a large and powerful beast. The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes the form of a bristly mane on the head and shoulders, and gives the beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition. The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and white underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large, the muzzle is coarse. The Serow has an awkward gait, but in spite of this can go over the worst ground; and it has perhaps no superior in going down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and nowhere numerous.”

_Haploceros._[237]—The Rocky-Mountain Goat (_Haploceros montanus_), inhabiting the northern parts of California, appears to be very closely allied to _Nemorhædus_. The horns are somewhat compressed at the base; there is no suborbital gland; and the ears are small. The hair, which is whitish in colour, is very long, and especially abundant in the region of the throat, shoulders, flanks, and tail. The animal is about the size of a large Sheep.

_Budorcas._[238]—The Takin (_B. taxicolor_) of the Mishmi Hills in Assam, and an allied species from Eastern Tibet, are larger forms apparently related to _Nemorhædus_, but with a much greater development of the horns. The horns of what is considered to be the male[239] arise from the vertex of the skull, and are nearly in contact in the middle line; they first bend outwards and downwards, and then suddenly upwards and backwards. Those regarded by Mr. Hume as referable to the female are directed at first outwards, and then gradually curve upwards and backwards, without any downward flexure or angulation. The horns of the male may be 2 feet in length, with a basal diameter of 13 inches. The muzzle is hairy, with a small naked muffle. There appear to be considerable seasonal and sexual variations in colour; the body being in some cases of a yellow dun, while in others it is a dusky, reddish-brown, with much black intermingled. The heads of large males are blackish.