Chapter XI: The Order Carnivora (4)

As the Otter lives almost exclusively on fish, it is rarely met with far from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks, rivers, lakes, and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most expert swimmer and diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish in the water, but when it has captured its prey it brings it to shore to devour it. When lying upon the bank it holds the fish between its forepaws, commences at the head, and then eats gradually towards the tail, which it is said always to leave. The female produces three to five young ones at a time, in the month of March or April, and brings them up in a nest formed of grass or other herbage, usually placed in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or under the shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The Common Otter is found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great Britain and Ireland, though far less abundantly than formerly, for, being very destructive to fish, and thus coming into keen competition with those who pursue the occupation of fishing either for sport or for gain, it is rarely allowed to live in peace when once its haunts are discovered. Otter-hunting with packs of hounds of a special breed, and trained for the purpose, was formerly a common pastime in the country. When hunted down and brought to bay by the dogs, the Otter is finally despatched by long spears carried for the purpose by the huntsmen.

The Common Otter ranges throughout the greater part of Europe and Asia, the Indian _L. nair_ not being distinct. A closely allied but larger species, _L. canadensis_, is extensively distributed throughout North America, where it is systematically pursued by professional trappers for the value of its fur. The Common Otter is regularly trained by the natives of some parts of Bengal to assist them in fishing, by driving the fish into the nets. In China Otters are taught to catch fish, being let into the water for the purpose attached to a long cord.

Otters are widely distributed over the earth, and, as they are much alike in size and coloration, their specific distinctions are by no means well defined.[494] Besides those mentioned above, the following may be noticed. In the Oriental region there are _L. ellioti_[495] of India, _L. sumatrana_ of the Malay countries, and _L. cinerea_ ranging over the greater part of the region. The latter species (often known as _L. leptonyx_) is of small size, with a short head, and rudimentary claws, which may be absent; it was at one time regarded as generically distinct, under the name of _Aonyx_. The upper true molar (Fig. 261) is characterised by the great development of its inner tubercular portion, and the first upper premolar is absent. In the Ethiopian region there are two species, _L. capensis_ and _L. maculicollis_. Of the Neotropical forms it will suffice to mention the small _L. felina_ and the large _L. brasiliensis_. The latter is by far the largest of the existing forms, and is characterised by the presence of a prominent flange-like ridge along each lateral margin of the tail, on which account it was referred by Dr. Gray to a distinct genus, with the name of _Pteronura sambachi_. It should be observed that all Otters have a very distinct inner cusp to the blade of the lower carnassial, but that the relative size of this cusp varies in the different species.

_Extinct Otters._—Several species of fossil Otters have been described. Thus in the Indian Siwaliks we have _L. palæindica_, which is closely allied to _L. sumatrana_, and a larger form described as _L. bathygnathus_. The Pliocene of Hessen-Darmstadt yields _L. hessica_; while _L. dubia_, of the Middle Miocene of France, is a species characterised by the small size of the inner cusp of the lower carnassial—a character in which it resembles those Tertiary forms described as _Trochictis_, which are believed to connect _Lutra_ with the _Mustelinæ_. Two very large Otters, respectively from the Indian Siwaliks and the Italian Miocene, named _L. sivalensis_ and _L. campanii_, may be regarded either as representing a very distinct _Enhydriodont_ group of _Lutra_ or as referable to a separate genus _Enhydriodon_. They are characterised by certain peculiarities in the structure of the teeth, and the second upper premolar may be absent in the Indian form. Lastly, the genus _Potamotherium_ contains a small Otter (_P. valetoni_) from the Lower Miocene of the Continent, which differs from all other known _Mustelidæ_ in having a minute second upper true molar. This species is evidently a very generalised form approximating to the _Viverridæ_ in its dental formula, and also in the characters of the teeth themselves. The brain, as recently described by Dr. Filhol, differs from that of _Lutra_ and other Mustelines in the great relative width of the anterior extremity of the hemispheres and olfactory lobes, and also in the disposition of the sulci, in both of which respects it more nearly resembles the _Viverridæ_.

_Latax._[496]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 32. Differs from all other existing Carnivora in having but two incisors on each side of the lower jaw, the one corresponding to the first (very small in the true Otters) being constantly absent. Though the molar teeth generally resemble those of _Lutra_ in their proportions, they differ very much in the exceeding roundness and massiveness of their crowns and bluntness of their cusps. Feet webbed. Fore feet small, with five subequal toes, furnished with short compressed claws; palms naked. Hind feet very large, depressed, and fin-like. The phalanges flattened as in the Seals. The fifth toe the longest and stoutest, the rest gradually diminishing in size to the first, all with moderate claws. Tail moderate, cylindrical, and obtuse; about one-fourth the length of the head and body.

The Sea-Otter (_L. lutris_, Fig. 262) is the sole representative of this genus. The entire length of the animal from nose to end of tail is about 4 feet, so that the body is considerably larger and more massive than that of the English Otter. The skin is peculiarly loose, and stretches when removed from the animal so as to give the idea of a still larger creature than it really is. The pellage is remarkable for the preponderance of the beautifully soft woolly under fur, the longer stiffer hairs being very scanty. The general colour is a deep liver brown, everywhere silvered or frosted with the hoary tips of the longer hairs. These are, however, removed when the skin is dressed for commercial purposes.

Sea-Otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain parts of the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, extending as far south on the American coast as Oregon; but, owing to the unremitting persecution to which they are subjected for the sake of their skins, which rank among the most valuable known to the furrier, their numbers are greatly diminishing, and, unless some restriction can be placed upon their destruction, such as that which protects the Fur-Seals of the Pribyloff Islands, the species is threatened with extermination, or, at all events, excessive scarcity. When this occurs, the occupation of five thousand of the half-civilised natives of Alaska, who are dependent upon Sea-Otter hunting as a means for obtaining their living, will be gone. The principal hunting grounds at present are the little rocky islets and reefs around the island of Saanach and the Chernobours, where they are captured by spearing, clubbing, or nets, and recently by the more destructive rifle bullet. They do not feed on fish, like the true Otters, but on clams, mussels, sea-urchins, and crabs, for the mastication of which the blunt cusps of their teeth are admirably suited. The female brings forth but a single young one at a time, apparently at any season of the year. They are excessively shy and wary, and all attempts to rear the young ones in captivity have hitherto failed.

Subfamily =Melinæ=.—Feet elongated. Toes straight. Claws non-retractile, slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt; those of the fore foot especially large. Upper molar variable. Kidneys simple. Habits mostly terrestrial and fossorial.

_Mephitis._[497]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 34. Upper molar larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, rather broader than long. Lower carnassial with talon less than half the length of the whole tooth. Bony palate terminating posteriorly opposite the hinder border of the last molar tooth. Facial portion of skull short and somewhat truncated in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 6, S 2, C 21. Head small. Body elongated. Limbs moderate, subplantigrade. Ears short and rounded. Tail long, abundantly clothed with very long fine hair. Anal glands largely developed. The secretion of these glands, which can be discharged at the will of the animal, has an intolerably offensive odour, which circumstance has rendered the Skunks, as they are commonly called, proverbial. They are strictly nocturnal animals, terrestrial and burrowing, feeding chiefly on small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, worms, roots, and berries. All the known species have a prevalent black colour, varied by white strips or spots on the upper part (Fig. 263). They generally carry the body, much arched, and the tail erect, the long loose hair of which waves like a plume over the back. There are three species, all inhabitants of the American continent, over which they have an extensive range.

The Common Skunk (_M. mephitica_, Fig. 263) is an animal of about the size of a small Cat, ranging from Hudson’s Bay to Guatemala. The following account of its habits is given by Dr. C. H. Merriam in his _Mammals of the Adirondack Region_:—

“The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs, and the eggs of birds that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times he eats carrion, and if he chances to stumble upon a hen’s nest the eggs are liable to suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil habit of robbing the hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted to this vice. Of all our native mammals perhaps no one is so universally abused and has so many unpleasant things said about it as the innocent subject of the present biography; and yet no other species is so valuable to the farmer. Pre-eminently an insect-eater, he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers, and the like than all our other mammals together, and in addition to these he devours vast numbers of mice. He does not evince that dread of man that is so manifest in the great majority of our mammals, and when met during any of his circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He is slow in movement and deliberate in action, and does not often hurry himself in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured walk, but when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling gallop. It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when once really frightened he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace. Skunks remain active throughout the greater part of the year in this region, and hibernate only during the severest portion of the winter. They differ from most of our hibernating mammals in that the inactive period is apparently dependent solely on the temperature, while the mere amount of snow has no influence whatever upon their movements. Skunks, particularly when young, make very pretty pets, being attractive in appearance, gentle in disposition, interesting in manners, and cleanly in habits—rare qualities indeed! They are playful, sometimes mischievous, and manifest considerable affection for those who have the care of them. Their flesh is white, tender, and sweet, and is delicious eating. Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being commonly raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same hole until the following spring.”

The two ducts leading from the anal glands open at the tips of two small conical papillæ placed in such a position that the animal can protrude them externally, and can thus guide the direction of the jet of nauseous fluid, which can be propelled by the powerful muscles surrounding the glands to a distance of from 8 to 12 feet.

The Long-tailed Skunk (_M. macrura_), from Central and Southern Mexico, has two lateral stripes, and a longer and more bushy tail than the common species. _M. putorius_, of the Southern United States and thence southwards to Yucatan and Guatemala, is of a much smaller size, with four interrupted white lateral stripes, and a skull differing considerably in form from that of the type species. It is regarded by some writers as representing a distinct genus, _Spilogale_; and has been recently divided by Dr. C. H. Merriam into several nominal species.

_Conepatus._[498]—The Skunk of tropical America (_C. mapacito_), ranging from Texas to Chili and Patagonia, differs considerably from the true Skunks, although in colour it is almost precisely similar to the common species, with which it also agrees in the variation of the relative development of the black and white. Its build is heavier than that of _Mephitis_; the snout and head are more Pig-like; and the nostrils open downwards and forwards instead of laterally on the sides of the muzzle. The skull also has many special characters, and the teeth are different in shape and, as, a rule, in number also, the first minute premolar of _Mephitis_ being almost invariably absent, so that the dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 32.

Remains of _Conepatus_, which have been referred to three species, are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.

_Arctonyx._[499]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 38. Incisor line curved, the outer teeth being placed posteriorly to the others. Lower incisors proclivous. First premolars often rudimentary or absent. Upper molar much larger than the carnassial, longer in the antero-posterior direction than broad; lower carnassial with a very large, low, tuberculated talon. Cranium elongated and depressed; face long, narrow, and concave above. Bony palate extending as far backwards as the level of the glenoid fossa; palatal bones dilated; suborbital foramina very large. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 4, S 4, C 20. Snout long, naked, mobile, and truncated, with large terminal nostrils, much like that of a Pig. Eyes small. Ears very small and rounded. Body compressed rather than depressed. Limbs of moderate length and digitigrade in walking. Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under fur, with longer, bristly hairs interspersed. The best-known species is _A. collaris_, the Sand-Badger, or _Bhálu-soor_[500] (_i.e._ Bear-pig) of the natives, found in the mountains of the north-east of India and Assam. It is rather larger than the English Badger, higher on its legs, and very Pig-like in general aspect, of a light gray colour, with flesh-coloured snout and feet; and is nocturnal and omnivorous in habits. The imperfectly known _A. taxoides_ from Assam and Arakan, and perhaps China, is a much smaller species. A third form probably exists in Eastern Tibet. Professor Mivart remarks that the brain-case of _Arctonyx_ is narrower than in any other Arctoid; while the palate is relatively longer than in any other Carnivore except _Procyon_; and the metatarsus is relatively shorter than in any other member of the order.

_Mydaus._[501]—Dentition as in the last genus, but the cusps of the teeth more acutely pointed. Cranium elongated, face narrow and produced. Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all the succeeding genera of this group, produced backwards about midway between the last molar tooth and the glenoid fossa. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C 12. Head pointed in front; snout produced, mobile, obliquely truncated, the nostrils being inferior. Limbs rather short and stout. Tail extremely short, but clothed with rather long bushy hair. Anal glands largely developed, and emitting an odour like that of the American Skunks. One species, _M. meliceps_, the Teledu, a small burrowing Badger, found in the mountains of Java at an elevation of 7000 or more feet above sea-level.

_Meles._[502]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 38. The first premolar in both jaws extremely minute and often deciduous. Upper molar very much larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, as broad as long. Lower carnassial with a broad, low, tuberculated talon, more than half the length of the whole tooth. The post-glenoid processes of the skull are so strongly developed, and the glenoid fossa is so deep, that the condyle of the lower jaw is firmly held in its place even after all the surrounding soft parts are removed. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 18. Muzzle pointed. Ears very short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short, strong, subplantigrade. Tail short. The best-known species is the common Badger (_M. taxus_) of Europe and Northern Asia, still found in many parts of England, where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing, and very omnivorous, feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns, and roots. Other nearly allied species, _M. leucurus_ and _M. chinensis_, are found in continental Asia, _M. canescens_ in Persia, and _M. anakuma_ in Japan.

The appearance of the common Badger is too well known to need description, but, it may be mentioned that a full-grown individual stands about a foot in height at the shoulder, and measures from 2½ to 3 feet in length. The young are born in a naked and blind condition, usually in litters of three or four. It appears that the usual period of gestation is about eleven and a half months, but instances are recorded where the period has been protracted to upwards of fifteen months.

Fossil remains of the common Badger are found in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe, while extinct species have been described from the Lower Pliocene beds of Maragha, in Persia.

_Taxidea._[503]—Dental formula as in _Meles_, except that the rudimentary anterior premolar appears to be always wanting in the upper jaw. The upper carnassial much larger in proportion to the other teeth. Upper molar about the same size as the carnassial, triangular, with the apex turned backwards. Talon of lower carnassial less than half the length of the tooth. Skull very wide in the occipital region; the lambdoidal crest very greatly developed, and the sagittal but slightly, contrary to what obtains in _Meles_. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 16. Body very stoutly built and depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are peculiar to North America, where they represent the Badgers of the Old World, resembling them much in appearance and habits. _T. americana_ is the common American Badger of the United States; _T. berlandieri_, the Mexican Badger, is perhaps only a local variety.

_Mellivora._[504]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total 32. Upper carnassial large, with its inner tubercle quite at the anterior end of the blade, as in the following genera; molar much smaller and transversely extended, having a very small outer and a larger rounded inner lobe. Talon of lower carnassial very small, scarcely one-fourth of the whole length of the tooth, and with but one cusp; lower tubercular molar absent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 4, S 4, C 15. Body stout, depressed. Limbs short, strong. Head depressed, nose rather pointed. External ears rudimentary. Tail short. The animals of this genus are commonly called Ratels. _M. indica_ from India, and, _M. ratel_ (Fig. 264) from South and West Africa, have nearly the same general appearance and size, being rather larger than a common Badger. Their coloration is peculiar, all the upper surface of the body, head, and tail being ashy gray, while the lower parts, separated by a distinct longitudinal boundary line, are black. The two species may be distinguished by the circumstance that the African one has a distinct white line round the body at the junction of the gray of the upper side with the black of the lower, while in the Indian form this line is absent; the teeth also of the former are, on the whole, larger, rounder, and heavier than those of the latter. In spite of these differences the two are, however, so nearly allied that they might almost be considered as local races of a single widely spread species.

The following account of the Indian species is extracted from Dr. Jerdon’s _Mammals of India_: “The Indian badger is found throughout the whole of India, from the extreme south to the foot of the Himalayas, chiefly in hilly districts, where it has greater facilities for constructing the holes and dens in which it lives; but also in the north of India in alluvial plains, where the banks of large rivers afford equally suitable localities wherein to make its lair. It is stated to live usually in pairs, and to eat rats, birds, frogs, white ants, and various insects, and in the north of India it is accused of digging out dead bodies, and is popularly known as the grave-digger. It doubtless also, like its Cape congener, occasionally partakes of honey. It is often very destructive to poultry, and I have known of several having been trapped and killed whilst committing such depredations in Central India and in the northern Circars. In confinement the Indian badger is quiet and will partake of vegetable food, fruits, rice, etc.”

A fossil species of _Millivora_, apparently closely allied to the existing forms, occurs in the Pliocene Siwaliks of India. The same deposits have also yielded remains of an extinct genus described as _Mellivorodon_.

_Helictis._[505]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 38. Upper carnassial with a large bicuspid inner tubercle; upper molar smaller, wider transversely than in the antero-posterior direction. Lower carnassial with talon about one-third the length of the tooth. Skull elongated, rather narrow and depressed. Facial portion especially narrow. Infraorbital foramen very large. Head rather small and produced in front, with an elongated, obliquely truncated, naked snout. Ears small. Body elongated. Limbs short. Tail short or moderate, bushy. Several species are described (_H. orientalis_, _personata_ [Fig. 265], _moschata_, _subaurantiaca_), all from Eastern Asia; they are all small animals compared with the other members of the subfamily, climbing trees with agility and living much on fruit and berries as well as on small mammals and birds. The two first named species occur in British India, _H. orientalis_ also ranging into Java; the Chinese _H. subaurantiaca_ is brilliantly coloured in the region of the throat.[506]

The brain of _Helictis_, represented in the accompanying figure, shows the general type of cerebral structure characteristic of the _Mustelidæ_. The brain of this genus differs, however, from that of every other Carnivore in that the hippocampal gyrus rises to the surface on either side of the great longitudinal fissure, in consequence of which there is no crucial fissure, and the so-called “Ursine lozenge,” so characteristic of the Arctoidea, is incomplete behind. The superior gyrus, as in _Ictonyx_ and _Mustela_, ceases at the superior posterior angle of the hemisphere.

_Ictonyx._[507]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 34. In general characters the teeth much resemble those of the Polecats (_Mustela_), being more delicately cut and sharply cusped than in most of the foregoing. Upper molar smaller than the carnassial, narrow from before backwards. Lower carnassial with a small narrow talon and distinct inner cusp. General form of body Musteline. Limbs short. Fore feet large and broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt, and non-retractile claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards the end, giving it a bushy appearance. Hairs generally long and loose. The best known species of this genus, _I. zorilla_, the Cape Polecat, was placed by Cuvier in the genus _Mustela_, and by Lichtenstein in _Mephitis_; and in many characters it forms a transition between these genera. It is about the size of an English Polecat, but conspicuous by its coloration, having broad, longitudinal bands of dark brown, alternating with white. Its odour is said to be as offensive as that of the American Skunks. From the Cape of Good Hope it ranges as far north as Senegal. Another species, _I. frenata_, from Sennaar and Egypt, has been described.

Subfamily =Mustelinæ=.—Toes short, partially webbed; claws short, compressed, acute, curved, often semiretractile. Upper molar of moderate size, wide transversely. Kidneys simple. Terrestrial and arboreal in habits.

_Galictis._[508]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 34. Molars small but stout. Upper carnassial with the inner tubercle near the middle of the inner border of the tooth. Lower carnassial with talon small, and inner cusp small or absent. Body long. Limbs short; claws non-retractile. Palms and soles naked. Head broad and depressed. Tail of moderate length. The best-known species are _G. vittata_, the Grison (genus _Grisonia_, Gray), and _G. barbara_, the Tayra (genus _Galera_, Gray), both South American; _G. allamandi_ is an intermediate form.

Remains of _Galictis_ occur in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, and also in the Pleistocene of North America.

_Mustela._[509]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 34 or 38. Upper carnassial with inner tubercle close to the anterior edge of the tooth. Molar nearly as large as carnassial. Lower carnassial with small or no inner cusp. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 18-23. Body long and slender. Limbs short, digitigrade. Feet rounded; toes short, with compressed, acute, semiretractile claws. Tail moderate or long, more or less bushy.

The genus _Mustela_, as restricted by Cuvier (_Règne Animal_, 1817), contains a very natural assemblage of animals commonly called Martens, Sables, Polecats, Stoats, Ermines, and Weasels, all closely allied in structure and habits. A structural division, however, occurs between the two first-named and all the others, especially shown in the presence of an additional small premolar tooth on each side of the jaw; and, availing himself of this and some other minor characters, Cuvier divided the genus into two subgenera, for the first of which he retained the name of _Mustela_, and to the second assigned that of _Putorius_. Three years later Nilsson (_Skand. Fauna_, 1820) definitely constituted the two groups into genera, applying to the first the name of _Martes_, by which the animals composing it had been generally designated by the Latin writing zoologists of the preceding century, and keeping _Mustela_ for the more typical Weasels and their immediate allies. Later zoologists have been divided between the nomenclature of Cuvier, which has the priority, and that of Nilsson, which on other grounds is preferable. Those who adopt the latter affirm that Cuvier’s names, being only used by him in a subgeneric sense, and not binominally, need not be applied generically, but this is contrary to the practice usually followed in such cases; and therefore, if the original genus be divided, the name _Mustela_ should be retained for the Martens, and _Putorius_ for the Polecats and Weasels. Here, however, the genus will be employed in its wider sense, and divided into two groups.

The typical group of the Martens[510] presents the following distinctive features. Body long, slender, and very flexible, though less so than in the true Weasels. Head somewhat triangular; muzzle pointed, the nose extending a little beyond the lips; eyes large and prominent; ears conspicuous, broad, somewhat triangular, rounded at the ends, furred outside and in. Limbs short; feet rounded; toes short, five on each foot, all with short, compressed, curved, sharp-pointed claws; soles densely furred between the naked pads. Tail moderately long, more or less bushy. Outer fur long, strong, and glossy; a very abundant soft under fur. Skull elongated and depressed. Facial portion moderate and rather compressed. Zygomata arched and wide, but slender. Postorbital processes small. Auditory bullæ large, but not very globose. Mandible with a strong triangular vertical coronoid process and a well-developed angular process. Premolars ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors in a straight transverse line, rather long and compressed; first and second subequal, third considerably larger. Lower incisors very small, especially the first, and crowded together, the second placed rather behind the others. Canines long and sharp-pointed. Upper premolars: first very small, with simple crown and one root; second and third nearly equal in size and two-rooted, with simple compressed sharp-pointed crowns, with very slightly developed accessory cusps; fourth (the carnassial) with blade consisting chiefly of the central and posterior lobes, the anterior being rudimentary, inner tubercle small and confined to the anterior part of the tooth. True molar tubercular, about twice as wide transversely as in the antero-posterior direction, having an outer, more elevated, but smaller portion, bearing three blunt tubercles; to the inner side of this the crown is contracted, and its surface deeply hollowed; it then expands again into a broad low lobe, with the central part elevated, and a raised, even, semicircular, slightly crenated internal border. Lower premolars: first very small, simple, and one-rooted; second, third, and fourth increasing slightly in size, with high compressed pointed crowns and posterior accessory cusps, best marked in the third. First molar (carnassial) with well-marked bilobed blade, talon scarcely more than one-third of the length of the tooth, and a very small inner cusp. Second molar small, single-rooted, with a low, flattened, subcircular or oval tubercular crown.

In geographical distribution the Martens are limited to the northern hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, as far north as conditions of existence suited to their habits are met with, and southwards in America to 35° N. lat., while in Asia one species is met with as far in this direction as the island of Java.

The various species appear to be very similar in their habits. They live in woods and rocky places, and are thoroughly arboreal, spending most of their time in trees, although descending to the ground in quest of prey. They climb with great facility, and are agile and graceful in their movements. Some species are said occasionally to resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are strictly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as squirrels, hares, rabbits, and moles, but chiefly mice of various kinds, of which they destroy great numbers, and occasionally snakes, lizards, and frogs. In proportion to their size they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals, though less so than the true Weasels. The female usually makes her nest of moss, dried leaves, and grass in the hollow of a tree, but sometimes in a hole among rocks or ruined buildings, and produces several young at a birth, usually from four to six. Though wild and untameable to a great degree if captured when fully grown, when taken young they are very docile, and have frequently been made pets of, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the smaller _Mustelidæ_. The common European Marten appears to have been partially domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and to have been used to keep houses clear from rats and mice before cats were introduced.[511] In the same way, according to Hodgson, the Yellow-bellied Weasel (_M. cathia_) “is exceedingly prized by the Nipalese for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; and such is the dread of it common to all Murine animals that not one will approach a house where it is domiciled.” It is, however, to the great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their importance to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of serviceable quality, the commercial value varies immensely, not only according to the particular species from which it is obtained, but according to individual variation, depending upon age, sex, season, and other trifling circumstances. The skins from northern regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss than those from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed in winter compared with the same individuals in the summer season. The caprices of fashion have, moreover, set wholly factitious values upon slight shades of colour, recognised and named by experienced furriers, but not indicating any specific or other distinctions of which zoologists have any cognisance. Enormous numbers of animals are annually caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the demand of the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the principal localities from which they are obtained.

With the exception of the Pekan (_M. pennanti_) all the Martens are so much alike in size, general colouring, and cranial and dental characters that the discrimination of the species, and assignment of the proper geographical distribution to each, has been a subject which has sorely perplexed the ingenuity and patience of zoologists. The following description by Dr. Elliott Coues of the external characters of the American Pine Marten (_M. americana_) will apply almost equally well to most of the others: “It is almost impossible to describe the colour of the Pine Marten, except in general terms, without going into the details of the endless diversities occasioned by age, sex, season, or other incidents. The animal is ‘brown,’ of various shades from orange or tawny to quite blackish; the tail and feet are ordinarily the darkest, the head lightest, often quite whitish; the ears are usually rimmed with whitish; on the throat there is usually a large tawny-yellowish or orange-brown patch, from the chin to the fore legs, sometimes entire, sometimes broken into a number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes wanting, sometimes prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal is bicolor like a Stoat in summer. The general ‘brown’ has a grayish cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs prevail. The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are black. The tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a white tip.”

The species generally recognised as distinct are the following, the first five belonging to the Old and the last two to the New World:—

_M. foina_, the Beech Marten, Stone Marten, or White-breasted Marten.—Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth of the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by the dull grayish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts, and the pure white of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater part of the continent of Europe, but is more southern than the next in its distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway, nor, according to the investigations of Mr. Alston, in the British Isles, although included in their fauna by all earlier writers; to the eastward it ranges into Afghanistan and the Himalaya.

_M. martes_, the Pine Marten (Fig. 267).—Outer fur rich dark brown; under fur reddish-gray, with clear yellow tips; breast spot usually yellow, varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or yellowish-white. Length of head and body 16 to 18 inches; of tail (including the hair) 9 to 12 inches. This species is extensively distributed throughout northern Europe and Asia, and was formerly common in most parts of Great Britain and Ireland. Though commonly called “Pine Marten,” it does not appear to have any special preference for coniferous trees, except that, inasmuch as they constitute the greater proportion of the forests of the countries which it inhabits, it is more often met with in them than in any other. With regard to its recent occurrence in the British Isles, Mr. Alston writes in the _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879:—

“Although greatly reduced in numbers by persecution, it still maintains its ground in the wilder districts of Scotland, the north of England, Wales, and Ireland; and occasionally specimens are killed in counties where the species was thought to have been long extinct. In Scotland it is still found, though comparatively rarely, in the Lews and in most of the Highland mainland counties, being perhaps most abundant in Sutherland and Ross-shire, especially in the deer forests. In the Lowlands a Marten is now a very great rarity; but a fine example was killed in Ayrshire in the winter of 1875-76. In the north of England Mr. W. A. Durnford says the species is still plentiful in the wilder parts of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire, and in Lincolnshire several have been recorded, the latest killed in 1865, by Mr. Cordeaux. In Norfolk one was shot last year; and I have myself examined a fine example which was shot in Hertfordshire, within 20 miles of London, in December 1872. In Dorsetshire the last is said to have been killed in 1804; but a specimen occurred in Hampshire about forty years ago, and another in Surrey in 1847. In Ireland the following counties were enumerated by Thompson as habitats of this species: Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Fermanagh, Longford, Galway, Tipperary, Cork, and Kerry. The _Cat-crann_ is probably now a rarer animal in Ireland than it was when Thompson wrote; but it still exists in various districts, especially in County Kerry, whence the society has received several living examples; and Professor A. Leith Adams states that it has been seen of late years even in county Dublin.”

_M. zibellina_, the Sable (German, _Zobel_ and _Zebel_; Swedish, _sabel_; Russian, _sobel_, a word probably of Turanian origin).—Closely resembling the last, if indeed differing from it except in the quality of the fur, which is the most highly valued of that of all the group. Found chiefly in Eastern Siberia.

_M. flavigula_, the Indian Marten.—Inhabits the southern slopes of the Himalaya, the Nilgiri Hills, the interior of Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and Java. The coloration of this species is very striking, the upper parts being blackish-brown, and the throat and breast yellow or orange, in the bright coloured variety. It differs from the other species in having the soles of the feet more or less naked.

_M. melampus._—Japan.

_M. americana_, the North-American Sable or Marten.—A species so closely allied to the European Pine Marten and Asiatic Sable that it is very difficult to assign constant distinguishing characters between them. The importance of the fur of this animal as an article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000 skins were sold in one year by the Hudson’s Bay Company as long ago as 1743, and the more recent annual imports into Great Britain have exceeded 100,000. It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps of very simple construction, being little enclosures of stakes or brush in which the bait is placed upon a trigger, with a short upright stick supporting a log of wood, which falls upon its victim on the slightest disturbance. A line of such traps, several to a mile, often extends many miles. The bait is any kind of meat, a mouse, squirrel, piece of fish, or bird’s head. It is principally trapped during the colder months, from October to April, when the fur is in good condition, as it is nearly valueless during the shedding in summer. Dr. Coues tells us that, notwithstanding the persistent and uninterrupted destruction to which the American Sable is subjected, it does not appear to diminish materially in numbers in unsettled parts of the country. It holds its own partly in consequence of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men, and partly because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight young at a litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said frequently to take forcible possession of a squirrel’s nest, driving off or devouring the rightful proprietor.

_M. pennanti_, the Pekan or Pennant’s Marten, also called Fisher Marten, though there appears to be nothing in its habits to justify the appellation.—This is the largest species of the group, the head and body measuring from 24 to 30 inches, and the tail 14 to 18 inches. It is also more robust in form than the others, its general aspect being more that of a Fox than a Weasel; in fact, its usual name among the American hunters is “Black Fox.” Its general colour is blackish, lighter by mixture of brown or gray on the head and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the throat, and unlike the other Martens generally darker below than above. It was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the greater part of North America, as far north as Great Slave Lake, 63° N. lat., and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of 35°; but at the present time it is almost exterminated in the settled parts of the United States east of the Mississippi.

Fossil remains of a Marten from the Pliocene Siwaliks of India indicate a species which cannot be distinguished from those now inhabiting the same region; while remains of _M. martes_ occur in European cavern-deposits, and in the fens of Cambridgeshire.

With the _Putoriine_ group (genus _Putorius_) we come to those smaller forms distinguished by having only three premolars in each jaw, by the absence of an inner cusp to the blade of the lower carnassial, as well as by certain external characters. This group contains a few species known as Minks, differing from the rest by slight structural modifications, and especially by their semiaquatic habits. They are distinguished from the Polecats, Stoats, and Weasels, which constitute the remainder of the group, by the facial part of the skull being narrower and more approaching in form that of the Martens, by the premolar teeth (especially the anterior one in the upper jaw) being larger, by the toes being partially webbed, and by the absence of hair in the intervals between the naked pads of the soles of the feet. The two best-known species, so much alike in size, form, colour, and habits that although they are widely separated geographically some zoologists question their specific distinction, are _M. lutreola_, the _Nörz_ or _Sumpfotter_ (Marsh-Otter) of Eastern Europe, and _M. vison_, the Mink of North America. The former inhabits Finland, Poland, and the greater part of Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. Formerly it extended westward into Central Germany, but is now very rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is found in places which suit its habits throughout the whole of North America. Another form, _M. sibirica_, from Eastern Asia, of which much less is known, appears to connect the true Minks with the Polecats.

For the following description, chiefly taken from the American form (though almost equally applicable to that of Europe), we are mainly indebted to Dr. Coues’s _Fur-bearing Animals of North America_. In size it much resembles the English Polecat,—the length of the head and body being usually from 15 to 18 inches, that of the tail to the end of the hair about 9 inches. The female is considerably smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project beyond the adjacent fur. The pellage consists of a dense, soft, matted under fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all parts of the body and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern specimens have the finest and most glistening pellage; in those from southern regions there is less difference between the under and over fur, and the whole pellage is coarser and harsher. In colour different specimens present a considerable range of variation, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the general upper parts; but the back is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle of the mouth, is generally white. In the European Mink the upper lip is also white, but as this occasionally occurs in American specimens it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail is tipped with white. The fur, like that of most of the animals of the group to which it belongs, is an important article of commerce.

The principal characteristic of the Mink in comparison with its congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what the other Weasels are to the land, or Martens to the trees, being as essentially aquatic in its habits as the Otter, Beaver, or Musk-Rat, and spending perhaps more of its time in the water than it does on land. It swims with most of the body submerged, and dives with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface to breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams, breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing five or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish, freshwater molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk-rats, rabbits, and small birds. In common with the other animals of the genus, it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium, which, according to Coues, is more powerful, penetrating, and lasting than that of any animal of the country except the Skunk. It also possesses the courage, ferocity, and tenacity of life of its allies. When taken young, however, it can be readily tamed, and lately Minks have been extensively bred in captivity in America, both for the sake of their fur and for the purpose of using them in like manner as Ferrets in England, to clear buildings of rats.

The Polecats include four species confined to the northern hemisphere, the best known of which is the Common Polecat (_M. putorius_, Fig. 268). The Ferret is a domesticated variety of this species, generally of a yellowish-white colour; whereas the Wild Polecat is dark brown above and black beneath, the face being variegated with dark brown and white markings.

The skull is rough, strongly ridged, and of a far more powerful type than that of the Stoats, Weasels, or Martens; being in the female much smaller and lighter than in the male. The fur, which is long, coarse, and of comparatively small value, changes its colour very little, if at all, at the different seasons of the year.

The distribution and habits of this species have been described by Blasius, the following being an abstract of his account. The Polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching northwards into Southern Sweden, and in Russia to the region of the White Sea. It does not occur in the extreme South, but is common everywhere throughout Central Europe. In the Alps it ranges far above the tree-line during the summer, but retreats in winter to lower ground. In fine weather it lives either in the open air, in holes, fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under rocks, or in wood-stacks, while in winter it seeks the protection of deserted buildings. During the day it sleeps in its hiding-place, sallying forth at night to plunder dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and shows far less activity than the Marten. It feeds ordinarily on small mammals, such as rabbits, hamsters, rats, and mice, on such birds as it can catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also on snakes, lizards, frogs, fish, and eggs. Its prey is devoured only in its lair, but, even though it can carry away but a single victim, it commonly kills everything that comes in its way, often destroying all the inhabitants of a hen-house in order to gratify its passion for slaughter. The pairing time is towards the end of the winter, and the young, from three to eight in number, are born in April or May, after a period of gestation of about two months. The young, if taken early, may be easily trained, like Ferrets, for rabbit catching. The Polecat is very tenacious of life, and will bear many severe wounds before succumbing; it is also said to receive with impunity the bite of the adder. Its fetid smell has become proverbial.

Four other species of Polecats are known, viz.—The Siberian Polecat (_M. eversmanni_) of Western and Northern Asia is nearly allied to the European species, but the head and back are almost white, and the skull is stouter and more constricted behind the orbits. The Tibetan _M. larvata_ is distinguished from the last by the presence of a process connecting the pterygoid with the auditory bulla, and by a difference in the shape of the upper molar. The American Polecat (_M. nigripes_), inhabiting the central plateau of the United States, and extending southwards into Texas, is another closely allied species, although some zoologists have made it the type of the genus _Cynomyonax_. Finally, the Mottled Polecat (_M. sarmatica_) is a species sparsely distributed in Eastern Europe and parts of Western Asia, but common in Southern Afghanistan. Its skull, although smaller, resembles that of the common species; but the coloration is very different, all the upper parts being mottled with large irregular reddish spots on a white ground, and the under side, limbs, and tail deep shining black. The tail is long.

The Common Polecat occurs in a fossil condition in the cave-deposits of Europe.

The remaining members of the genus comprise the true Weasels and Stoats, which are of almost cosmopolitan distribution. In the Common Weasel (_M. vulgaris_, Fig. 269) the upper parts, outside of limbs and tail, are a uniform reddish-brown, the under parts pure white. In very cold regions, both in Europe and America, it turns completely white in winter, but less regularly and at a lower temperature than the Stoat, from which it is easily distinguished by its smaller size, and by its wanting the black end of the tail. The length of the head and body of the male is usually about 8 inches, that of the tail 2½ inches; the female is smaller.

This species is pretty generally distributed throughout Europe, Northern and Central Asia, British North America, and the northern portions of the United States. It possesses in a full degree all the active, courageous, and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the genus, but its diminutive size prevents it attacking and destroying any but the smaller mammals and birds. Mice, rats, voles, moles, and frogs constitute its principal food. It is generally found on or near the surface of the ground, but it can not only pursue its prey through very small holes and crevices of rocks and under dense tangled herbage, but follow it up the stems and branches of trees, or even into the water, swimming with perfect ease. It constructs a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground or a bank or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four to six (usually five) young ones. The mother will defend her young with the utmost desperation against any assailant, having been often known to sacrifice her own life rather than desert them.

The Stoat or Ermine (_M. erminea_) has nearly the same distribution as the Weasel, but in Asia it is said to extend into parts of the Kashmir Himalaya. Its size, as already mentioned, considerably exceeds that of the Weasel; and its most distinctive feature is the black tip at the end of the tail, which remains when the rest of the pellage turns white. The white winter skins from the northern regions of its habitat, where the fur is thick and close, form the well-known and valuable ermine of commerce. Remains of the Stoat are found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Europe. The other species of Weasels are very numerous and widely distributed.

_Extinct Mustelines._—A number of European Miocene Carnivores may be referred to the genus _Mustela_ in its wider sense, and serve to confirm the propriety of this use of the term. Thus _M. sectoria_ is a species of somewhat larger size than the Stoat, with _p_ ⁴⁄₄, while in _M. angustifrons_ the number of premolars is ³⁄₄, and in _M. mustelina_ ⁴⁄₃; the latter species agreeing very closely in size with the Stoat. The extinct _Plesictis_, in which there are _p_ ⁴⁄₄ and the lower carnassial has a large inner cusp, is distinguished from _Mustela_ by the circumstance that the temporal ridges of the skull never unite to form a sagittal crest. Moreover, the inner tubercular portion of the upper molar (as in some of the Miocene species of _Mustela_) is shorter in an antero-posterior direction than the secant outer moiety; and the auditory bulla is more inflated than in _Mustela_, although it has no septum. Both these features indicate a decided approximation to the Viverroid genus _Stenoplesiotis_ (p. 539); and since there are no well-marked characters of family value by which these two genera can be distinguished the available evidence points to a transition from the Viverroid to the Musteloid type. _Mustela larteti_, of the Middle Miocene of France, should perhaps be referred to _Ictonyx_.

_Pœcilogale._[512]—This genus has been made for the reception of the South African _Mustela albinucha_, in which the coloration is similar to that of _Ictonyx_, but the number of cheek-teeth is usually reduced to _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁, although there may be a second lower molar. The auditory bulla is quite flat.

_Lyncodon._[513]—This name has been proposed for a small Musteline from Patagonia, with _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁, which Mr. O. Thomas suggests may be nothing more than an aberrant southern form of _Mustela_ (_Putorius_) _brasiliensis_. The auditory bulla is more inflated than in the typical Weasels. This animal is somewhat larger than the Stoat.