Chapter XIV: The Order Primates (4)

B. Melanochroi, with black hair and eyes, and skin of almost all shades from white to black. They comprise the great majority of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and South-West Asia, and consist mainly of the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic families. The Dravidians of India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and probably the Ainos of Japan, and the Maoutze of China, also belong to this race, which may have contributed something to the mixed character of some tribes of Indo-China and the Polynesian Islands, and, as before said, have given at least the characters of the hair to the otherwise Negroid inhabitants of Australia. In Southern India they are largely mixed with a Negrito element, and in Africa, where their habitat becomes coterminous with that of the Negroes, numerous cross-races have sprung up between them all along the frontier line. The ancient Egyptians were nearly pure Melanochroi, though often showing in their features traces of their frequent intermarriages with their Ethiopian neighbours to the south. The Copts and fellahs of modern Egypt are their little-changed descendants.

In offering this scheme of classification of the varieties of the human species, it is not suggested that it is one universally accepted by anthropologists, or that it is likely to be final. Whatever care be bestowed upon the arrangement of already acquired details, or whatever judgment be shown in their due subordination one to another, the acquisition of new knowledge may at any time call for a complete or partial rearrangement of the system. The difficulties which encompass the subject have, indeed, been already indicated, and will be found abundantly illustrated in the writings of those authors who have specially devoted themselves to its elucidation.

_Bibliography._—P. Topinard, _Éléments d’Anthropologie
Générale_, 1885; A. de Quatrefages, _Histoire Générale
des Races Humaines_ (1. _Questions Générales_, 1887; 2.
_Classification des Races Humaines_, 1889); Quatrefages and
Hamy, _Crania Ethnica_ (1873-1879); D. G. Brinton, _Races and
Peoples_, 1890.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Galton’s _South Africa_, p. 187.

[2] L. F. E. Rousseau, _Anatomie comparée du Système dentaire chez l’Homme et chez les principaux Animaux_, 2d ed., 1839; F. Cuvier, _Des Dents des Mammifères considérées comme caractères zoologiques_, 1822-25; R. Owen, _Odontography_, 1840-45; C. G. Giebel, _Odontographie_, 1855; C. S. Tomes, _Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative_, 3d ed., 1889.

[3] The lower incisors of some species of Shrews are, however, said to become ankylosed to the jaw in adult age.

[4] The teeth of the extinct Dinosaurian reptile _Triceratops_ have two distinct roots, placed transversely to the axis of the jaws.

[5] This and other questions concerning the homologies, notation, and succession of the teeth of mammals are more fully developed in two memoirs by one of the present writers:—“Remarks on the Homologies and Notation of the Teeth of the Mammalia,” in the _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. iii. p. 262, 1869; and “Notes on the First or Milk Dentition of the Mammalia,” in the _Trans. Odontological Society of Great Britain_, 1871. See also an important memoir by Oldfield Thomas on the “Homologies and Succession of the teeth in the Dasyuridæ,” _Phil. Trans._ 1887, pp. 443-462.

[6] By many writers the letters indicating the different kinds of teeth are printed in capitals, as _I_, _C_, _P_, and _M_; while very frequently the symbol _Pm_ is employed in place of _p_.

[7] According to Mr. G. E. Dobson there are four upper incisors in some of the _Soricidæ_.

[8] See for the principal modifications of the skeleton of the class, the large and beautifully illustrated _Ostéographie_ of De Blainville, 1835-54; the section devoted to the subject in Bronn’s _Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs_, by Giebel, 1874-79; and _An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia_, by W. H. Flower, 3d ed., 1885.

[9] This and many of the following figures in this chapter are taken from Flower’s _Osteology of the Mammalia_.

[10] For the sake of uniformity, in all the following descriptions of the vertebral column, the long axis of the body is supposed to be in the horizontal position.

[11] The opinion has recently been expressed by Baur that bone termed radiale in Fig. 17 is really a second centrale, and that the radiale is represented by a minute bone generally known as the radial sesamoid. The mammalian scaphoid is accordingly also regarded as a second centrale. In the same communication, Dr. Baur expresses his disbelief in the existence of remnants of a prepollex and of a seventh digit in mammals and other vertebrates. (See _Anat. Anzeiger_, vol. iv. pp. 49-52, 1889.)

[12] On the Præpollex and Præhallux, etc., _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, pp. 259-262.

[13] Cope and Baur consider that the astragalus corresponds only with the intermedium, and that the tibiale may exist as a distinct element.

[14] For further details of these modifications, see Flower’s “Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia,” _Medical Times and Gazette_, Feb.-Dec. 1872.

[15] G. Gulliver, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1862, p. 91.

[16] The modifications of these bones are fully described by A. Doran, “Morphology of the Mammalian _Ossicula auditus_,” _Trans. Linn. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 371-497, pl. lviii.-lxiv. (1878).

[17] See B. H. Caldwell—“The Embryology of Monotremata and Marsupialia,” _Phil. Trans._ for 1887, p. 463.

[18] _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1881, p. 468.

[19] “_Studien ueber Entwickelungeschichte der Thiere_,” pt. 4, Wiesbaden, 1886.

[20] _Journal of Morphology_, vol. i. p. 373 (1887).

[21] For a full exposition of the present state of knowledge on this subject, see the various memoirs of Sir William Turner, also F. M. Balfour’s _Treatise on Comparative Embryology_, vol. ii. (1881), and J. A. Ryder in _American Naturalist_, vol. xxi. p. 780 (1887).

[22] _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. xxviii. p. 395 (1879).

[23] “The Relations between the Theromorphous Reptiles and the Monotreme Mammalia,” _Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science_, vol. xxxiii. p. 471 (1885).

[24] “On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida,” _Journal of Morphology_, vol. i. pp. 93-104 (1887).

[25] The names of the groups containing only extinct forms are printed in heavier type than those which contain species still existing.

[26] On this subject see A. Murray, _Geographical Distribution of Mammals_, 1866; and especially A. R. Wallace, _The Geographical Distribution of Animals_, 2 vols., 1876, and _Island Life_, 1881; also A. Heilprin, _The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals_, 1887.

[27] _Distribution of Animals._

[28] Generally known, as _Hyomoschus_, but first described as an extinct form under the above name.

[29] The fore limb from S. Africa described as _Theriodesmus_, which appears to be mammalian, and may belong to _Tritylodon_.

[30] The subjects referred to under this heading are mostly described and figured in detail in Owen’s “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations,” _Palæontographical Society’s Publications_, 1871; and in various papers by Marsh, in the _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1878-89. Important contributions to our knowledge of these forms have also been made by Professors Cope and Osborn, and the reader should especially consult the memoir by the latter writer on the “Structure and Affinities of the Mesozoic Mammals,” published in the _Journal of the Philadelphia Academy_ (1888), vol. ix.

[31] The whole discussion is contained in the following memoirs: (1) H. Falconer, “Description of Two Species of the Fossil Mammalian genus _Plagiaulax_, from Purbeck,” _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. xiv. 1857; (2) R. Owen, art. “Palæontology,” _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 8th ed., 1859; (3) H. Falconer, “On the Disputed affinity of the Mammalian genus _Plagiaulax_,” _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. xviii. 1862; (4) R. Owen, “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formation,” _Palæontographical Society_, 1871.

[32] Blumenbach, _Voigts Magazin_, vol. ii. p. 205 (1800).

[33] _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. xliii. p. 353 (1888).

[34] _Ibid._ vol. xlvi. p. 126 (1889).

[35] Cuvier, _Tableau Élémentaire d’Hist. Nat._ p. 143 (1798).

[36] Gervais, _Ostéographie des Monotremes_, p. 43 (1877).

[37] For the detailed characters of all the genera and species of Marsupials the reader should consult the British Museum _Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata_, by Oldfield Thomas, 1888.

[38] Except in _Petaurus (Belideus) breviceps_ (Forbes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 188).

[39] Including the transitional Austro-Malayan region.

[40] Illiger, _Prod. Syst. Mamm. et Aves_, p. 76 (1811).

[41] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ Ed. 12, vol. i. p. 71 (1766).

[42] Temminck, _Monographies de Mammalogie_, vol. i. p. 60 (1827).

[43] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_, iv. (1837).

[44] Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol. i. p. 106 (1796).

[45] Temminck, _Monographies de Mammalogie_, vol. i. p. 56 (1827).

[46] Thomas, _Ann. Mus. Genov._ sér. 2, vol. iv. p. 503 (1887).

[47] Krefft, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866, p. 434.

[48] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 69.

[49] Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol. iii. p. 249 (1803).

[50] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, vol. ii, p. 401 (1841).

[51] Ogilby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1838, p. 25.

[52] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. ii. p. 365 (1803).

[53] Owen, _Phil. Trans._ 1872, p. 257.

[54] Gervais and Verraux, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1842, p. 1.

[55] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 33 (1780). Syn. _Phalangista_, Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol i. p. 106 (1796).

[56] Lesson, _Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. xiii. p. 333 (1828).

[57] Ogilby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 26.

[58] Thomas, _Cat. Marsupials Brit. Mus._ p. 163 (1888).

[59] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1858, p. 109.

[60] Shaw, _Naturalist’s Miscellany_, vol. ii. pl. lx. (1791).

[61] M’Coy, _Ann. Mag. N. H._ (3) xx. p. 287 (1867).

[62] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, appendix, vol. ii. p. 407 (1841).

[63] Peters, _Ann. Mus. Genov._ vol. vi. p. 303 (1874).

[64] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. xxv. p. 405 (1817).

[65] _Cf._ W. A. Forbes, “Anatomy of the Koala,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 180.

[66] Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 116.

[67] Owen, in _Gervais’s Zool. et Pal. françaises_, 1st ed. pt. i. p. 192 (1849-52).

[68] Ramsay, _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, vol. i. p. 33 (1876).

[69] De Vis, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland_, ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 8 (1888).

[70] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ sér. 1, vol. xxiv. _Table Méth._ p. 20 (1804). Syn. _Hypsiprymnus_, Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 79 (1811).

[71] Gray, _Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 584 (1837).

[72] Thomas, _Cat. Marsup. Brit. Mus._ p. 114 (1888).

[73] Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 59.

[74] Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 544.

[75] Schlegel and Müller, _Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland_, p. 138 (1839-44).

[76] Schlegel and Müller, _Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland_, p. 130 (1839-44).

[77] Gould, _Monograph of Macropodidæ_, pl. xiii. (1841).

[78] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, vol. ii. appendix, p. 402 (1841).

[79] Gray, _Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 583 (1837).

[80] Shaw, _Naturalist’s Miscellany_, vol. i. pl. xxxiii. (1790).

[81] For the characters of these species and the under-mentioned distinct genera, see Owen’s _Extinct Mammals of Australia_ (1877), and Lydekker’s _Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum_, pt. v. (1887).

[82] Owen, _Phil. Trans._ 1874, p. 264.

[83] Owen, _op. cit._ p. 788.

[84] Owen, _op. cit._ p. 797.

[85] Owen, in _Mitchell’s Eastern Australia_, 2d ed. vol. ii. p. 362 (1838).

[86] Owen, _Cat. Mamm. and Aves, Mus. R. Coll. Surgeons_, p. 314 (1845).

[87] The characters of the chief groups of the Eutheria here given are, in some measure, a fuller recapitulation of those already detailed in