Chapter XXX: Part III: Selections for Reading (2)

NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous
expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like
many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as
padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most
critical moment Beowulf's sword failed him, adding in the same
breath, #îren æ:r-gôd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the
bard is either nodding or parroting.

(b) #Meter.#

[Re-read § 10, (3).]

_Primary Stress._

Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (´¯); when short, by the breve with the same accent (´u). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×).

_Secondary Stress._

A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress falls on a long syllable (`¯); by the breve with the same accent, if the secondary stress falls on a short syllable (`u).

Nouns:

Hrôðgâres (´¯ `¯ ×), fêondgrâpum (´¯ `¯ ×), frêomæ:gum (´¯ `¯ ×),
Êast-Dena (´¯ `u ×), Helminga (´¯ `¯ ×), Scyldinga (´¯ `¯ ×),
ânhaga (´¯ `u ×), Ecgþêowes (´¯ `¯ ×), sinc-fato (´¯ `u ×).

Adjectives:[1]

æ:ghwylcne (´¯ `¯ ×), þrîsthy:dig (´¯ `¯ ×), gold-hroden (´¯ `u ×),
drêorigne (´¯ `¯ ×), gyldenne (´¯ `¯ ×), ôðerne (´¯ `¯ ×),
gæ:stlîcum (´¯ `¯ ×), wynsume (´¯ `u ×), æ:nigne (´¯ `¯ ×).

Adverbs:[2]

unsôfte (´¯ `¯ ×), heardlîce (´¯ `¯ ×), semninga (´¯ `¯ ×).

The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3]

Present participles:

slæ:pendne (´¯ `¯ ×), wîs-hycgende (´¯ ´¯ `¯ ×), flêotendra (´¯ `¯ ×),
hrêosende (´¯ `¯ ×).

Weak verbs:

swynsode (´¯ `u ×), þancode (´¯ `u ×), wânigean (´¯ `u ×),
scêawian (´¯ `u ×), scêawige (´¯ `u ×), hlîfian (´¯ `u ×).

[Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly
derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -lîc, and -sum.]

[Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-lîce#,
#-unga#, and #-inga#, § 93, (1), (2): such words as #æt-g[´æ]dere#,
#on-g[´ê]an#, #on-wég#, #tô-g[´ê]anes#, #tô-míddes#, etc., are
invariably accented as here indicated.]

[Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember
that this means long by nature (#lîcodon#), or long by position
(#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maðelode#),--see
next paragraph.]

_Resolved Stress._

A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented syllable (´u × = ´¯). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, {´u ×};

hæleða ({´u ×}×), guman ({´u ×}), Gode ({´u ×}), sele-ful ({´u ×}×),
ides ({´u ×}), fyrena ({´u ×}×), maðelode ({´u ×}`u ×),
hogode ({´u ×}×), mægen-ellen ({´u ×}`¯ ×),
hige-þihtigne ({´u ×}´¯ `¯ ×), Metudes ({´u ×}×),
lagulâde ({´u ×}`¯ ×), unlyfigendes (´¯{´u ×}`¯ ×),
biforan (×{´u ×}), forþolian (×{´u ×}×), baðian ({´u ×}×),
worolde ({´u ¯} ×).

Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:

sinc-fato (´¯ {`u ×}), dryht-sele (´¯ {`u ×}), ferðloca (´¯ {`u ×}),
forðwege (´¯ {`u ×}).

_The Normal Line._

Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency:

(1) þæ:r wæs _h_[´æ]leða _h_léahtor; _h_l[´y]n sw[´y]nsode.
(2) _m_[´ô]de geþúngen, _m_édo-ful ætb[´æ]r.
(3) s[´ô]na þæt on_f_únde _f_[´y]rena h[´y]rde.

Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself.

Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense.

When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief burden of the poet's thought.

NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or
lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read,
there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of
the type _a ··· b_ | _a ··· b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of
the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a
··· a_ | _b ··· c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a ··· b_
| _c ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2738.

_The Five Types._

By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving to separate the so-called feet, or measures:

1. A ´¯ × | ´¯ ×

2. B × ´¯ | × ´¯

3. C × ´¯ | ´¯ ×

4. D { D^1 ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×
{ D^2 ´¯ | ´¯ × `¯

5. E { E^1 ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
{ E^2 ´¯ × `¯ | ´¯

It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order.

[Footnote 4: Sievers' two articles appeared in the _Beiträge zur
Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X (1885)
and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is
found in the same author's _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp. 120-144
(1893).

Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do
well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to
accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In
this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the
line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers' work was one
primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: "I had read
Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long
before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively
could be formulated into a system of set rules."
(_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p. 10.)]

_The Five Types Illustrated._

[[Transcriber's Note: In the printed book, all examples line up
vertically at the main |.]]

[All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to
be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second
half-line is cited. B = _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.]

1. TYPE A, ´¯ × | ´¯ ×

Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, a secondary stress.

(2) ful gesealde, B. 616, ´¯ × | ´¯ ×
(1) wîdre gewindan, B. 764, ´¯ × × | ´¯ ×
(1)[5] Gemunde þâ sê gôda, B. 759 × | ´¯ × × × | ´¯ ×
(1)[5] swylce hê on ealder-dagum, B. 758, × × × × | ´¯ × | ´u ×
(1) y:þde swâ þisne eardgeard, W. 85, ´¯ × × × × | ´¯ `¯
(1) wîs-fæst wordum, B. 627, ´¯ `¯ | ´¯ ×
(1) gryre-lêoð galan, B. 787, {´u ×} `¯ | ´u ×
(2) somod ætgædre, W. 39, {´u ×} × | ´¯ ×
(1) duguðe ond geogoðe, B. 622, {´u ×} × × | {´u ×} ×
(1) fæ:ger fold-bold, B. 774, ´¯ × | ´¯ `¯
(1) atelîc egesa, B. 785, {´u ×} `¯ | {´u ×} ×
(2) goldwine mînne, W. 22, ´¯ {`u ×} | ´¯ ×
(1) egesan þêon [> *þîhan: § 118], B. 2737, {´u ×} × | ´¯ ×

NOTE.--Rare forms of A are ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯ × (does not occur in
texts), ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯ `¯ (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and ´¯ × `¯ |
´¯ × (once, B. 2743 (1)).

[Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the
anacrusis.]

2. TYPE B, × ´¯ | × ´¯

Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × ´¯ | × ´¯.

(1) ond þâ frêolîc wîf, B. 616, × × ´¯ | × ´¯
(2) hê on lust geþeah, B. 619, × × ´¯ | × ´¯
(2) þâ se æðeling gîong, B. 2716, × × {´u ×} | × ´¯
(2) seah on enta geweorc, B. 2718, × × ´¯ | × × ´¯
(1) ofer flôda genipu, B. 2809, × × ´¯ | × × {´u ×}
(1) forþam mê wîtan ne þearf, B. 2742, × × × ´¯ | × × ´¯
(2) þaes þe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, × × × × × ´¯ | × × ´¯
(1) forþon ne mæg weorþan wîs, W. 64, × × × × ´¯ | × ´¯
(1) Næ:fre ic æ:negum [= æ:n'gum] men, B. 656, × × × ´¯ | × ´¯

NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form
#æ:ngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #Næ:fre# (= #Næ:fr-ic#:
××´¯ | ×´¯).

3. TYPE C, × ´¯ | ´¯ ×

The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than one.

(1) þæt hêo on æ:nigne, B. 628, × × × ´¯ | ´¯ ×
(1) þæt ic ânunga, B. 635, × × ´¯ | ´¯ ×
(2) êode gold-hroden, B. 641, × × ´¯ | ´u ×
(1) gemyne mæ:rðo, B. 660, × {´u ×} | ´¯ ×
(1) on þisse meodu-healle, B. 639, × × × {´u ×} | ´¯ ×
(2) æt brimes nosan, B. 2804, × {´u ×} | ´u ×
(2) æt Wealhþéon [= -þêowan], B. 630, × ´¯ | ´¯ ×
(1) geond lagulâde, W. 3, × {´u ×} | ´¯ ×
(1) Swâ cwæð eardstapa, W. 6, × × ´¯ | ´u ×
(2) êalâ byrnwiga, W. 94, × × ´¯ | ´u ×
(2) nô þæ:r fela bringeð, W. 54, × × {´u ×} | ´¯ ×

4. TYPE D, { D^1 ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×
{ D^2 ´¯ | ´¯ × `¯

Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary stresses (´¯ × | ´¯ `¯ ×, ´¯ × | ´¯ × `¯). The secondary stress in D^1 falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short.

(a) D^1 ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×

(1) cwên Hrôðgâres, B. 614, ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×
(2) dæ:l æ:ghwylcne, B. 622, ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×
(1) Bêowulf maðelode, B. 632, ´¯ × | {´u ×} `u ×
(2) slât unwearnum, B. 742, ´¯ | ´¯ `¯ ×
(1) wrâþra wælsleahta, W. 7, ´¯ × | ´¯ `¯ ×
(1) wôd wintercearig [= wint'rcearig], W. 24, ´¯ | ´¯ `u ×
(1) sôhte sele drêorig, W. 25, ´¯ × | {´u ×} `¯ ×
(1) ne sôhte searo-nîðas, B. 2739, × | ´¯ × | {´u ×} `¯ ×

NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of
apparent ´¯ × × | ´¯ `u ×: #word wæ:ron wynsume#. (The triple
alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes
our stressing #wæ:ron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the
line under the A type: ´¯ × × | ´¯ {´u ×}.

(b) D^2 ´¯ | ´¯ × `¯

(2) Forð nêar ætstôp, B. 746, ´¯ | ´¯ × `¯
(2) eorl furður stôp, B. 762, ´¯ | ´¯ × `¯
(2) Denum eallum wearð, B. 768, {´u ×} | ´¯ × `¯
(1) grêtte Gêata lêod, B. 626, ´¯ × | ´¯ × `¯
(1) æ:nig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, ´¯ × | ´¯ × `¯
(1) hrêosan hrîm and snâw, W. 48, ´¯ × | ´¯ × `¯
(2) swimmað eft on weg, W. 53, ´¯ × | ´¯ × `¯

Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.

(2) þegn ungemete till, B. 2722, ´¯ | ´¯ × × × `¯
(1) hrûsan heolster biwrâh, W. 23, ´¯ × | ´¯ × × `¯

5. TYPE E, {E^1 ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
{E^2 ´¯ × `¯ | ´¯

The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in D^1.

(a) E^1 ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯

(1) wyrmlîcum fâh, W. 98, ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
(2) medo-ful ætbær, B. 625, {´u ×} `u × | ´¯
(1) sæ:-bât gesæt, B. 634, ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
(1) sige-folca swêg, B. 645, {´u ×} `¯ × | ´¯
(2) Norð-Denum stôd, B. 784, ´¯ `u × | ´¯
(1) fêond-grâpum fæst, B. 637, ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
(2) wyn eal gedrêas, W. 36, ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯
(2) feor oft gemon, W. 90, ´¯ `¯ × | ´¯

As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded.

(1) wîn-ærnes geweald, B. 655, ´¯ `¯ × × | ´¯
(1) Hafa nû ond geheald, B. 659, {´u ×} `¯ × × | ´¯
(1) searo-þoncum besmiðod, B. 776, {´u ×} `¯ × × | {´u ×}

NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it
impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases
between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already
cited),

wyn eal gedrêas
feor oft gemon
Forð nêar ætstôp

if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their
verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and
increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the
adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English
was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but
by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well.

(_b_) E^2 ´¯ × `¯ | ´¯

This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in the whole of _Beowulf_.

_Abnormal Lines._

The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, (1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.

(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES.

Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting of (´¯ ××× {´u ¯} | ´¯ ×).

(2) DEFECTIVE LINES.

The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be scanned thus:

ræ:hte ongêan ´¯ × | × ´¯
bealo-nîð wêoll {´u ×} `¯ | ´¯

Sievers emends as follows:

ræ:hte tôgêanes ´¯ × × | ´¯ × = A
bealo-nîðe wêoll {´u ×} ´¯ × | ´¯ = E^1

These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold classification.

NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty
to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under
the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find
it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain.

SELECTIONS FOR READING.

VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.

THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.]

[The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted
no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin
edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give
the better reading.

The argument preceding the first selection is as follows:
Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity,
builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a
monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night
after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting
hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf,
nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden),
sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his
services to the aged Hrothgar. "Leave me alone in the hall
to-night," says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid,
and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent
in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]

Þæ:r wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode,
word wæ:ron wynsume. Êode Wealhþêow forð,
cwên Hrôðgâres, cynna gemyndig;
grêtte gold-hroden guman on healle, [615]
ond þâ frêolîc wîf ful gesealde
æ:rest Êast-Dena êþel-wearde,
bæd hine blîðne æt þæ:re bêor-þege,
lêodum lêofne; hê on lust geþeah
symbel ond sele-ful, sige-rôf kyning. [620]
Ymb-êode þâ ides Helminga
duguðe ond geogoðe dæ:l æ:ghwylcne,
sinc-fato sealde, oð þæt sæ:l âlamp
þæt hîo[1] Bêowulfe, bêag-hroden cwên,
môde geþungen, medo[2]-ful ætbær; [625]
grêtte Gêata lêod, Gode þancode
wîs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp,
þæt hêo on æ:nigne eorl gely:fde
fyrena frôfre. Hê þæt ful geþeah,
wæl-rêow wiga, æt Wealhþêon, [630]
ond þâ gyddode gûðe gefy:sed;
Bêowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþêowes:
"Ic þæt hogode, þâ ic on holm gestâh,
sæ:-bât gesæt mid mînra secga gedriht,
þæt ic ânunga êowra lêoda [635]
willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge
fêond-grâpum fæst. Ic gefremman sceal
eorlîc ellen, oððe ende-dæg
on þisse meodu[2]-healle mînne gebîdan."
Þâm wîfe þâ word wel lîcodon, [640]
gilp-cwide Gêates; êode gold-hroden
frêolicu folc-cwên tô hire frêan sittan.
Þâ wæs eft swâ æ:r inne on healle
þry:ð-word sprecen,[3] þêod on sæ:lum,
sige-folca swêg, oþ þæt semninga [645]
sunu Healfdenes sêcean wolde
æ:fen-ræste; wiste þæ:m âhlæ:can[4]
tô þæ:m hêah-sele hilde geþinged,
siððan hîe sunnan lêoht gesêon _ne_ meahton
oððe nîpende niht ofer ealle, [650]
scadu-helma gesceapu scrîðan cwôman,[5]
wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ârâs;
grêtte þâ _giddum_ guma ôðerne
Hrôðgâr Bêowulf, ond him hæ:l âbêad,
wîn-ærnes geweald, ond þæt word âcwæð: [655]
"Næ:fre ic æ:negum[6] men æ:r âly:fde,
siððan ic hond ond rond hebban mihte,
ðry:þ-ærn Dena bûton þê nû þâ.
Hafa nû ond geheald hûsa sêlest,
gemyne mæ:rþo,[7] mægen-ellen cy:ð, [660]
waca wið wrâðum. Ne bið þê wilna gâd,
gif þû þæt ellen-weorc aldre[8] gedîgest."

[1] = hêo.
[2] = medu-.
[3] = gesprecen.
[4] = âglæ:can.
[5] = cwômon.
[6] = æ:nigum.
[7] = mæ:rþe (acc. sing.).
[8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).

[Linenotes:

623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im
Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_,
must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are
nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic
formula for _passing the cup_.

638-39: #ende-ðæg ... mînne#. This unnatural separation of
noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost
unknown in prose.

641-42: #êode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #tô
sittanne# (§ 108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often
used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the
gerund to express purpose after #gân#, #gongan#, #cuman#, and
#sendan#.

647-51: #wiste ... cwôman#. A difficult passage, even with
Thorpe's inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period
after #geþinged#, or of translating #oððe# by _and_: _He
(Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geþinged#) _for the
monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no
longer see the sun's light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came
darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject
of #cwôman# [= #cwômon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#.

The student will note that the infinitive (#scrîðan#) is here
employed as a present participle after a verb of motion
(#cwôman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose
and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic côm
drîfan# = _I came driving_.]

THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.]

[The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel
stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams "a luster
unlovely, likest to fire." The combat begins at once.]

Ne þæt se âglæ:ca yldan þôhte, [740]
ac hê gefêng hraðe forman sîðe
slæ:pendne rinc, slât unwearnum,
bât bân-locan, blôd êdrum dranc,
syn-snæ:dum swealh; sôna hæfde
unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [745]
fêt ond folma. Forð nêar ætstôp,
nam þâ mid handa hige-þihtigne
rinc on ræste; ræ:hte ongêan
fêond mid folme; hê onfêng hraþe
inwit-þancum ond wið earm gesæt. [750]
Sôna þæt onfunde fyrena hyrde,
þæt hê ne mêtte middan-geardes,
eorðan scêatta, on elran men
mund-gripe mâran; hê on môde wearð
forht, on ferhðe; nô þy: æ:r fram meahte. [755]
Hyge wæs him hin-fûs, wolde on heolster flêon,
sêcan dêofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þæ:r,
swylce hê on ealder[1]-dagum æ:r gemêtte.
Gemunde þâ se gôda mæ:g Higelâces
æ:fen-spræ:ce, ûp-lang âstôd [760]
ond him fæste wiðfêng; fingras burston;
eoten wæs ût-weard; eorl furþur stôp.
Mynte se mæ:ra, hwæ:r hê meahte swâ,
wîdre gewindan ond on weg þanon
flêon on fen-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald [765]
on grames grâpum. Þæt wæs gêocor sîð,
þæt se hearm-scaþa tô Heorute[2] âtêah.
Dryht-sele dynede; Denum eallum wearð
ceaster-bûendum, cênra gehwylcum,
eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wæ:ron bêgen [770]
rêþe rên-weardas. Reced hlynsode;
þâ wæs wundor micel, þæt se wîn-sele
wiðhæfde heaþo-dêorum, þæt hê on hrûsan ne fêol,
fæ:ger fold-bold; ac hê þæs fæste wæs
innan ond ûtan îren-bendum [775]
searo-þoncum besmiðod. Þæ:r fram sylle âbêag
medu-benc monig, mîne gefræ:ge,
golde geregnad, þæ:r þâ graman wunnon;
þæs ne wêndon æ:r witan Scyldinga,
þæt hit â mid gemete manna æ:nig, [780]
betlîc ond bân-fâg, tôbrecan meahte,
listum tôlûcan, nymþe lîges fæðm
swulge on swaþule. Swêg ûp âstâg
nîwe geneahhe; Norð-Denum stôd
atelîc egesa, ânra gehwylcum, [785]
þâra þe of wealle wôp gehy:rdon,
gryre-lêoð galan Godes ondsacan,
sige-lêasne sang, sâr wânigean
helle hæfton.[3] Hêold hine fæste,
sê þe manna wæs mægene strengest [790]
on þæ:m dæge þysses lîfes.
Nolde eorla hlêo æ:nige þinga
þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlæ:tan,
nê his lîf-dagas lêoda æ:nigum
nytte tealde. Þæ:r genehost bræ:gd [795]
eorl Bêowulfes ealde lâfe,
wolde frêa-drihtnes feorh ealgian,
mæ:res þêodnes, ðæ:r hîe meahton swâ.
Hîe ðæt ne wiston, þâ hîe gewin drugon,
heard-hicgende hilde-mecgas, [800]
ond on healfa gehwone hêawan þôhton,
sâwle sêcan: þone syn-scaðan
æ:nig ofer eorðan îrenna cyst,
gûþ-billa nân, grêtan nolde;
ac hê sige-wæ:pnum forsworen hæfde, [805]
ecga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor[4]-gedâl
on ðæ:m dæge þysses lîfes
earmlîc wurðan[5] ond se ellor-gâst
on fêonda geweald feor sîðian.
Þâ þæt onfunde, sê þe fela æ:ror [810]
môdes myrðe manna cynne
fyrene gefremede (hê _wæ:s_ fâg wið God),
þæt him se lîc-homa læ:stan nolde,
ac hine se môdega[6] mæ:g Hygelâces
hæfde be honda; wæs gehwæþer ôðrum [815]
lifigende lâð. Lîc-sâr gebâd
atol æ:glæ:ca[7]; him on eaxle wearð
syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon;
burston bân-locan. Bêowulfe wearð
gûð-hrêð gyfeðe. Scolde Grendel þonan [820]
feorh-sêoc flêon under fen-hleoðu,[8]
sêcean wyn-lêas wîc; wiste þê geornor,
þæt his aldres[9] wæs ende gegongen,
dôgera dæg-rîm. Denum eallum wearð
æfter þâm wæl-ræ:se willa gelumpen. [825]
Hæfde þâ gefæ:lsod, sê þe æ:r feorran côm,
snotor ond swy:ð-ferhð, sele Hrôðgâres,
genered wið nîðe. Niht-weorce gefeh,
ellen-mæ:rþum; hæfde Êast-Denum
Gêat-mecga lêod gilp gelæ:sted; [830]
swylce oncy:ððe ealle gebêtte,
inwid-sorge, þe hîe æ:r drugon
ond for þrêa-ny:dum þolian scoldon,
torn unly:tel. Þæt wæs tâcen sweotol,
syððan hilde-dêor hond âlegde, [835]
earm ond eaxle (þæ:r wæs eal geador
Grendles grâpe) under gêapne hrôf.

[1] = ealdor-.
[2] = Heorote.
[3] = hæftan.
[4] = ealdor-.
[5] = weorðan.
[6] = môdiga.
[7] = âglæ:ca.
[8] = -hliðu.
[9] = ealdres.

[Linenotes:

740: #þæt#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the
contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was
wondering how it would result.

746: #ætstôp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is
Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#ræ:hte#,
#onfêng#, #gesæt#) is Beowulf.

751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of
stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by
suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in
their use of negatives (#ne#, l. 13; p. 140, l. 3; #nô#, p. 140,
l. 1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence
that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because
understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the
terror produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says
(ll. 138-139), "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more
commodiously, sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe
that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.

755: #nô ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The
omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan,
môtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf's
last utterance, p. 147, l. 17 [[line 2817]].

768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit
of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are
withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray
crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a
blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as
they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former
banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress
and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the
"terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of the beaten," and know that
Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp
gelæ:sted#).

769: #cênra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be
used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they
frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #ânra
gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (= _to each of ones_); #æ:nige#
(instrumental) #þinga#, _for any thing_ (= _for any of things_);
#on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (= _into each of halves_);
#ealra dôgra gehwâm#, _every day_ (= _on each of all days_);
#ûhtna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (= _on each of mornings_).

780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tôbrecan#, stands for
#wîn-sele#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]].
#Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #æ:nig#.

787-89: #gryre-lêoð ... hæfton# [= #hæftan#]. Note that verbs
of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the
infinitive. They heard _God's adversary sing_ (#galan#) ...
_hell's captive bewail_ (#wânigean#). Had the present participle
been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize
the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action
(the infinitive itself).

795-96: #þæ:r ... lâfe#. Beowulf's followers now seem to have
seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that
Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against
the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf's_ (= _an earl
of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl
is meant is shown by the succeeding #hîe meahton# instead of #hê
meahte#. See p. 110, Note. [[Linenote 110.5-6]

799: _They did not know this_ (#ðæt#), _while they were
fighting_; but the first #Hîe# refers to the warriors who
proffered help; the second #hîe#, to the combatants, Beowulf and
Grendel. In apposition with #ðæ:t#, stands the whole clause,
#þone synscaðan# (object of #grêtan#) #... nolde#. The second,
or conjunctional, #ðæt# is here omitted before #þone#. See
p. 112, note on ll. 18-19.

837: #grâpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.]

BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.]

[Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts
upon Beowulf; but Grendel's mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf
finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays
her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf,
having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a
reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon
that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally
wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.]

Þâ sîo[1] wund ongon,
þe him se eorð-draca æ:r geworhte,
swêlan ond swellan. Hê þæ:t sôna onfand,
þæ:t him on brêostum bealo-nîð wêoll [2715]
âttor on innan. Þâ se æðeling gîong,[2]
þæt hê bî wealle, wîs-hycgende,
gesæt on sesse; seah on enta geweorc,
hû þâ stân-bogan stapulum fæste
êce eorð-reced innan healde. [2720]
Hyne þâ mid handa heoro-drêorigne,
þêoden mæ:rne, þegn ungemete till,
wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede,
hilde-sædne, ond his helm onspêon.
Bîowulf[3] maðelode; hê ofer benne spræc, [2725]
wunde wæl-blêate; wisse hê gearwe,
þæt hê dæg-hwîla gedrogen hæfde
eorðan wynne; þâ wæs eall sceacen
dôgor-gerîmes, dêað ungemete nêah:
"Nû ic suna mînum syllan wolde [2730]
gûð-gewæ:du, þæ:r mê gifeðe swâ
æ:nig yrfe-weard æfter wurde
lîce gelenge. Ic ðâs lêode hêold
fîftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning
ymbe-sittendra ænig þâra, [2735]
þe mec gûð-winum grêtan dorste,
egesan ðêon. Ic on earde bâd
mæ:l-gesceafta, hêold mîn tela,
nê sôhte searo-nîðas, nê mê swôr fela
âða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg, [2740]
feorh-bennum sêoc, gefêan habban;
for-þâm mê wîtan ne ðearf Waldend[4] fîra
morðor-bealo[5] mâga, þonne mîn sceaceð
lîf of lîce. Nû ðû lungre geong[6]
hord scêawian under hârne stân, [2745]
Wîglâf lêofa, nû se wyrm ligeð,
swefeð sâre wund, since berêafod.
Bîo[7] nû on ofoste, þæt ic æ:r-welan,
gold-æ:ht ongite, gearo scêawige
swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðy: sêft mæge [2750]
æfter mâððum-welan mîn âlæ:tan
lîf ond lêod-scipe, þone ic longe hêold."

[Linenotes:

2716: #se æðeling# is Beowulf.

2718: #enta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that
occasions wonder by its size or strangeness.

2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads #hêoldon#,
thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the
original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be
legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself
in time with the hero, whose wonder was "how the stone-arches
... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall": the construction is a
form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular
#healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the
dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative
clauses introduced by #þâra þe# (= _of those that ..._ + a
singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has
doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eorð-reced#, a
_quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden#
or #hêoldon# than we have to change Shakespeare's _gives_ to
_give_ in

"Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_."
(_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.)

2722: The #þegn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of
Beowulf's retainers.

2725: #hê ofer benne spræc#. The editors and translators of
_Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_;
but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems
to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf. Latin _supra_) denotes
here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l. 594,
that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf
fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde
riht#; and he goes forth (l. 2409) #ofer willan# to confront the
dragon.

2731-33: #þæ:r mê ... gelenge#, _if so be that_ (#þæ:r ... swâ#)
_any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mê gifeðe ... æfter
wurde#) _belonging to my body_.

2744-45: #geong# [= #gong#] #... scêawian#. See note on #êode
... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go
see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (coördinate
with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or
infinitive without _to_?

2751-52: #mîn ... lîf#. See note on #ende-dæg ... mînne#,
p. 137, ll. 16-17 [[lines 638-39]].]

[1] = sêo.
[2] = gêong.
[3] = Bêowulf.
[4] = Wealdend.
[5] = morðor-bealu.
[6] = gong (gang).
[7] = Bêo.

BEOWULF'S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.]

[Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph.
Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives
advice and final directions to Wiglaf.]

_Bîowulf[1] maðelode_,
gomel on giohðe (gold scêawode):
"Ic þâra frætwa Frêan ealles ðanc, [2795]
Wuldur-cyninge, wordum secge
ecum Dryhtne, þe ic hêr on starie,
þæs þe ic môste mînum lêodum
æ:r swylt-dæge swylc gestry:nan.
Nû ic on mâðma hord mîne bebohte [2800]
frôde feorh-lege, fremmað gê nû
lêoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hêr leng wesan.
Hâtað heaðo-mæ:re hlæ:w gewyrcean,
beorhtne æfter bæ:le æt brimes nosan;
sê scel[2] tô gemyndum mînum lêodum [2805]
hêah hlîfian on Hrones næsse,
þæt hit sæ:-lîðend syððan hâtan[3]
Bîowulfes[1] biorh[1] þâ þe brentingas
ofer flôda genipu feorran drîfað."
Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [2810]
þîoden[1] þrîst-hy:dig; þegne gesealde,
geongum gâr-wigan, gold-fâhne helm,
bêah ond byrnan, hêt hyne brûcan well.
"Þû eart ende-lâf ûsses cynnes,
Wæ:gmundinga; ealle wyrd forswêop [2815]
mîne mâgas tô metod-sceafte,
eorlas on elne; ic him æfter sceal."
Þæt wæs þâm gomelan gingeste word
brêost-gehygdum, æ:r hê bæ:l cure,
hâte heaðo-wylmas; him of hreðre gewât [2820]
sâwol sêcean sôð-fæstra dôm.

[1] îo, io = êo, eo.
[2] = sceal.
[3] = hâten.

[Linenotes:

2795-99: The expression #secgan þanc# takes the same
construction as #þancian#; i.e., the dative of the person
(#Frêan#) and the genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing
(#þâra frætwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p. 45 [[§ 65, 3]]. The
antecedent of #þe# is #frætwa#. For the position of #on#, see
§ 94, (5). The clause introduced by #þæs þe# (_because_) is
parallel in construction with #frætwa#, both being causal
modifiers of #secge þanc#. The Christian coloring in these lines
betrays the influence of priestly transcribers.

2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of
treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lege#
> #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early
Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or
life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the
"wergild."

2801: #fremmað gê#. The plural imperative (as also in #Hâtað#)
shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in
particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to
his _comitatus_.

2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent
expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was
situated "high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that
it might be seen from off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury
him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a
high mound on a headland of the sea.

2807: #hit = hlæ:w#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2
[[§ 55, 2]].

2810-11: #him ... þîoden#. The reference in both cases is to
Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the
last time; #þegne# = _to Wiglaf_.

Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the
dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of
healse#, not #of his healse#.

2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #nô ... meahte#, p. 140,
l. 1 [[line 755]].

2820: #him of hreðre#. Cf. note on #him ... þîoden#, p. 147,
ll. 10-11 [[lines 2810-11]].

2820-21: For construction of #gewât ... sêcean#, see note on
#êode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]].]

VII. THE WANDERER.

[Exeter MS. "The epic character of the ancient lyric appears
especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a
momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps
the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated,
or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends." (Ten
Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.) I adopt Brooke's threefold division
(_Early Eng. Lit._, p. 356): "It opens with a Christian prologue,
and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the
poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of
the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were
uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine."

The author is unknown.]