Chapter X: Oral English

=Exercise 135=

RETELL a story that you know or one that the instructor has read to you. See if you can tell the whole story in fairly long sentences without using a single _and_. You will be allowed to use three _and's_. As soon as you say the third, you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.

The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short incident that can easily be told in one or two minutes. You probably have read many such or have heard your father and your mother tell them. A joke that can be told in two or three sentences will not be long enough.

The excessive use of _and_ spoils the telling of many stories. It is a mistake to think that the gap between the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next appears as great to the listener as it does to us as we are deliberating what to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the two sentences with _and_. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary if we think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. When we have finished the thought, we should finish the sentence without trying to bind it artificially to the next one. The sentences will be bound together if the thought of one grows out of the thought of the preceding one.

If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie the parts, there are better expressions to use than _and_. There are short expressions like _in this way_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _thus_, _therefore_, _besides_, _as might be expected_, and _too_. Another way to avoid _and_ is to change the form of the sentence: (1) better than the form, "I opened the window _and saw_," is, "_Opening_ the window, I saw;" (2) better than "I am going to the store _and buy_ some sugar," is, "I am going to the store _to buy_ some sugar;" (3) better than "There was a boy _and his name_ was John," is, "There was a boy _whose_ name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home _and found_ that my cousin had arrived," is, "_When_ I reached home, I found that my cousin had arrived." In place of _and_, therefore, we may use (1) participles, (2) infinitives, (3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate conjunctions.

Above all, avoid _and everything_, as in, "I washed the dishes and swept the floor and everything." To try thus to complete an idea that is already complete shows childishness.

=Exercise 136=

Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you found yourself frequently using the word _so_ to connect two sentences. Perhaps, too, you used _why_ to begin sentences.

Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not to use _and_, _so_, or _why_. Introduce as much conversation as possible. What, if any, is the advantage of telling a story in the first person? Why is it good to introduce conversation?

In your conversation make use of several of the following words:

replied whispered spoke inquired
answered agreed cried explained
asked exclaimed shouted remarked
questioned repeated continued suggested
promised maintained objected rejoined
interrupted quoted returned added

=Exercise 137=

Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to the matter of choosing the word that will give the exact meaning that they wish to convey. In order to lend force to their words they have formed the habit of speaking in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm nearly dead," and yet she showed no evidence of suffering.

Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should be so degraded in common usage that it loses all its force and meaning? Instead of convincing people that she really was tired, the girl quoted above made herself ridiculous by her exaggeration. Yet isn't the quotation a fair example of the speech of many boys and girls? Surely everything about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish to speak our language correctly.

* * * * *

Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. For each one substitute a good English expression.

* * * * *

The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that it is in our conversation that our habits of speech are formed. The expressions we use then we unconsciously employ when we are writing or talking to the class. If we are accustomed to use considerable slang when we speak, we shall have difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. As a rule, slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are used to serve such a variety of meanings that the use of them tends to limit the vocabulary to these expressions. Consider slang something undesirable and stop using it.

=Exercise 138=

Look up the words in each of the following groups. You will notice that there is a resemblance of meaning between all the words of each group, but that there is also a shade of difference in meaning that distinguishes each word from its companions. Discover that shade of difference. Use each word in a sentence.

1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.

2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.

3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine,
agreeable.

4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.

5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.

6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.

7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.

8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.

9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.

10. Scholar, student, pupil.

=Exercise 139=

Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, since the speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats the idea two or three times. Such speech is tiresome. In each of the following sentences there are too many words to express the idea. See how many you can omit and yet preserve the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.

1. I haven't got any time.

2. Where does he live at?

3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.

4. The woman she had an accident.

5. You had ought to take more exercise.

6. I was just going to go.

7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.

8. I can finish the work in three days' time.

9. The offices are both alike in all respects.

10. He engaged the both of us.

11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.

12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I
began in business.

13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth
Street is going to be twenty stories high when it is
finished.

14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor
circumstances.

15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he
follows the course that he has planned.

16. The present state of affairs that is now
confronting the public has become what it now is
because the citizens are not public spirited.

17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was
because I was not feeling as well as I might.

18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I
saw the time that I witnessed the street car
collision.

19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to
accept the offer.

20. He was a mere little child when he first began to
work in the mine.

21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and
rub the two of them to a cream.

22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same
in every way.

23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as
the other.

24. He said that when he started in his business that
he had almost no capital at all.

25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my
experience.

26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present
time.

27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his
home town.

28. They did it gladly and willingly.

29. He always shows great deference and respect when
he speaks to those who are in authority.

30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.

31. You can easily get the training that will make you
a competent and efficient high-salaried trained man.

32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with
every convenience to make it comfortable.

33. We are making all the necessary improvements that
are needed.

34. I went to high school to take up stenography.

=Exercise 140--Making a Speech=

One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear thinking and consequent clear expression is the making of speeches, usually spoken of as oral themes. In this exercise a pupil stands before the class to talk upon a subject about which he has thought, but upon which he has written nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must choose those facts that will make his subject clear and interesting to his audience. Second, he must deliver them well; that is, he must stand in a good position before the class, use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so that every one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, in which each division is clearly indicated, as well as the important details within each division.

In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear statement of the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. You might begin, "I am going to talk of a street car transfer. First, I shall tell you how it looks; and second, how it is used. Then first, a street car transfer--(describe it fully). In the second place, it is used--(give details)." After you have explained fully, to show that you have said all you intend to say, finish with a sentence of conclusion. _Therefore_, _consequently_, _for these reasons_, _thus we may see_, are instances of words which may be used to begin a sentence of conclusion.

* * * * *

Use each of the following questions as the subject for a speech. Answer each question clearly and completely. Use illustrations to show exactly what you mean.

1. What does it mean to be a hero?

2. What does it mean to be successful?

3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?

4. What does it mean to be generous?

5. What does it mean to be lenient?

6. What does it mean to be mercenary?

7. What does it mean to be diffident?

8. What does it mean to be penurious?

9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and
how is it used?

10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why?
What preparations are you making?

11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?

12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?

13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns
against cyclones?

14. What is fire insurance?

15. Why is ventilation important?

16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?

17. Why do cities grow?

18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?

19. Why was the telephone an important invention?

20. What is the principle of vaccination?

21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?

22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?

23. Why does the employer object to the union?

24. What is a monopoly?

25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?

=Exercise 141=

In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn and a garden that are very poorly kept, the garden needing weeding and the lawn both weeding and mowing. Imagine that you go to the owner to make him a proposition. You know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to do and how often you will do it. Be careful of your first sentences. Let them be especially courteous, so that you may not offend the gentleman by suggesting that he does not take care of his property. Tell him frankly that you would like to earn some money.

In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, they will watch carefully so that they may point out to the speaker wherein his speech was not quite courteous or not quite clear.

=Exercise 142=

From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a position for which you think you can apply. Bring the advertisement with you and convince the class that you are fitted for the position.

In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement for a kind of work about which you know something. If you have ever had any experience that would fit you for the position, do not fail to tell of it, since experience counts for much in the employer's estimate of an applicant.

Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing and whether he has shown the properly courteous attitude toward an employer. Let them ask themselves such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does he make one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if he has confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he seem over-confident? Let each be able to offer suggestions for improvement.

=Exercise 143=

Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is especially useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, or choose an individual member to whom you wish to sell it. Bring a sample with you for the purpose of demonstrating its usefulness.

As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to be convincing. He must know all there is to be known about the article that he is demonstrating. If it is at all possible, he should have used it in order that he may explain exactly how it is operated and why it is better than a similar article that the housekeeper probably is at present using.

=Exercise 144=

You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of money. Try to convince the instructor or a selected pupil that you need it.

Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business for which you wish the money, where you will start the business, why you think that this particular location is good, when you will be able to return the money, and what security you can give.

Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big for a boy or a girl to carry through. Perhaps the following will be suggestive:

1. A newspaper stand.

2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.

3. A pop corn wagon.

4. A fruit cart or stand.

5. A shoe shining stand.

6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.

7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to
housewives.

8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small
press.

9. Making place cards.

10. Making valentines.

11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for
Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.

12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you
have photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer
resort.

13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.

14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.

=Exercise 145--Elements of Success=

Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever possible make your statements clear and forceful by using illustrations or examples.

1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.

2. The habit of neatness is an asset.

3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.

4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.

5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always,
"I forgot."

6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from
his mistakes.

7. He was not promoted because he was always
grumbling.

8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a
second-rate man.

9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability
by half-doing things.

10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to
act on his own judgment.

11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.

12. Experience is an expensive teacher.

13. Be not simply good--be good for something.

14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.

15. To be successful one must have confidence in
himself.

=Exercise 146=

As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of the following:

1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.

2. There is no excuse for discouragement.

3. You may secure a position through another's
influence, but you keep it through your own merit.

4. There is always room at the top.

5. There is no such thing as luck.

6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of
deference.

7. A business woman should dress simply.

8. Perseverance is the key to success.

9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.

10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.

11. The ability to converse is a business asset.

12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.

=Exercise 147--Successful Men and Women=

How can one measure the success of men or women? Is it by the money they make? the land they acquire? the fame they win? the good they do? By what means have they won success? Was it through favorable circumstances? strength of character? favoritism? physical strength? mental energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite of opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for success to come?

Study the life and character of one or more of the following. Have they gained what you consider success? What qualities of character do you recognize in them? Would you care to be like any of them?

Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life and in the way they worked.

Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.

Florence Nightingale Frances Willard Bismarck
David Maydole Ella Flagg Young Gladstone
R. L. Stevenson Helen Gould Shepard Marshall Field
Booker T. Washington Jane Addams Carnegie
Captain Scott Napoleon J. Pierpont Morgan
Mary Antin Franklin Edison
Daniel Boone Lincoln Roosevelt
Mary Lyon Nathan Hale Goethals

=Exercise 148--Debating=

A very great asset in business is the ability to see the truth or the falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs for or against it. This ability we shall try to acquire through the practice of debating; that is, through the making of speeches in which students take opposite sides of the same subject, trying by the presentation of facts and illustrations to prove that the side which they represent is the correct one. The statement that is thus argued is called a _proposition_.

Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only clear-cut reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater fails to make any of his several arguments convincing, if he introduces irrelevant matter, or, though he has prepared strong proofs, if he expresses them in incorrect English, the result will be poor. In working out a debate, therefore, observe the following carefully:

1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient knowledge, you cannot be convincing.

2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it clearly. If you and your opponent have different ideas of the word _trust_, for example, you can never argue on a subject that concerns the trusts. Define your position first of all.

3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a whole. What three arguments, let us say, stand out clearly in your mind as being irrefutable because of the strong proofs you have to back them? These are the ones that you should use; the rest will probably be of little value. Plan to give the weakest of the three first, so that your argument will gain force as you advance.

4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement of each is not enough. It must be supported by many facts and illustrations.

5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your arguments follow each other clearly, whether you have so arranged them as to secure climax. (See Exercise 152.)

6. In talking, follow the plan explained in Exercise 140, being especially careful in conclusion to summarize the proofs that you have presented.

* * * * *

The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must be based upon statements that are true. In the following, some of the statements are false, and therefore the conclusions based upon them are false. Point out wherein the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why it is irrelevant.

1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at
school. Therefore it is useless to learn them.

2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling
our streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly
as water, and so does not allow the dust to rise.
Moreover, as the street must be cleaned before the oil
is laid, there is less dust to rise. When the oil lies
on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to
everyone's shoes. In this way it is tracked into the
houses and stores, making everything dirty. Therefore
I think the streets should be oiled instead of being
watered.

3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter
that I used yesterday. This machine will work no
better, as it is made by the same company.

4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter
was extreme. This year September has been very warm,
and therefore the winter will be extreme.

5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he
went to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have
gone to high school for one year. Therefore I shall
receive more than eight dollars a week when I go to
work.

6. When you are working, your employer will never ask
you the definition of a noun. Therefore it is
unnecessary to know any grammar.

7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If
he is punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger
salary. Money is a very important item in this world,
but it is not everything. A person must be satisfied
with his work so that he can do it cheerfully;
otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think every
one ought to be on time.

8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day
is not sunny; therefore it is sunny.

9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing
new shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.

=Exercise 149=

Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. State them concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.

As above, find three reasons against each of the following.

Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of the propositions given below. Using your statement as the opening sentence, develop it into a paragraph by explanations and illustrations.

1. The high school should have the same session as the
grades.

2. The high school session should begin at eight
o'clock and close at one, with no recess for luncheon.

3. Final examinations shall be abolished.

4. Every high school should teach manual training.

5. Every high school should offer business courses.

6. Every high school pupil should receive a business
training.

7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important
study than wood-working.

8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a
subject, he should be allowed to try the second
without repeating the first.

9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson
that he does not enjoy.

10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.

=Exercise 150=

Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three arguments in support of the same one of the following propositions. Then let the class choose from all the arguments given those three or four that they think are best, giving in each case reasons for their choice.

In the same way let them work out the negative of the same proposition.

1. Every city should have a public park in the
business district.

2. The large department stores should be abolished and
smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity,
established.

3. The mail order house should be abolished.

4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price
sales.

5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the
time.

6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a
city.

7. Women should be allowed to vote.

8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.

9. All government should be conducted on the civil
service plan.

10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.

=Exercise 151=

One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three members for each side of one of the following propositions. On the day of the debate let the rest of the class act as judges to decide which side has presented the most convincing arguments in the best English.

1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory
employee.

2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own
living.

3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.

4. Strikes should be considered illegal.

5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See
Exercise 152.)

6. Communism would lower the cost of living.

7. The business of a city should not be centralized.

8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor
ape the rich.

9. Contentment is better than wealth.

10. Tariff increases the cost of living.

=Exercise 152--Outline for a Debate=

Choose two or four members of the class to develop each side of the following debate. Wherever possible, definite figures should be used.

_Resolved_, THAT ADVERTISING HAS INCREASED THE COST OF LIVING.

_Affirmative_

I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.
(_a_) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively
advertised.
(1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.
(2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.
(3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.
(4) Investments; e.g., real estate.
(_b_) Every possible medium is used.
(1) Newspapers.
(2) Magazines.
(3) Billboards and street cars.
(4) Circulars and booklets.
II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.
(_a_) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.
(1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men
whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.
(_b_) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.
(1) They draw large salaries.
(_x_) In many cases, $10,000 annually.
(_c_) Advertising rates are very high; for example,
(1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.
(2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500
a page per issue.
(_d_) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums,
making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,
(1) _Cream of Wheat_ is advertised in every issue of almost
every magazine.
III. The consumer pays for the advertising.
(_a_) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover
the cost of production and the expense of distribution,
leaving fair margins of profit, since
(1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit
ceases.
(2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his
profit in manufacturing.
(3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own
profit.
IV. Advertising increases prices.
(_a_) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have
been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have
steadily advanced; therefore
(1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.
(2) Nor to the expense of distribution.
(_b_) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.
(1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for
self-protection, must follow suit.
(_c_) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where
there is a fair profit at the old price.
(1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume
of business, which grows with population.
(2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their
expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the
same profit as previously.
(_d_) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.
(1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.
(2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.
(3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.

_Negative_

I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.
(_a_) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.
(1) Every day new products are being put on the market.
(2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.
(3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement
is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with
new products.
(_b_) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable
explanation.
(1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile
has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of
(_x_) Greater convenience.
(_y_) Lower operating cost.
(2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased
as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of
(_x_) Greater convenience.
II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.
(_a_) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay
for the advertising, since
(1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not
advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.
(_b_) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive
necessary accessories.
(1) Food products.
(2) Soaps and soap powders.
(3) Toilet articles.
(_c_) They have not advanced in price.
(1) Quaker Oats.
(2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.
(3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.
III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the
disadvantage, of the consumer.
(_a_) It gives new opportunities
(1) To compare values.
(2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,
(_x_) In advertised bargain sales.
(_b_) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense,
thus tending to lower the price.
(1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.
(_x_) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the
manufacturer.
(2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus
lowering the price; for example,
(_x_) In mail order firms.
(3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in
influencing a higher price.
IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised
necessaries of life.
(_a_) In breadstuffs.
(1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.
(_b_) In meats and poultry.
(1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.
(_c_) In butter and eggs.
(1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.

=Exercise 153--Additional Subjects for Debates=

1. The wages of women should be the same as those of
men in the same occupation.

2. The government should grant old age pensions.

3. Employers should be liable for the life and health
of employees.

4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining
employees' demands.

5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in
which they are held.

6. Railroad combination lowers rates.

7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.

8. National party lines should be discarded in
municipal elections.

9. City governments should be allowed to decide their
problems without intervention of the state
legislature.

10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not
elective.

11. The commission form of government is best for
large cities.

12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.

13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with
fairness.

14. The United States should not further extend its
colonial dependencies.

15. The President should be elected by a direct vote
of the people.

16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become
life members of the Senate.

17. The President and the Vice-President should be
prohibited from taking part in political campaigns.

18. The United States should subsidize a merchant
marine.

19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be
granted the privilege of American register.

20. The governors of states should not have the power
to pardon.

21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be
sufficient to render a verdict in criminal cases.

22. The coast defenses of the United States should be
increased.

23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.

24. The results of Arctic explorations have not
justified the cost.