Chapter XII: Punctuation (1)

WHEN we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the sentences given below.

Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group:

Steam and electricity are making one commercial
community of all nations.

A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as,

Steam and electricity, _which are the greatest of all
discoveries_, are making one commercial community of
all nations.

In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as,

_If the grape crop is large_, the price of grapes is
low.

Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness or force; as,

If, _on the other hand_, the season is poor, the price
of grapes is high.

What, _then_, determines the price of grapes?

We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some other way which groups of words belong together, which are important, and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions.

Questions

1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In ancient writing this was not done.

2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?

3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.

4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is _separate_. If two words belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that follow?

(_a_) She is a pretty, energetic girl.
(_b_) She is a pretty energetic girl.

=Exercise 166--The Apostrophe (')=

The _apostrophe_ (') is used--

1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as,

The _boy's_ writing is excellent.

2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,

_I'll_ attend to the matter.

3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have no plural; as,

Your _3's_ are too much like your _5's_, your _a's_
like your _u's_.

Don't use so many _and's_.

Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words correctly:

you're we're who's they're
your were whose there
it's he's don't their
its his doesn't

Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:

1. I've received no reply.

2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one
thousand dollars.

3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.

4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like
his 9's.

5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I
haven't.

Point out the mistakes in the following:

1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.

2. The boy's have gone skating.

3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.

4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.

5. Dot your is and not your us.

6. Is this book your's or her's?

=Exercise 167--Capitals=

_Capitals_ are used for--

1. The first word of every sentence.

2. The first word of every line of poetry.

3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169).

4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,

Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.

5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an itemized list, as in an order for merchandise.

6. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ (not _oh_).

7. The words _Bible_ and _Scripture_, the books of the Bible, all names applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him.

8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered proper nouns; as,

_a._ Names of the days of the week, holidays, and
months of the year, but not names of the seasons.

_b._ North, South, etc., when they refer to sections
of the country, but not when they refer to a direction
or a point of the compass.

_c._ Official titles or titles of honor when they are
used in connection with names, but not when they are
used without names; as,

Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.
Nominations are now in order for vice-president.

_d._ Names of political parties.

_e._ Names of religious sects.

_f._ Names of important events or documents; as,

The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.

_g._ The salutation in a letter; as,

Dear Sir, Gentlemen.

_h._ Words indicating relationship, when they are used
in connection with a proper name, or when used alone
as a name, but not when used with a possessive
pronoun; as,

We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.
I expect my mother at four o'clock.

9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition. Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as,

The Call of the Wild.

10. Such words as _Paragraph_, _Article_, or _Section_, when accompanied with a number; as,

Paragraph 26, Article 3.

11. See Exercise 75.

=Exercise 168=

The _period_ (.) is used--

1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,

The business is prosperous.

2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,

The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144
Pleasant St., Erie, Pa.

The _interrogation mark_ (?) is used--

To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as,

When did you order the goods?

The _exclamation mark_ (!) is used--

To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong feeling; as,

Such demands are inhuman!

Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each. Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken.

1. The price is too high.
2. The price is too high!
3. The price is too high?
4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.
5. Corn! There'll be no corn!
6. You didn't tell him that.
7. You didn't tell him that!
8. You didn't tell him that?
9. You are enjoying yourself.
10. You are enjoying yourself?
11. You are enjoying yourself!

=Exercise 169--Quotation Marks (" ")=

1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in quotation marks. This is called a _direct quotation_.

He said, "The business is growing."

Notice that the word _said_ is followed by a comma, and that the quotation begins with a capital letter.

2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the quotation mark; as,

Have you been waiting long?
She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"

3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark; as,

Look!
He cried, "Look!"

4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the punctuation is as follows:

(_a_) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"The business is growing," he said.

(_b_) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"Have you been waiting long?" she asked.

(_c_) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"Look!" he cried.

5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words, the punctuation is as follows:

(_a_) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:

I do not believe that the report is true.
"I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."

Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words _he said_ do not belong to the quoted words.

(_b_) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the interrupted parts must be used; as,

(1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require
but little care.

"I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem
to require but little care."

(2) Oh! The flames are higher!

"Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"

4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere. When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences, however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as,

"The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do
not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not
come."

5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the quotation--not at the end of each paragraph.

6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is distinguished by single marks; as,

John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I
thought the work could be done more easily, he said,
'Thank you for your suggestion.'"

7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation marks; as,

The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the
"good old way" is fast passing.

8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not enclosed in quotation marks; as,

The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?

=Exercise 170=

Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense demands division:

1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown

2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion

3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion

4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I
think you can get definite information

5. How can we enforce the law asked the man

6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law

7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law

8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the
law

9. The question before us is how can we enforce the
law

10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you
may go

11. As I was walking along the river he continued I
heard a voice cry help

12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down

13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down

14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is
down

15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear
there is no other way to cross

16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one
know another way to cross

17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know
another way to cross

18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is
down

19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do

20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the
soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try
the bridge lower down

=Exercise 171--Indirect Discourse=

In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations, or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a subordinate clause depending on a word of _thinking_, _saying_, _telling_, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by _that_, and indirect questions by _when_, _where_, _why_, _whether_, _if_, _who_, _which_, _what_, and the like. When a sentence is changed from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of the direct quotation are changed; as,

_Direct_: He said, "I do not believe the report."
_Indirect_: He said that he did not believe the report.

_Direct_: He said, "Germany is over-populated."
_Indirect_: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.)

_Direct_: She said, "I did my work before I went to school."
_Indirect_: She said that she had done her work before she went to
school.

_Direct_: "I have finished my work," said the girl.
_Indirect_: She says that she has finished her work.

_Direct_: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.
_Indirect_: I asked why he had not succeeded.

_Direct_: "When may I go?" she inquired.
_Indirect_: She inquired when she might go.

In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do not change the paragraphing.

1

THE SEAL'S LESSON

The baby seal said _that he could not swim_.

His mother answered _that he could try_.

The little fellow persisted _that he could never
learn_.

His mother looked at him sternly, and said _that every
seal must learn to swim_.

He replied _that the water was cold and that he liked
the sand better_, but because his mother insisted, he
slid into the water whimpering.

After he had gone a short distance, he turned around
and called out _that the water was much pleasanter
than the sand_.

His mother said _that she knew that it would be so_.
She said _that young people must do as they are told
because they have not had enough experience to judge
for themselves_.

2

A FAITHFUL SERVANT

A certain old time king said _that he needed a servant
who could be depended upon_. He said he knew _that
such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of
getting the right one, he would hire two_.

When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and,
showing them a large basket, told them _to fill it
with water_. He said _that he would return at night to
see what they had done_.

The men were very much in earnest when they began the
work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of
water into the basket, one of them stopped and said
_that he did not see any use in doing that because, as
soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and
his time was lost_.

His companion replied _that the kind of work that
their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that
they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed
useful to them or not, they ought to do it_.

The first speaker said _that the other man could do as
he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to
waste his time on such foolish work_. Throwing his
bucket down, he walked off.

The one that was left continued at the work until
about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well.
Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering.
Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket
a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up
from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said _that
now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured
into the basket_.

Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of
his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew
that the man had obeyed him, and he said _that he knew
he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he
would make him master over other servants_.

=Exercise 172--The Paragraph in Dialogue=

In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes, the paragraph changes; as,

"Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old
guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden,
"Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom."

"Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure
that you seek and one which many have sought before
but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back."

Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for
wisdom willingly."

"Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your
right hand, but your right eye, you must
give."--Keary: _The Heroes of Asgard_.

However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter XIV.)

When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated as follows:

This, however, was of use to me, the impression
continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy
some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give
too much for the whistle," and I saved my money.

Paragraph the following:

1

On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when
we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the
midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an
appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In
plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then
approached the long team and heavy wagon of our
friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice
is,--" began the captain, who had been anxiously
contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But
Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet
decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his
seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low,
contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is,"
resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any
man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall
stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!"
echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large
head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!"
petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain,
turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give
my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why,
they won't, that's all!"--Parkman: _The Oregon Trail_.

2

Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door.
There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair,
husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca
was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was
nothing to do except explain her presence; so she
asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the
lady of the house at present," said the stranger with
a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you
ever heard of the--would you like--er I mean, do you
need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I
do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I
didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I
would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap,
the best now on the market. It is called the--" "Oh! I
must know that soap," said the gentleman genially.
"Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very
purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not
a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing
with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected
Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger
every year, instead of older--wise child!"--Wiggin:
_Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm_.

Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph:

When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a
day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay
cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers
seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever
before. When they came to a bend in the river, his
uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told
the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do
and move it on the surface of the water in imitation
of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but
he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try
again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the
boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he
spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said
that he should try again, because fishermen must have
patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at
his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine
pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable
excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to
look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy
didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash
in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle
assured him that there were more fish in the river,
but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled
shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag
of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said
that he had seen older people doing that in more ways
than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said
that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until
it was done.

=Exercise 173--The Comma (,)=

=Rule 1.--The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the words of explanation.=

For illustration see the foregoing exercises.

Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the original:

Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other
occupations are hindered for want of men to do the
work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only
hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business
manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any
branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find
that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious,
capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get
a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or
of his city, or of the great general public. But if
you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed,
unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters,
lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.--_Mark
Twain._

=Rule 2.--The comma is used to separate the members of a series.=

=Exercise 174=

Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas:

Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy
he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence
more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his
perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the
firm true steady hand that guided our country through
its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise
brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his
character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year
it was built up after years of yearning years of
striving and years of hard work.

In the above point out the instances where the comma is used--

1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case.

2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same noun.

3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.

This kind of succession is called a _series_. Each new member gives a new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two members before the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other members.

2

Dear Sir:[1]

You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds
now the company supplies power to mines and towns of
Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light
and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns
in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka
Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for
the street railway systems of Salt Lake City
Farmington and Ogden.

The bonds offer such good security good interest and
ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to
be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us
your order before Monday.

Yours truly,

3

Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie
forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and
wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from
the slope I myself standing in the middle like a
ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse
performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully
he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he
lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to
repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he
pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty
plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and
snuffed about me--just out of reach.

4

Dear Madam:[4]

Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's
styles for ladies misses and children it contains
illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of
skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of
hats that are new and particularly becoming and of
dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are
especially sure that you will like our waists they are
artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in
workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion
centers are the creations of the best costumers and
always have individuality twenty years of selling
goods by mail have given us experience skill and
knowledge that make it certain we can please you.

The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five
dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten
dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen
dollars or more this offer expires September 30.

Yours truly,

5

Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower
efficiency for the hours worked have done more to
raise the cost of living than almost anything else
this higher cost of production we see on the farm in
the factory in transportation in merchandising and
even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of
excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and
expect not to double the rents that we must pay the
cost of building has increased as the demands of
laborers increased as their hours of work decreased
and as their wages advanced the materials that go into
a building the transportation of that material the
labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it
into a building have all advanced in price.

Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the
high cost of living because it has made most of us
think that we must have more conveniences more
luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our
fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers
with a return to their desire for work we shall no
longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there
is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in
our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and
idleness and in our growing antipathy for work.

=Exercise 175=

Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses.

=Exercise 176=

Write the following from dictation:

1

THE GOVERNMENT'S LAUNDRY

Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty
that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and
the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be
verified. It has often been said that money spreads
contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be
questioned when one remembers that money goes into
every kind of home and is handled by many infected
persons. The government has long felt that something
should be done to lessen this means of spreading
disease, and a machine has finally been invented that
will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look
almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of
operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each
thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save
the government as much as a million dollars a year.

2

LUCK AND LABOR

Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor
with keen eyes and strong will turns something up.
Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring
him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock
and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the
foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor
whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on
character.--_Cobden._

The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection above.

=Rule 3.--The comma is used before the coördinate
conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction
is omitted, a semicolon must be used.=

=Exercise 177=

Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate:

1

Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but
recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be
successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and
other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were
conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same
principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the
floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the
air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the
fire to die out the experiments were tried with both
wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to
extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.

2

Select the kind of business that suits your natural
inclination and temperament some men are naturally
mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery
because they do not understand it some men are
imaginative others are purely practical some prefer
active work others like sedentary employment all
should select those occupations that suit them best.

3

Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a
new material for sleepers and they have been
experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or
Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost
impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes
in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a
trifle more than those made from American oak but they
are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the
reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that
native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to
search in time for a substitute.

4

Dear Sir:

We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come
of your decision in regard to the investment you were
considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your
order and we shall at once prepare the contract of
sale the building is an especially attractive offering
at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the
return from it unusually large.

Yours very truly,

=Exercise 178=

When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an _initial_ clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation, noticing the punctuation of initial elements:

If a city is to be kept in good condition, every
citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the
dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must
be a good board of health to see that everything is
kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work
well, the health of the city improves. In order that
the decrees of the health department and of the courts
may be enforced, there must be a good police
department. Besides having these advantages, cities
need good streets and good schools. Because all of
these good things cost a great deal of money, high
taxes must be levied to pay for them.

=Rule 4.--An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.=

=Exercise 179=

Punctuate the following:

1

Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than
rubbish there now come from it every year millions of
dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away
to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream
and there it did much harm even if we had the space it
would be impossible to explain all the products now
made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for
cattle may be made from the hulls but the most
important products are made from the kernels besides
making meal for cattle they are readily converted into
crude oil according to the degree of refining that it
receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps
lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the
way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste
products the cotton seed is supreme.

2

When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you
know that they come back to you as writing paper
because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are
often left on the garments cannot be converted into
paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the
papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove
them before the garments went into the pulp vats some
were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp
they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the
rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the
pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized
rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of
metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of
iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return
to us in many new forms.

3

Dear Sir:

Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we
found that the furniture which you ordered on the
tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth
if all had gone well you would have received the
articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the
delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake
on the part of the railroad company although the goods
were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on
to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten
days' time let us hear from you again.

Yours truly,

4

Dear Sir:

Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am
sending you particulars of the property which I wish
to sell as I told you when I was in your office last
week the price at which I am holding the building is
$20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the
mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to
agree to accept present payment for the note that he
holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the
unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied
for improvements already made I shall not consider a
sale.

After all preliminary arrangements are made if you
will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I
will have the abstract brought down to date and
secured by a guaranty policy.

Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has
examined the property and is satisfied to pay the
price for it in its present condition I would suggest
that you do nothing more toward securing bids for
rebuilding the porches.

Yours very truly,

=Exercise 180=

Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.

Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.

=Exercise 181=

The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or the like; as,

In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle,
Washington.

This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the sentence above really meaning,

In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from
Seattle in the state of Washington.

The same use is shown in such sentences as,

Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen
dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.

=Rule 5.--The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.=

Supply the necessary commas in the following:

1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1
1934.

2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding
$4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a
share.

3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.

4. The transaction was officially conducted between
the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific
Power Co. Tacoma Washington.

5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us
that the center of population of the United States is
four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe
County Indiana.

6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced
to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog
suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge;
the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the
fungus growth on trees the bracket.

7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United
States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four
cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in
1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890
$24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is
still increasing.

8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910
90,000,000.

9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the
United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central
American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba
52%.

10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America
have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United
Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United
States an increase of 130%.

Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.

=Exercise 182--Explanatory Expressions=

There are a number of expressions--words, phrases, and clauses--which are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to the main idea of the sentence.

A. The _appositive_ is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.)

Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:

1. William E. Curtis, _one of the world's ablest
newspaper correspondents_, in his will expressed the
hope that his grandson would continue his life-work,
_a recital of the good that men had done and not of
the crimes they had committed_.

2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly
lessened office drudgery.

3. Wall street, the great center of business life,
fixes stock prices.

4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent
middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain
of high prices.

5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to
introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business
in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment,
two horse-drawn sleighs.

6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping
melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and
the Emerald Green varieties.

7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for
this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise
Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and
flower seeds.

8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper,
produces branching plants about two feet in height.

9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a
native of Norway.

=Rule 6.--The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of the sentence.=

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an appositive.

=Exercise 183--Explanatory Expressions=

Similar in use to appositives are--

B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like.

In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated in the following:

In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals,
_evidently taking the suggestion from the popular
rural delivery service_, have established ice cream
routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at
stated times so that, _with no more trouble than is
required to answer the postman's whistle_, dwellers on
the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at
reasonable prices. The plan, _so far as one can tell
from present indications_, gives promise of meeting
with great success.

=Rule 7.--Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.=

Punctuate the following:

1

The politics of the city as well as those of the
nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of
the community not the least intelligent should make
our political speeches and be our political leaders.
The very opposite we must confess is what we see too
often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own
ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time
to politics. We need not search far to discover that
too many of them even if they have the time do not
care to give it. At election the most influential
business and professional men either through lack of
interest or through laziness stay at home instead of
going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine
cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame
belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote.

2

England as most people know is becoming vastly
interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan.
This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a
matter of interest to the American manufacturer as
well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian
cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length
and strength of fiber is wanted because of the
brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine
goods including sateens India linens and mercerized
goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been
found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the
enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem
about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt
and although not more than half will probably be
planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output
about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of
Agriculture after having experimented for years has
developed and acclimated in California a variety of
Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the
real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one
can see to decide whether American manufacturers will
get their fine cotton at home or abroad.--_The Wall
Street Journal._

3

For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy
people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of
the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in
the past various invasions have been attended with
evil but civilization has passed on into an age when
migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen
are taking place silently and steadily for the good of
all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow
and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with
the progress of humanity should bring to us anything
but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new
movement of the nations as it has in the past and the
merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to
anticipate and guide the statesman.--_The Commercial
and Financial Chronicle._

4

The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class
of young business men seems to be that the saving of
little things in the course of the day consumes time
entirely out of proportion to the value of the things
saved but like all general rules it is carried too far
by young men who could hardly employ their time to
better advantage than in saving good though minor
materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who
originated the idea probably found it correct for
himself but like all principles catering to
indifference regarding details the idea is too readily
adopted by many young men who can ill afford its
practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but
he should not allow anything to be wasted which can
with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved.

=Exercise 184--Explanatory Expressions=

C. _Independent elements_ are words, phrases, or clauses that have no direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection with the sentence than those given under B.

The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you discover?

_Gentlemen_, the big problem before us to-day,
_therefore_, is the trusts. Shall the people control
the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people?
_To state the question differently_, shall we all
continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we
turn our power over into the hands of a few and let
their word be law? This centralizing of power, _by the
way_, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming
republics, and shall we Americans, _do you think_, be
willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us
of liberty? _The answer being self-evident_, let us
proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can
be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, _at any
rate_, is not punished. The trusts, _most people
know_, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason
for destroying competition, _evidently_, is to swell
profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The
trust, _finally_, is not a method of doing business,
but a scheme for levying tribute.

=Rule 8.--Independent elements are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.=

Punctuate the following:

1

NEW YORK, May 12, 19--.
Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,
5010 Prospect Ave.,
Milwaukee, Wis.

Dear Sir:

You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation
before you make any new plans however consider the
opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and
marvelously beautiful world for little more very
likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the
summer hotel to which you usually go.

The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is
new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have
yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize
at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama
and the Central and South American countries is
practically the same throughout the year moreover the
transportation rates are much lower than they are in
the North and the incidental expenses of travel such
as carriage fare and the cost of curios are
considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown
in the summer.

Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan
you have been considering a week's cruise of the great
lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along
coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before
we offer a number of trips varying in length from
twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to
$130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America
thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long
pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more
strange and return with a new almost magical store of
memories.

You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer
these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is
that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of
freight however do not think merely because our ships
carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped
for passenger travel on the other hand they are so
luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted
for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual
opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully
investigate our offer.

Yours very truly,

2

We are learning year by year that as a rule financial
independence cannot be secured by most men except by
saving the savings bank is of course the first place
to invest savings because it will receive small sums
and pay an interest on them when a man's savings
however have reached $1000 for example what shall he
do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge
probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore
to put his money where it will be safe where it will
earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he
can on short notice convert it into cash.

3

A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his
savings a woman on the other hand invests because she
has received a legacy this may take the form of course
of property securities cash or life insurance it is
the function of sound investment most people know to
surround funds of this nature with strong security the
selection of conservative investments it is evident
must be made with care those companies naturally that
deal in conservative securities are the ones a
prospective investor should consult.

4

Not long ago the editor of a financial journal
received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she
said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as
some of her friends had advised her to do in a
well-known security she could not live on the
proceeds she had consequently made a connection with
a brokerage house and was making a living by buying
and selling speculative stocks her list by the way
showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted
to know of course was how she could make the gain a
second time in effect she was told to take her profits
and run as fast as she could she will not in all
probability take the advice and in a few months
possibly weeks she will write again for help in
rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have
learned at last that the way to keep her money is to
save it but she will not by that time in all
likelihood have any money to save.

=Exercise 185--Explanatory Expressions=

D. The _explanatory relative clause_.

Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive relative clause.

Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the former is called a non-restrictive clause.

Notice the difference between the following:

1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, _which controls
the electric light and power supply of Chicago_, was
organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago
Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company.

The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause.

2. The concern _that controls the electric light and
power supply of Chicago_ is the Commonwealth Edison
Company.

The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence.

In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or restricts the meaning of _the concern_. The non-restrictive clause is shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).

Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:

It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000
gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000.
To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which
are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers
conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has
for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm
owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now
see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have
discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is
dangerous except when produced under sanitary
conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only
clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy
cow.

Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of the sentences need commas?