Chapter XII: Retrospect (1)

We are now in a position to see whither the lines of our inquiries converge, and to draw a few general conclusions. Since each chapter has been provided with its own summary, the retrospect will not detain us long.

We began by reviewing the facts with regard to the existence of Christian churches on ancient pagan sites. It was soon discovered that the chief testimony was afforded by tangible relics. These objects comprise, on the one hand, rude stone monuments, ancient burial mounds, prehistoric earthworks, and sacred wells, existing in close association with parish churches; and, on the other, of scraps of treasure-trove, such as bones, urns, coins, and implements, thrown up by the spade. The material relics, it is true, did not complete the evidence. A little was learned from place-names, and more, perhaps, from folk-stories concerning the deeds of fairies and witches, giants and demons, who baulked the efforts of the early builders. These traditions, widespread and genuinely spontaneous, are--in whatever way we may choose to explain and interpret them--valuable records of true folk-memory. Our general verdict respecting the sites was that, in many instances, they were originally of pagan selection, although no existing building can be produced which exhibits, as a structure, undoubted continuity from the days of heathendom.

From the site we went on to consider the church fabric. It was seen that some of the earliest churches were raised during periods when the community thought it wise to plan buildings adapted both for defence and worship. The truth of this proposition will, by most students, be deemed to have been satisfactorily proved. The part of the building specially designed for protection was the steeple, which was frequently, by turns, conning tower, beacon, treasure-chamber, and fortress. Touching this ancient use, folk-tales have the true ring.

As the centuries passed away, defensive towers became unnecessary, yet the idea survived in slight architectural features, now meaningless, unless interpreted by the light of history. The nave, however, continued to have its social value for several hundred years. Partly owing to the Reformation of the sixteenth century, partly in consequence of the pressure of population and the subsequent provision of more suitable buildings for secular purposes, even the nave was at last forbidden to the trader and the religious dramatist. Only a few trivial vestiges, such as the affixing of public notices on the church door, remain to tell of the old latitude given to customs, almost all traces of which have vanished from the memory of the common folk. We must except from this oblivion the village chatter about Cromwell’s soldiers stabling their horses in the nave, the gossip about dog-whippers and dicing, and the numerous bits of scandal coming down from the less creditable periods of church history. All of these stories possess a germ of reality. With respect, however, to the current explanations of “lepers’ windows,” squints, “priests’ chambers,” and deflected chancels, there is no direct tradition, these explanations having been obtained from outside sources.

Again, with regard to the orientation of churches, the reasons given by country folk are obviously hearsay presentations of what has been taught by educated persons. We have, it is true, the records of ecclesiological writers to aid us, but these are, unfortunately, rather contradictory. Priest and architect seem to have conspired to keep any actual details of tradition to themselves, supposing, indeed, that any precise canons ever existed. This select corporation may have handed down the theory and the practice, but the rite is now shorn of much ceremonial, and the custom is followed almost blindly. Moreover, modern builders appear to be very careless in their alinements. The staple rudimentary idea of orientation is clearly pagan, and the broad general tradition of sun-alinements must have been well kept during the early centuries of church-building, whether any definite, exact rules as to seasonal alinement were observed or not. If the orientation of modern churches is settled in a somewhat haphazard manner by the builders, and if the primitive idea has become blurred and indefinite, the orientation of graves affords a splendid example of unconscious folk-memory. Not only a sexton, but probably any villager chosen at random, would take into account the East-and-West direction in digging a grave, though he might not be able to assign a reason for his method. The primitive purpose has long since been driven aside by the force of events, and even the symbolists have had to introduce secondary explanations.

In burial customs, with their numerous little superstitious observances, the survival of folk-memory is well displayed. It is needless to repeat the evidence here--how, in recent years, objects have been surreptitiously, and even openly, buried with the dead; how the funeral feast, in an attenuated form, lingers on; how we still scrupulously don the funeral garb, once the sign of deprecation or fear; how graveyard teeth are used as charms and remedies. True, the underlying ideas have much altered; witness, for instance, the modern reasons put forward to justify the wearing of mourning; but so far as the practices are affected, we are still living, though, of course, unavowedly, in the Neolithic period. The superstitions relating to death cannot be expelled from the uneducated mind, which realizes too well that the event itself is inescapable. Hence the prejudice against cremation, stubbornly defying enlightened opinion, and hence the stories of ghosts and apparitions furtively believed in by many persons who would be ashamed to admit such credulity.

The folk-memory connected with the points of the compass supplied us with some curious little touches of local superstition, and with the familiar objection to burial on the North side of the churchyard--an inherited antipathy coming down from prehistoric times. Next, the churchyard yew presented a complicated problem. During the eighteenth century there appears to have existed an echo of the days when the churchyard yew was pruned for purposes of archery. In the few instances where traditions concerning archery are still extant, there is a strong suspicion that folk-memory has been “assisted” by local writers and rambling antiquaries. Indeed, the strange silence about the yew in genuine popular legend is so complete as to be amazing. One does not refer to accounts of the employment of the yew on Palm Sunday, and other similar observances; at most, these are valid only as furnishing secondary motives. The real puzzle remains. Here we have a graveyard tree, possessing strong distinctive characters--sombreness, strength, longevity, perpetual verdure--appealing eloquently to human sentiment. The planting of the tree was a custom in the early days of British Christianity, and the practice has never become obsolete. Individual trees, when decayed or uprooted, have been replaced by fresh ones. In face of the cumulative testimony we cannot believe that the choice of the yew, like that of the elm or ash, was merely casual; yet most of the trustworthy tradition respecting the tree has long since disappeared in a most extraordinary manner.

Rapidly passing on, we recall the chapter relating to the horse-cult. Neglecting the minor details, we observe, in the obstinate prejudice against eating horseflesh, a reversal of prehistoric ideas. Here, at least, the Church made little admitted compromise, though the pagan habit died hard, and backslidings are recorded. Strange to say, few persons could give a reason, except that derived from the Jewish law, for the general repugnance. On broad grounds, we should have expected to find some curious, inconsequent explanation, such as that involved in the superstitious fear of killing robins and swallows, or of eating certain kinds of fish. There could scarcely be any rooted distaste for horseflesh, nor natural repulsion to so clean an animal. Yet the original ecclesiastical ban has lingered long after its actual effective force has been lost. Perhaps a partial explanation is found in the fact that we have always had numerous other domestic animals which have furnished us with flesh food, though the native stores have had to be supplemented by importation.

While folk-memory has sub-consciously kept alive the antipathy to horseflesh, the story of the working ox supplies us with an excellent illustration of the direct failure of oral tradition. The use of the bullock as a beast of draught constituted an economic question simply. So soon as the immediate material advantage was removed, owing to the disuse of ox-labour, all interest in keeping up the tradition was lost. Consequently, it is extremely difficult to get sound information respecting a custom so recently abandoned, and not one person in a hundred has ever seen an ox-shoe. Had the ox been pre-eminently connected with British and Early Teutonic sacrifices and superstitions, as was the horse, we should almost certainly have inherited a number of vagrant traditions. As it is, we possess but a few old ballads, legends, and nursery rhymes, like that of the Dun Cow of Warwick, or the cow that jumped over the moon.

The study of the ox, indeed, helps us to appreciate exactly where the strength and the weakness of folk-memory lie. Roughly speaking, the soundest traditions are concerned either with essential details of urgent social economy, or with religion and superstition. In these matters, oral transmission is usually faithful. “This story shall the good man teach his son.” But let an industrial practice be dropped, through its being no longer necessary or profitable, and a few decades will wipe out all direct remembrance. The most stupid myths will arise to account for this or that visible relic of the industry or custom. So long as the occupation brings material gain, the tradition is scrupulously passed on from father to son. Of superstition, or of widely-felt fears, affecting both body and spirit, there is the same careful transmission and the same vivid retention. Scenes of horror also remain long in the memory of the people; hence we meet with traditions of battles, massacres, raids, burnings. Just in proportion as the historical facts grow tenuous, the accounts become distorted and exaggerated, as, for instance, in the Irish legends about Cromwell. There are minor divisions of each series, such as those which comprise the stories about buried treasure, ghosts and “barguests,” omens and amulets, together with superstitions respecting personal characteristics, times and seasons, health and disease, with many other matters.

Viewing broadly the tract occupied by folk-memory, we indeed find certain stable elements. We see the peasantry, diminishing numerically, but still forming a great multitude, slow-moving by nature, and tenacious of their heritage of folklore. The dull, mechanical monotony of the lives of many of the industrial classes, again, tends to check any breaking away from tradition. Our educational system is, alas, still so uniform as to put a curb on originality, hence there is a tendency for ideas to keep their traditional set. Opposed to these conservative factors, there is at work a well-known biological principle. As our society--to use the Spencerian phrase--is being slowly transformed from a state of homogeneity to one of heterogeneity, as the individual becomes separated and specialized from the mass, the habit of acting instinctively like blind units of the human crowd is slowly lost, while race-memory is weakened, and the primitive faculty of unconsciously preserving and transmitting unwritten lore becomes atrophied and almost worthless.

Even the wofully scanty records of folk-memory such as those which we have noticed, are destined soon to disappear. Education, in spite of its cramped conditions, is destroying many foolish beliefs and baneful superstitions. But it is doing more than this; for the printed book and the daily newspaper not only obliterate folk-memory, but remove the need for its lawful exercise. The reader no longer relies on oral tradition, but on the printed pages of history and on works of reference. Scarcely can we tell whether an important event took place five years ago, or a dozen years ago. The speech and actions of famous men become confused in popular tradition--always there is some book wherein the record is kept. A credulous antiquary may proclaim that a certain mound is a barrow, and though the “barrow” was actually raised within the past twenty years, few folk can come forward to gainsay the statement. Or some old shepherd “believes” that he has used flint celts for bell-clappers, whereas it is more likely that he has merely heard, or read, of such a practice. In fact, we are swiftly approaching the time when folk-custom and folk-memory will be so utterly vitiated by books and lectures as to be worthless. Caution is especially necessary at the present day. In his address to the British Association in 1910, Mr W. Crooke gave a timely warning respecting the “half-trained amateur.” Such a person, visiting India, “may see a totem in every hedge, or expect to meet a corn-spirit on every threshing floor.” And, at home, the rash enthusiast may see an idol in every stone heap, an Iberian in every dark-haired man, a symbol in every line of an ancient building, a prehistoric grave in every stray bit of potsherd.

There is, however, a middle course of action. And, though folk-memory is waning, there is work which can be done, if it be done quickly. There are still waifs and strays of custom to be collected and correlated. Every village clergyman has his parish registers, which, though unfortunately not reaching back so far as one could wish, may yet give information on some of the topics which we have studied. The local antiquary who will make a precise record of all discoveries which connect the present with the past, will do great service. The muniment room, with its deeds and charters, sometimes yields us timely help. The old chest, with its wills, leases, and covenants, may, in a few scattered sentences, throw light on some quaint custom. The ballads and folk-songs, which are now being so sedulously collected and studied, still safeguard many curious fancies and superstitions. All these sources will gradually yield less and less to the searcher. It is true that there are libraries full of volumes which treat of antiquities, folk-customs, and folk-lore, but the details need to be carefully re-arranged, and, in many instances, to be re-vivified by comparison with the living present.

ADDENDA

Page 9. _Churches on Roman foundations._ The piers of the chancel arch of Bosham church, Sussex, rest on enormous square bases, which are believed to be Roman. The capitals were also probably copied from Roman models. Mr P. M. Johnston, F.S.A., in _Victoria Hist. of Sussex_, 1907, II. p. 362, suggests that the work represents “possibly the triumphal arch of Vespasian’s basilica.” Roman relics have been found under the floor of this pre-Conquest church.

St Michael’s church, St Albans, retains much Roman material in its walls and piers.

Since this chapter went to press, I have read Mr Montagu Sharpe’s _Parish Churches on Romano-British Sites_, 1909, in which evidence is adduced to show that many of our parish churches occupy the sites of pagan rural chapels (_sacella_) and are closely associated with the lines of centuriation as planned by Roman surveyors. The sacellum was a small unroofed place consecrated to a deity (p. 4), containing an altar, and sometimes a shrine (_aedicula_). The sacellum was also used for non-religious purposes, e.g. as a place of refreshment. Mr Sharpe states that the Roman surveyors divided a district into areas or “blocks” by means of four public ways (_viae vicinales_). In the canton of the London Civitas a side of such a square measured 1⅛ miles (p. 2). Maps are given, one of which shows that 30 parish churches of the Isle of Wight “had intimate connection with the lines of the Roman Survey” (p. 3). Such churches are especially found near cross-roads.

Mr John Ward’s _The Roman Era in Britain_, 1911, pp. 111-113, deserves notice in this connection, especially with regard to the conflict between the historical evidence and the “comparative silence of archaeology.”

Page 14. _Classification of earthworks._ A portion of the scheme is appended, in order to explain the groups of earthworks to which reference is made.

A. Promontory fortresses: partly inaccessible, on account of cliffs or water, partly defended by artificial walls or banks.

B. Hill-or Contour-forts: fortresses situated on hill-tops, with artificial defences following the natural line of the hill.

C. Rectangular, or other simple enclosures, including forts and towns of the Romano-British kind.

D. Castle mounts: forts consisting of a mount, with an encircling ditch or fosse.

E. Castle mounts with baileys: fortified mounts wholly or partly artificial, having an attendant court or bailey.

Page 118. _Churches as fortresses._ The church of St Michael, Torrington, Devon, was employed by the Royalists (1646), both as a prison and a powder magazine. Owing to an explosion, probably accidental, the church was blown up, and about 200 prisoners were killed.

The town referred to by Thorold Rogers seems to be Alton.

Page 161. _Arms taken to church._ A few of the old oak seats in Clovelly church, Devon, are notched, and it has been supposed that the purpose was the accommodation of weapons. In one case there is a corresponding hole in the floor, rectangular in shape, which may have been intended to receive the butt end of a musket (cf. the stands in City churches for holding the sword of the Lord Mayor).

Respecting the rating of the clergy for armour, see _Notes and Queries_, 11th Ser., IV. p. 468.

Page 167. _The Borsholder._ The powers of this official are enumerated in William Lambard’s work, _The Duties of Constables, Borsholders, Tythingmen, and such other lowe Ministers of the peace_ (1583), pp. 15, 16, 20, etc.

Page 201. _Objects in churches._ An enormous pole was formerly suspended in a horizontal position in the nave of Bosham church, Sussex. It was traditionally said to be the staff of a Mediaeval giant, Sir Bevis of Southampton, who was accustomed to stride across Bosham Harbour at one step, on his way to Southampton (K. H. MacDermott, _The Story of Bosham church, Sussex_, 1906, pp. 14-15). For a list of curiosities formerly preserved in pagan temples, see J. Beckmann’s _History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins_, trans. by W. Johnston, 1846, I. pp. 283-4.

Page 344. _Plan of churchyards._ Additional examples of churches which have little space on the North side: West Tarring, Sussex; Northam and Clovelly, Devon; Hambledon, Surrey. Small South yards: Ferring and Lyminster, Sussex.

Page 346. _Introduction of headstones._ It is asserted that the churchyard of Grasmere, Westmoreland, was devoid of gravestones until the early part of the nineteenth century, and was used as the playground of the village school. Wordsworth thus refers to the churchyard in _The Brothers_:

“An orphan could not find his mother’s grave;
Here’s neither head nor footstone, plate of brass,
Cross-bones nor skull,--type of our earthly state
Nor emblem of our hopes: the dead man’s home
Is but a fellow to that pasture-field.”

Page 405. _Tennyson and the yew._ Two other lines from the same poem (_In Memoriam_, XXXIX. _vv._ 1, 2) deserve notice:

“Dark yew, that graspest at the stones
And dippest toward the dreamless head.”

These lines suggest the Breton superstition that the yew sends out a root into the mouths of the dead.

Page 412. _Drawings of the horse._ Sketches of hog-maned horses, bearing signs of halters, have recently been discovered in the Magdalenian caves of North Spain.

Page 440. _Superstitions respecting the horse._ In Bavaria, it was formerly the custom for horses to be taken to church once every year, to peep at the altar or the effigy of the local saint. This observance was supposed to ensure good health to the animals during the next twelvemonth. (_Notes and Queries_, 11th Ser., III. p. 266, authority cited.) The practice is still followed in Italy.

In our own country, horses were taken at Easter into the “middle” of Hertfordshire churches to be blessed. (_Notes and Queries_, 11th Ser., III. p. 318.)

Page 460. _Curved ridges due to plough-teams of oxen._ The curvature indicative of ancient tillage generally takes the form of a flat reversed S; in other words the unwieldy team turned to the left when approaching the headland. Mr T. Blashill (_Jour. Brit. Archaeol. Assoc._, N.S., II. pp. 218-23) deduces that the old-fashioned heavy ploughs turned the furrow-slice to the left. This is not, however, a necessary conclusion. A reversed S-curve might be associated with a right-handed mould-board. Moreover, Dr W. Fream (_Elements of Agriculture_, 1892, p. 45) asserts that “none of the old ploughs turned a furrow”; they stirred the earth but did not turn it over. In such a conservative occupation as agriculture, one would scarcely expect to find such a revolution as Mr Blashill postulates. He observes that modern ploughs are so made that the furrow-slice is thrown to the right, and the team also turns in that direction at the headland. A similar feature is noticeable in old cultivation ridges in many parts of the Continent, where the curve is more frequently that of a flat S, not reversed. It should be remembered that the old turnwrest plough, formerly employed in some parts of England, enabled the ploughman to throw the furrow either way.

The “line of beauty” traced by old ploughs is alluded to by William Mason, in his _English Garden_, Bk II., ll. 51-6 (Vol. I. of _Works_, 1811, p. 237). He is referring to “ploughing steers”:

“That peculiar curve,
Alike averse to crooked and to straight
Where sweet Simplicity resides; which Grace
And Beauty call their own; whose lambent flow
Charms us at once with symmetry and ease;
’Tis Nature’s curve ...”

To prevent overstatement respecting the connection between ox-teams and the curved furrow, it should be added that formerly there was “a prejudice, if not a superstition, in favour of crooked ridges” (W. L. Rham, _Dict. of the Farm_, 1858, p. 291).

INDEX

Abbots Bromley (Staffs.), 160, 185

Abbotsbury (Dorset), 128 n.

Abbotsham (Devon), 345

Aberdeen, 301

Abinger (Surrey), mound, 62-3;
stocks, 165

Achnacree (Argyle), 299

Acoustic jars in churches, 446-9, 451

Acoustic skulls in churches, 444-5, 449-51

Addington (Kent), 46

Addy, Mr S. O., on old Welsh courts, 64;
Touting Hills, 71;
old St Paul’s, 139;
Royal Arms in churches, 144;
theory respecting basilicas, 147-50, 151;
word “church,” 147-9;
“lord’s house,” 148;
ostiarius, 149

Adonis, and Yuletide, 27

Aeneas, and chariots, 429

Aeneolithic Age, 249, 417, 419, 483

Aerolites, in churches, 197;
superstition respecting, 198

Aestheticism in architecture, 238-41

Age of trees, how determined, 366-8

Agglestone, the (Dorset), 35-6

Ainus, burial customs of the, 247

Aird Dhubh (mountain), 352

Airy, Rev. W., on orientation of churches, 222, 226, 227, 233

Aland Isles, 402

Alciston (Sussex), 344

Aldborough (Yorks.), 273

Aldbourne (Wilts.), barrow, 314, 315

Aldworth (Berks.), 374, 398

“Ales” (= feasts), 175-9

Alexander Severus, 422

Alfold (Surrey), stocks, 165;
yew, 221 n.

Alfriston (Sussex), clergy house, 176;
elm, 176, 384

Alinement of churches (see Orientation)

Allcroft, Mr A. H., on Chisbury camp, 14;
Burpham, 16;
Mediaeval earthworks, 16, 60;
defensive churches, 17;
churches near earthworks, 17;
Church Barrow, 30;
castle-mounds, 55, 67;
Cublington earthworks, 60;
mound at Walton-on-the-Hill, 67;
word “Toot,” 71;
window-slits, 116

Allen, Grant, on grave-mounds, 260, 264;
trees on barrows, 270;
objects buried with the dead, 280, 319;
barrow burials, 320;
_Evolution of the Idea of God_, cited, 400

Allen, Mr J. Romilly, on the Chi-Rho, 5;
Irish round towers, 121-2;
orientation of graves, 247;
evolution of “wheel-cross,” 269-70;
coped tombstones, 272;
burial customs of early Christians, 272, 275;
Charon’s penny, 296;
the comb in ritual, 311-12;
burial of crozier with bishops, 311-12;
chariot-burial, 430

Allington (Kent), 75

Alloa (Clackmannan), 275

All Souls’ Day, 27;
Eve, 446

Alnwick (Northumberland), 163

Alpha Centauri, orientation to, 259

Alphamstone (Essex), 84-6

Altars, at East end of church, 205, 208-24;
at West end, 206, 207, 214-17

Altar-tombs, 76, 346

Alton (Hants.), 496

Alvingham (Lincs.), 137

Amber, beads in graves, 300-1;
as a charm, 301

Amesbury (Wilts.), churchyard, 344;
discoveries at, 483

Amulets, in graves, 298, 300;
teeth, used as, 301, 314

Ancaster (Lincs.), 12

Ancestor-worship, 280

_Anchitherium_, 409

Andrews, Dr C. W., on the horse, 408

Angers (France), 447

Anglo-Saxon remains (see under Saxon)

Animism, defined, 279;
Prof. Tylor on, 279-81

Anketell, Rev. R. H., on Alphamstone discoveries, 85, 86

Anne Boleyn’s Well (Surrey), 96

Annual rings, in trees, 364, 365, 366-9

_Apostolical Constitutions_, quoted, 211

Applesham Creek (Sussex), 78

Apsidal churches, 20, 22, 149, 213

Arabs, and magnetic needle, 228;
burial customs, 293;
cardinal points of, 326;
and shoeing horses, 472

Arbalest, or cross-bow, 385, 386

Arber, Prof. E., his “English Scholar’s Library,” 244

_Archaeologia_, cited, 430

_Archaeologia Cantiana_, cited, 428

Archery, British, 385-94;
statutes concerning, 389-90;
practised on the village green, 392;
traditions, 491

Arcturus, orientation to, 259

Arkholme (Lancs.), mound, 56, 61

Arles (France), Council of, 2;
church of St Blaise, 447

Arlington (Sussex), 79

Armitage, Mrs E. S., on castle-mounds, 55

Armour, stored in churches, 157-62;
parish, 158;
town, 158;
funeral, 159, 284;
at Repton, 159;
Darley, 159;
Mendlesham, 160;
Olaus Magnus, respecting, 161-2;
stands for, in churches, 496

Arnold-Forster, Miss F., her _Studies in Church Dedications_, 234

Arrichinaga (Spain), 29

Arrow-heads, 283, 315, 388, 390

Arrows, regulation of manufacture, 390

Art, of primitive man, 411-12, 414, 420-1

Aryans, early orientation among, 325, 328;
supposed Asiatic origin, 333, 382;
and horses, 421-2

Ascension Day customs, 92

Ascham, Roger, on archery, 391

Ash (Kent), 283

Ashburnham (Sussex), 201 n.

Ashburton (Devon), manorial courts, 137;
yew-tree, 391;
acoustic jars, 449, 450

Ashby, Dr Thomas, explorations at Caerwent, 25

Ashby-de-la-Zouch (Leicester), 349

Ashford (Middlesex), 250 n.

Ashtead (Surrey), Roman camp, 11;
cedar and yew in churchyard, 384

Ash-trees, in churchyards, 384

Ash-Wednesday, symbolism of, 317;
and yew, 382

Assandun, battle of, 200

Aston, as place-name, 339

Astronomy, early, 254, 257;
cycles, 256

_As You Like It_, quoted, 460

Athelstan, and horse-breeding, 422

_Athenaeum_, cited, 4, 441

Athenian coins, 484;
sacrifices, 484

Atkinson, Canon J. C., on Whitby Abbey, 234, 239;
charcoal in graves, 289-90;
funeral feasts, 319;
“averils,” 320;
grave-mounds, 357

Aubrey, John, on horseshoe custom, 157;
dancing in church, 185;
burial in a
North-and-South direction, 244;
Tandridge yew, 370-1

Augurs, divination by the left hand, 326, 327;
by the horse, 434, 435

Augustine, and churches, 26

Augustus, Emperor, his villa at Capri, 198;
burial of his horse, 432

Aurochs, the, 477

Austen, Canon G., on Whitby Abbey, 234 n., 235

Australia, burial customs, 247, 313, 322

Austria, 452

Auvergne, churches of, 216

Avebury (Wilts.), earthwork, 13, 30;
church, 13;
Palm Sunday celebration, 194

Avebury, Lord, on the horse, 416

Aveley (Essex), 189

“Averils,” or averil bread, 320

Avisford (Sussex), 314

Axes, made of amber, 299

Aylesford (Kent), “urn-field,” 261;
flat-earth burials, 276;
discovery of bucket, 434

Aysgarth (Yorks.), 259

Baal-worship, 218, 220

Bagshot Sands, 35, 40

Bailey, or bailey-court, 52, 61

Bailiff, chosen in church, 143

Bakewell (Derby), churchyard cross, 329

Bakewell, Robert, on shoeing oxen, 473

Baldock (Herts.), 159

Bale, Bishop, his Protestant plays, 183

Bamberg (Bavaria), 27

Bampton (Norfolk), 222

Banquets, in churches, 178-80;
funeral, 319-21, 419

Baptism, at the church door, 143;
St Jerome on, 220;
superstition, 331

Barclay, E., on Stonehenge, 219

Bards, assemblies of, 33, 98

Bardsey (Yorks.), 59

Barfreston (Kent), 239

Baring-Gould, Rev. S., on holy wells of Cornwall, 96;
wheels of fortune, 202;
deflected chancels, 231;
animals suspended from trees, 443

Barkway (Herts.), 448

Barnet (Herts.), 344

Barrington, Daines, on Fortingal yew, 376;
on “shelter theory,” 384

Barrows, at Abinger, 62-3;
early respect for, 64, 83, 87;
Over Worton, 75;
Ryton, 76;
Brinklow, 76;
Speeton, 78;
Taplow, 81-2;
Ludlow, 82;
of Neolithic and Bronze Ages, 99, 249, 417;
trees planted on, 270;
discussion on word, 270-1;
objects found in, 280, 282-3, 285, 300-1, 430, 483;
fire-kindlers in, 293, 294;
fossils, 302-4, 305;
Aldbourne, 314, 315;
feasts, 320, 438;
North side of, 357;
horse in, 416, 417, 419;
oxen in, 483

Bartholomew Anglicus, quoted, 456

Barwick-in-Elmet (Yorks.), 59

Basildon (Berks.), 373

Basilica, at Southwell, 9;
Reculver, 20;
Silchester, 23;
meaning of word, 146, 151;
Roman, 148, 150;
British, 148, 213;
at Jarrow, 149;
Rome, 150, 214-15;
orientation of, 213, 214-15;
at Bosham, 495

Bateman, T., his excavations of barrows, 416

Battlements, 117

Bavaria, 497

Baye, Baron J. de, on sacrificial custom, 321

Bayeux tapestry, and long-bow, 387;
oxen, 455

Bayonne (France) Cathedral, 231

Beads, in graves, 300-1, 305, 314

Becket’s shrine, 131

Beckett, Sir E. (Lord Grimthorpe), on orientation, 216;
acoustic jars, 447

Beckmann, J., on shoeing horses, 470 n.

Bedale (Yorks.), 107

Bede, the Venerable, on St Alban, 4;
St Martin’s, 20;
temple at Godmanham, 32;
Wessex, 36;
Jarrow, 43;
orientation of graves, 244, 247;
witchcraft, 397;
horse-races, 422;
story of Coifi, 436

Beehive huts, 120

Beeston (Norfolk), 353

Belemnites, in barrows, 307

Belfries, in Ireland, 120-2;
origin of word, 126-7;
horse-skulls found in, 445

Belgium, votive offerings, 203;
caves of, 308;
burial customs, 311

Belloc, Mr Hilaire, on Bishopstoke church, 45;
Pilgrims’ Way, 338, 339

Bells, early, 120-2;
“thief and reever,” 138;
Mediaeval, 448;
on oxen, 462-3, 475

Beltane fires, 403

Beltout (Sussex), 71

Benachie (Aberdeen), 48

Benedictine abbeys, 329

“Benefit of adjuration,” 354

Bengal, grave-gifts of, 313

Bennett, Mr F. J., on sarsens near churches, 40;
Ogbourne Maisey mound, 75

Benson, Mr A. C., quoted, 137

“Beowulf,” use of the word “gallows,” 68;
funeral mounds, 73;
amulets in graves, 300

Berenger, Richard, on horseshoes, 424

Berkeley (Glos.), detached tower, 122;
school in church porch, 154

Berkeley, Bishop G., quoted, 333

Berkshire, yews of, 406

Berwick (Sussex), mound, 75-6;
dovecot, 188, 189

Berzelius, on analysis of bone, 90

Beverley (Yorks.) Minster, 165;
oxen, 452

Bewcastle (Cumberland), 87

Bible, ideas of orientation in, 217-20;
quoted, 318;
symbolism of the North, 334-5;
references to the horse, 420;
white horses, 433;
horse hoofs, 472;
oxen, 481, 487

Bid-ales, 179

Bields (= cattle-shelters), 68

Bildeston (Suffolk), 155

Binstead (I. of Wight), 49

Birch, Mr W. de Gray, on Domesday ox-team, 458

Birling (Kent), 40

Birmingham, St Bartholomew’s chapel, 211

Bishops, burial of, 312

Bishopsgate Street (London), 247

Bishopstoke (Hants.), 45

Bishopstone (Sussex), position of church, 101;
sundial, 162;
chancel, 230;
churchyard, 344

Bishops Stortford (Herts.), 418

Bisley (Glos.), 95

Bison, the European, 475-6

Black Death, the, 175

Black, Mr W. G., on yew in witchcraft, 396

Blackmore, Mr Stephen, 80, 474

Blashill, Mr T., on ancient agriculture, 497

Blickling (Norfolk), 266

Blomfield, Prof. R., on orientation, 209

Bloomsbury (London), 207

“Blue stones,” 35, 193

Blunt, Mr W. S., on shoeing horses, 471-2

Blyborough (Lincs.), 346

Boars’ tusks in graves, 80, 83, 302, 310, 430

Boat, model of Scandinavian, 108

Boldre (Hants.), 384

Bologna (Italy), 216

Bolsterstone (Yorks.), 42

Bolton (Lancs.), 137

Bond, Mr F., on Southwell Cathedral, 9;
Westminster Abbey, 9, 134-5;
age of church towers, 108;
Irish round towers, 121;
size of churches, 134-5;
entasis of spires, 240

Bone-caves, 308, 411, 417

Bones, in churches, 198-201;
as talismans, 321

Bonner, Mr A., on place-names, 32, 43

Bonner, Bishop, and miracle plays, 183

Booty, Rev. C. S., on Rudstone menhir, 43

Borromeo, St Charles, on church-building, 241

Bosbury (Hereford), 123

Boscawen-ûn (Cornwall), 256

_Bos frontosus_, 480

Bosham (Sussex), Roman villa, 9, 495;
deflected chancel, 230;
pole in, 496

_Bos longifrons_, 476, 478, 479, 480

_Bos primigenius_, 476, 477, 479, 480

_Bos priscus_, 475

Boston (Lincs.), mayor chosen in church, 143;
discoveries at, 444

Botontine (= surveyor’s mound), 61

Bottesford (Lincs.), 350

Boulder Clay, 16, 36, 85, 110, 406

Boundaries, barrows on, 69;
treaties concerning, 338

“Bournes” (= intermittent springs), 96

Bovata (= oxgang), 456

Bow, antiquity of word, 387;
kinds of, 387-90

Bowman, J. E., experiments on yews, 365

Bowstaves, statutes concerning, 390, 391;
from the churchyard yew, 394

Brabourne (Kent), 376, 379

Bradford-on-Avon (Wilts.), 115, 171, 172

Brading (I. of Wight), 165

Bradwell (Essex), 23

Brady, J., on English yew timber, 392

Brahmans, the, and praying towards the East, 217;
respect for fossil ammonites, 307

Braintree (Essex), 454

Braitmaier, Miss M., on gable ornaments, 441

Bramber (Sussex), 78

Bramfield (Suffolk), 123

“Brandgruben,” 276

Brand, John, on tithe-barns, 176;
Birmingham church, 211;
vulgar rites, 243;
curious burial, 245;
funeral feasts, 319;
burial on North side, 343;
Edinburgh burial-ground, 351

Branks (= scolds’ bridles), 163

Branscombe (Devon), stone in churchyard, 41;
headstones, 346

Branxton (Northumberland), 354

Bratton Hill (Wilts.), 433, 434

Bray, W., on church porch at Wotton, 154

Bread, stored in churches, 173

Breedon (Leicester), 104

Brenchley (Kent), 52

Brent Pelham (Herts.), stocks, 165;
deflected chancel, 230

Brent Tor (Devon), 129

Bretasche, or guard-house, 53

Bride-ales, 179

Bridgenorth (Salop), 394

Bridlington (Yorks.), 230, 483 n.

Brigg (Lincs.), 453

Brighston (see Brixton)

Brightlingsea (Essex), 143

Brighton and Hove Archaeological Club, 78

Brighton Museum, 80

Brinklow (Warwick), 76

Bristol, St Mary’s Redcliffe, 199

Britain, early settlements, 105-6

British Association, the, 403, 418, 494

Brittany, lingering paganism in, 29;
crosses and calvaries, 37;
church superstition, 103;
dolmens, 270;
peasantry and thunderbolts, 197;
“wheels of fortune,” 202;
objects in churches, 203;
megaliths, 308;
superstitious customs, 446, 496;
“Pardons,” 482

“Brit-Welsh” caves, 437

Brixton (I. of Wight), 90

Brixworth (Northants.), church, 9, 10;
church crypt, 148

Brompton (London), 208

Bronze Age, relics, 67, 84, 85, 99, 249, 249 n., 257,
274, 290, 311, 418, 419, 433;
moundless graves, 261;
coffins, 274, 278;
horse, 416;
rock-carvings, 421;
oxen, 477, 479, 483

Brook (I. of Wight), 101

Brookland (Kent), 123

Brown, Rev. A. W., on Pytchley burials, 80

Brown, Prof. G. Baldwin, on Romano-British churches, 5;
Reculver, 20;
Dover Castle, 20;
St Martin’s (Canterbury), 22;
Jarrow, 23;
Silchester, 24, 30;
St Martin’s (Leicester), 30;
Earl’s Barton mound, 62;
pagan sites, 99;
Lincolnshire towers, 108, 110;
_Eccles_- in place-names, 147;
“coenacula,” 148;
orientation of churches, 213

Browne, Sir T., quoted, 201, 267;
on burial customs, 201, 247;
combs in graves, 311;
yew on funeral pyres, 382-3

Brownsover (Warwick), 15

Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), 421

Brunne, Robert de, on funeral feasts, 319

Brunswick, arms of, 433

Buckland (Kent), 377

Bucklebury (Berks.), 295

Buick, Rev. G. R., discovery at Whitepark Bay, 418

Bulgarian funeral custom, 318

Bull-baiting, 179

Bullen, Rev. R. A., on Constantine church, 41;
charcoal in graves, 289

Bullock, use of term, 465 (see also Oxen)

Bulls, in divination, 435, 483;
in sacrifice, 481;
in folk-lore, 482, 484, 486

Burghcastle (Suffolk), 11

Burghead (Elgin), 299

Burgh-on-the-Sands (Cumberland), 107

Burgundy, burial custom, 296

“Burh,” meaning of term, 55

Burham (Kent), 4

Burial customs, survivals in, 268-323, 490

Burial feasts, 319-21, 419

Burial-grounds, ancient, near Christian churches, 83-6, 262

Burials, in East-and-West position, 80, 83, 243-9, 352;
North-and-South, 244-5, 246;
in barrows, 249-51, 357;
facing the sun, 249-52;
in cemeteries, 262, 263;
in churchyards, 262, 353;
in church, 262;
in upright position, 266;
on hills, 266-7;
without coffins, 271;
in woollen, 278-9;
of unbaptized persons, 302, 351;
of suicides, 351, 352, 357-9;
in open fields, 359

Burials Bill, 1899, 341

Burial Service, the, 315, 318;
modified, 341

Burke, Edmund, quoted, 342

Burlingham St Andrew (Norfolk), 348

Burnham-on-Crouch (Essex), 344

Burn, J., his _Parish Registers_, cited, 352

Burns, Robert, quoted, 457

Burnsall (Yorks.), 165;
font, 434

Burpham (Sussex), 15, 443 n.

Burrington Camp (Somerset), 258

Burrowes, Stephen, his voyages, 228

Burrows, Mr H. A., on fossil teeth, 308

Bury Fields (Bucks.), 61

Bury St Edmunds (Suffolk), 139

Butler, A. J., on Coptic churches, 221

Butler, Bishop, quoted, 346, 360

Butts, near churchyard, 353;
shooting at, 386;
repair of, 391

Byzantine architecture, 215

Cabot, Sebastian, 199

Caddington (Beds.), 41

Caer Capel (Denbigh), 104

Cae’r Hen Eglwys (Glamorgan), 31

Caerleon-on-Usk (Monmouth), 422

Caerwent (Monmouth), 25

Caesar, on British camps, 89 n.;
on the yew, 362;
British chariots, 421, 422;
the urus, 477;
the Ides of March, 482

Caister (Norfolk), 11

Caistor (Lincs.), Roman camp, 12;
springs, 12, 97

Calcined flints, 292

Calendar, alteration of, 226;
Julian 254

Caligula, and his horse, 439

Calleva Atrebatum (= Silchester), 23

Calvaries of Brittany, 37

Camberwell (London), 206

Camborne (Cornwall), 37

Cambridge, round church, 99;
Emmanuel College, 208;
prehistoric bowstave, 388

Camden, W., on Essex custom, 443

Camels, shoeing of, 470

Campanile, use of, 121;
of old St Paul’s, 148

Cam valley, the, 468

Candles, in graves, 295

Canewdon (Essex), bone in church, 199-200;
battle, 200;
name, 201

Canterbury, churches, 20;
Becket’s shrine, 192;
alinement of cathedral, 230

Canute, his battle with Edmund Ironsides, 200

Cape Colony, 452

Capel Garmon (Denbigh), 104

Capella, orientation to, 221, 259

Capri (Italy), 198

Cardinal points, folk-lore of the, 324-59;
symbolism, 324-59, 404;
Heylyn’s description, 333-4;
in place-names, 339-40

Carew, Richard, on Cornish oxen, 457;
names of oxen, 486

Carnac (France), Mont St Michel, 129;
blessing of oxen, 446;
“Pardon,” 482;
discovery at, 482

Carnarvon, circular churchyards of, 99;
burial at, 312

Carshalton (Surrey), 96

Cartailhac, M. É., on the domestication of the horse, 415

Carthaginians, and temple of Juno, 442

“Carucata,” meaning discussed, 456

Castle Acre (Norfolk), 12

Castles, early, 51-5;
keeps compared with church towers, 107;
mounds, 51-63, 67 (see Moated Mounds)

Cataclew stone, 41

Caterham (Surrey), position of church, 101;
churchyard, 344

Cativolcus, poisoned by yew, 362

Cattle, in the church and churchyard, 186-8;
and yew leaves, 362, 385;
breeds, 453, 455;
Park, 476, 477, 478;
long-horned and short-horned, 478-9;
polled, 479;
black, 480, 483
(see also Oxen)

Caumont, M. de, on deflection of chancels, 231

Cave period, 414, 437;
men of, 439-40

Caves, of France, 308, 411, 412;
of England, 412;
of Spain, 497

Caythorpe (Lincs.), 240

Cedars, in churchyards, 384

Celchyth, Council of, 437

Celtic burials, 276, 299;
horse cult, 433, 441;
pottery, 449, 450

Celtic shorthorn, 476, 479-80

Celts, chariots of the, 421-2

Celts (= stone implements), 79-80, 197, 298, 302

Cemeteries, ancient, 83-6, 262, 299, 353, 354

Centaurs, the, 419

_Century Dictionary_, cited, 363

_Cerithium_ (= fossil shell), 308

Cerne Abbas (Dorset), 96, 427

Ceylon, 309, 452

Chadwell St Mary (Essex), 50

Chagford (Devon), 175

Chained books, in churches, 164

Chaldon (Surrey), 101

Chalk (Kent), 9

Chalk coffin, 351

Chambers, Mr E. K., his _Mediaeval Stage_ referred to, 180;
evolution of ritual and miracle plays, 181-2, 183

Chancels, at East end of church, 205-11;
at West end, 206, 207;
“twisted” or deflected, 229-38, 242, 334;
and rebuilding of church, 233-4, 235

Chapel Carn Brea (Cornwall), 78

Charcoal, in graves, 287, 289-91, 292-3

Chariots, burial of, 276, 429, 430, 431;
early use, 419, 421;
British, 421;
the Latin word discussed, 422

Charlemagne, 263

Charms, teeth, 302, 305;
yew, 396, 397, 399

Charon’s penny, 296

Chart (Kent), 167

Chartley (Staffs.), 477, 478

Charvais (France), 248

Chatham (Kent), 206, 459 n.

Chaucer, his _Wife of Bath_ quoted, 156

Chauncy, Sir H., on orientation, 223

Chedworth (Glos.), 5

Cheltenham (Glos.), 154

Cheriton (Hants.), mound, 74;
spring, 74, 96

Cheriton (Kent), 128

Chertsey (Surrey), 344

Cheshire, scolds’ bridles in, 163

Chesterfield (Derby), 199

Chester-le-Street (Durham), 12

“Chestnuts” of the horse, 411

Chests, church, 168-70, 199, 200

Chichester cathedral, 312 n.

Childeric I, tomb of, 424

Chillingham Park (Northumberland), cattle of, 476, 477

Chilswell Hill (Oxford), 195

Chilworth (Surrey), 131, 269

China, and magnetic needle, 228;
burial custom in, 296;
and eclipses, 397

Chipstead (Surrey), alinement of graves, 230;
deflected chancel, 245;
yew, 377, 379- 405

Chi-Rho monogram, 5, 6, 24

Chisbury (Wilts.), 14

Chislehurst, mound in churchyard, 76-8, 260;
cockpit, 190;
tombstones, 344

Cholesbury (Bucks.), 15

Chollerton (Northumberland), 7

Christchurch (Hants.), 154

Christian cemeteries, early, 80, 247-8, 262, 290

Christianity, early British, 2-3, 23-4, 26, 63, 437, 438, 446;
compromises of, 26-9, 399, 437;
“social theory” of, 133;
burial customs of, 246, 262, 263, 272, 274, 275, 277, 311-12, 316, 317

Christian Malford (Wilts.), 33

Christison, Dr D., 365, 371, 374

Christison, Sir R., on yew-trees, 365, 371, 372, 374, 375;
on Fortingal yew, 375

Christmas, originally a pagan festival, 27;
dancing at, 185;
evergreens at, 402;
tradition respecting oxen, 486

“Christ’s Book,” 168

“Church,” etymology of the word, 145-7;
Greek and Latin equivalents, 146;
Teutonic and Celtic equivalents, 146-7

Church-ales, 175-9

Church armour, 158

Church Barrow, Cranborne Chase, 30

Church Bottom (Cambs.), 30

Church, chancel, 140, 170-1 (see also Chancels)

Church chests, 168-70

Church doors, 143, 156;
position of, 328, 348

Churchdown (Glos.), 103, 104

Churches, on pagan sites, 1-100, 444, 488;
early Christian, in Britain, 2, 23;
of wattle, 3, 23;
Roman materials in, 4, 5, 495;
on sites of Roman villas, 6-9;
in Roman camps, 11-13;
near earthworks, 13-18;
removed by fairies or demons, 17;
near stone-circles, 28, 29 n., 45-8, 86;
near sarsens and megaliths, 34-49, 104;
near moated mounds, 55-63;
near Toot Hills, 60, 69-72;
near barrows, 74-83;
near early cemeteries, 83-6;
near holy wells, 92-7;
round, 99;
on hills, 101-4;
used as beacons, 127-32;
naves of, 132, 154, 170-1, 173, 183;
daily services in, 135;
courts held in, 136-40;
notices on doors, 143-4;
Royal Arms in, 144;
crypts of, 148, 150;
schools in porches of, 152-5;
armour stored in, 157, 159, 160;
dials on walls, 162, 164;
chained books in, 164;
weather-cocks on, 164;
records kept in, 168-70;
Court Rolls kept in, 168-70;
storage of wills in, 170;
of goods, 171-3;
markets held in, 173-4;
banquets, 178-80;
plays held in, 182-3;
animals admitted into, 186-7;
dovecots in, 188, 189;
cock-fighting in, 190;
dedications of, 191, 192;
aerolites and fossils in, 197-9;
eggs in, 202;
wheels of fortune, 202;
orientation of, 205-42;
standing North and South, 206, 207, 208;
supposed development from basilica, 215;
of Norfolk, 222;
of Hants., 222;
of Herts., 223;
deflected chancels of, 229-41;
burial in, 262;
hatchments in, 284;
position with respect to churchyard, 348-9;
“giant’s staff,” 496

Church fabric, secular uses, 101-204, 488-9;
tower, 107-18, 122-5;
nave, 132;
doors, 143, 404;
porch, 143, 152-60;
protection afforded by, 169-70;
repair of, 170

Church fonts, 7, 434

Church-gift, custom, 156

Church-house, armour stored in, 159, 160;
uses of, 175-6, 178-9;
leases respecting, 178

Church, nave of, 132, 154, 170-1, 173, 183

Church porch, baptisms and weddings in, 143;
schools, 152-5;
fireplaces, 154;
galleries, 155;
business, 155-6;
stirrup stones, 157;
armour, 157, 159, 160

Church towers, defensive, 107-18, 122-5, 150;
Saxon, 9, 10, 13, 62, 108-11, 117;
of Lincolnshire, 108-11;
of Gower, 112-13;
of Pembroke, 113-15;
comparison with castle keeps, 115-18;
detached, 122-3;
horse-skulls in, 445

Churchwardens, civil functions of, 142, 157;
and protection of the church and churchyard, 157;
published accounts of, 175, 184, 380, 391, 394;
and church-ales, 176;
responsibility for churchyard, 187

Churchyards, showing false appearance of fortification, 16, 88-91;
raised, 90-1, 372;
circular, 97-8;
meetings in, 139-40;
stocks in, 165;
plays performed in, 182, 183;
markets in, 191-2;
sports in, 196-7;
burials in, 261, 262-3;
yews, 328, 348;
North side disliked, 335;
burials on North side of, 341-52;
with North side wanting, 344;
with South side wanting, 344;
position with regard to the church, 348-9;
unconsecrated, 343, 352;
as playgrounds, 352;
butts erected in, or near, 353;
unenclosed, 354-6;
yews, 360-407;
and shelter trees, 383

Cicero, cited, 70

_Cidaris_ (= fossil echinoderm), 307

Cimbrians, the, and the brazen bull, 482

Cinerary urns, 84, 85

Cinque Ports, the, 137

“Cippi” (= stocks), 167

Cirencester (Glos.), 288

Cists, at Alloa, 275;
in burials, 277

City churches, and their parishes, 235

Civil War, use of mounds during the, 57;
churches used as fortresses during, 118, 496

“Clachan,” 49

Clapham (Bedford), church tower, 111;
re-dedication of church, 233

Clapham (Sussex), 356 n.

Clare, Lord, and oxen, 454

Clark, Mr G. T., on moated mounds, 54, 55;
Earl’s Barton mound, 62;
Irish round towers, 121

Clay-with-Flints, 303

Clee (Lincs.), church tower, 110;
walnut tree in churchyard, 384

Cleethorpes (Lincs.), 110

Clerk-ales, 179

Clerkenwell (London), spring, 96

Cleveland (Yorks.), burial customs, 291, 295

Cley Hill (Wilts.), 194

Cloictechs (= belfries), 120

Cloisters, position of, 329-30

Clovelly (Devon), 496

Clungunford (Salop), 180

Clynnog (N. Wales), 482

Cobbett, William, on raised churchyards, 91;
size of churches, 133

Cobham (Kent), 45

Cochet, M. L’Abbé, on acoustic jars, 447

Cockerington (Lincs.), 137

Cock-fighting, in churches, 190

“Coenacula” (= upper rooms), 148

Coffins, use of, 271-7;
stone, 271-2, 309;
wooden, 271, 272;
leaden, 271, 273, 274 n.;
of tree trunks, 273, 274, 275;
objects placed in, 309;
filled with shells, 309;
of chalk, 351

Coifi, destruction of heathen temple by, 436

Coins, placed in graves, 274, 295-8, 310;
early British, 434;
Athenian, 481

Coke, Lord, on agriculture, 468

Colchester, Museum, 84;
Archdeaconry of, 187;
leaden coffins at, 272, 273

Coldred (Kent), 15

Coleshill (Warwick), 353

Coliseum, the (Rome), 451

“Collis Credulitatis,” 65

Columbaria, or culver-houses, 188

Combs, in graves, 310-11

Compass, early use of mariner’s, 228;
points of, as determined by the Arabs and Eskimos, 326

Conciones (= assemblies), 383, 403

Congress of Archaeological Societies, on earthworks, 14

Conington, Prof. J., on the Carthaginians, 442

Consistory Courts, 138-9

Constantine (Cornwall), ruined church, 31, 41

Constantine, Emperor, 2, 274

Constantinople, 186

Continuity, of tradition, 3, 86, 106;
of sites, 3, 10, 23, 42, 80, 86-7, 95, 99;
in burial customs, 279, 313, 317

_Conulus_ (= fossil echinoderm), 303

Conway, Mr M. C., on Lord Palmerston’s funeral, 310

Conwenz, Prof. H., on “yew” in place-names, 403

Coombe (Sussex), 78

Coote, H. C., on yew superstitions, 399

Copenhagen, siege of, 439

Copenhagen (= Wellington’s horse), 432

Coppes (= stocks), 167

Coptic churches, 220

Corbett, Mr W. I., on shoeing oxen, 468

Corbridge (Northumberland), 107

Cordiner, C., on Benachie church, 48

Corfe Castle (Dorset), 52, 53

Corhampton (Hants.), mound, 74;
sundial, 162

Corn, burnt on graves, 318

Corn gods, 318, 436, 440 n.

Corn spirit (see under Corn gods)

Cornwall, crosses of, 36, 46-7;
megaliths, 48, 253, 308;
holy wells, 92, 96-7;
churches with double dedications, 234;
prehistoric monuments, 253, 256;
burial custom, 310;
teeth superstition, 322;
use of oxen in, 457, 486

Coronation Stone, the, 43

Coulsdon (Surrey), 101

Councils, of Arles, 2;
Milan, 212;
Celchyth, 437

Countisbury (Devon), 345

County Courts, 136

Court of Arches, 138

Courts, held in churches, 65, 136-8, 140;
rolls of, kept in churches, 168

Coventry, St Michael’s church, 230;
St Mary’s church, 230

Coverdale, Miles, on symbolism of cardinal points, 337-8

Cowries, 296, 308

“Cow-souls” (= shells in Lappish graves), 309

Cox, Mr J., chipped celt, 80

Cox, Dr J. C., on Hathersage earthwork, 16;
Abinger mound, 63;
church armour, 159, 284;
plays in churches, 181, 183;
secular drama, 183;
horn dancers, 185;
deflection in churches, 235, 236

Crag (geological formation), 308

Cranborne Chase, barrow, 30;
discoveries in, 105, 296;
yews, 392, 403;
horseshoes, 424, 428

Crawley, Mr A. E., his _Idea of the Soul_, cited, 282

Creçy (France), 389

Cremation, early, 260, 275;
disuse of, 275-6, 277;
Macrobius on, 276;
ceremonies, 290, 316

Cressets, on churches, 162

Crinan (Argyle), 299

Cro-Magnon (France), 415

Cromlech, use of term, 28, 34;
near churches, 45, 48, 49;
theories concerning, 98, 253-8;
as places of assembly, 98;
developments from, 270
(see also Stone-circles)

Cronks (= toot-hills), 71

Crooke, Mr W., on research, 494

Cross-bow, antiquity of, 385-9;
description, 387;
later history, 389-90

Crosses, of Devon and Cornwall, 36;
Bewcastle, 87;
evolution of, 270;
wooden, 312, 347;
churchyard, 328, 348;
Bakewell, 329;
preaching, 353;
symbolism, 357, 358

Crossing, Mr W., on crosses of Dartmoor, 36

Cross-roads, burials at, 357-9

Crowhurst (Surrey), 377, 378, 404

Crowhurst (Sussex), 377

Crowle (Lincs.), 165

Croyland (Lincs.), 480

Crozier, in graves, 312

Crypts, 148, 150, 216 n.

Crystal balls, in Saxon graves, 299-300

Cublington (Bucks.), 59

Cudham (Kent), 101

Cues, 471, 472-3

Cult of the horse, the, 408-51

Cultivation, ancient, 460, 497

Culver-houses, 188

Cupar-Angus (Perth), 12

Cuxton (Kent), 4

Cybele, image of, 198

Cycles, in astronomy, 256

_Cymbeline_, quoted, 246

Cypress, the, in Greece, 383;
Rome, 383;
in English churchyards, 384;
in Southern Europe, 401

Cyrus, king of the Persians, 433

Czechs, burial custom of the, 287

Dale, Mr W., on Mottestone menhir, 45;
Twyford stones, 45

Danby-in-Cleveland (Yorks.); charcoal in graves, 289;
funeral feasts, 319;
burial-mounds, 357

Dancing, in churches, 183-5;
at Easter, 185;
at Christmas, 185

Danes, and white horses, 435;
and horseflesh, 439

Danes’ Graves, 71, 261

Daniel, praying towards Jerusalem, 218

Danish invasion, in Yorkshire, 108;
in Lincolnshire, 108-11;
in Ireland, 122;
and Irish round towers, 122;
in Essex, 200

Darenth (Kent), 428, 429

Darley (Derby), armour stored in church, 159;
yew-tree, 369, 376, 403;
British dwellings, 403

David, his cavalry and chariots, 420

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, on horse remains in caves, 417-18;
long-horned cattle, 479

Dawns Mên (Cornwall), 256

Day spring, day star, 220

De Candolle, Augustin de, on age of yews, 364, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 375;
his _Physiologie végétale_, 370;
Fortingal yew, 375;
Brabourne yew, 376;
Fountains yew, 377

Deccan, meaning of the word, 326

Declination of magnetic needle, 228

Deddington (Oxford), 272 n.

Dedication festivals, 191, 192

Dedications of churches, to St Michael, 129;
lost, 191;
connection with alinements, 209, 225-6, 227, 234-5;
double, 234-5

Defensive towers, 107-18, 150

Deflected chancels, theories concerning, 232-9;
and rebuilding of church, 232-4, 237;
and double dedications, 234-5;
symbolism of, 235-7;
aesthetical explanation, 238-41

Defoe, Daniel, on carriage oxen, 484, 484 n.

De Groot, J. J. M., on Chinese burial custom, 296

De Henley (see Walter de Henley)

Deiseal, the, 330

Dekker, Thomas, on the yew, 382

De Montfaucon, Father B., on ancient gem, 318;
early horseshoe, 424, 424 n.

Denbighshire, circular churchyards of, 99

Denford (Northants.), 448

Denmark, horse sacrifices in, 435;
acoustic jars found in, 447

_Dentalium_ (= marine shell), 308

Denton (Sussex), 345

Derbyshire, church quarrel, 187;
teeth superstition, 322

Deritend (Birmingham), 211

Detached towers, 122-3

Devenish (Fermanagh), 118, 119

Devil’s Door, 18, 331, 332, 336;
Dykes, 18;
Highways, 18;
Nightcap, 36

Devon, crosses of, 36;
church towers of, 118;
tombstones, 275;
teeth superstition, 322;
skull superstition, 444;
oxen, 454

_Dexter_, dexterous, meaning of, 326, 327

Diabolism, 18, 83, 103

Dials (see Sundials)

Diana, supposed temple in London, 43;
image of, 198

Didron, M. É., on acoustic jars, 447

Diocletian persecution, the, 274

Dionysos, and Yule-tide, 27

Ditchling (Sussex), use of oxen, 455;
shoeing of oxen, 469, 473

Dithmar, Bishop of Mersburg, 435

Divination, 327, 402, 434, 435

Dode (Kent), 40

Dog, domestication of the, 415

Dogs, in churches, 189-90

“Dog-souls” (= shells in Lappish graves), 309

Dog tongs, 169, 190

Dog-whippers, 189, 190

Dolmens, 28, 34;
developments from, 270

Domesday Book, place-names, 33, 45;
and traditions, 375;
respecting yews, 375, 377;
horseshoes, 426;
oxen, 455-6, 458

Dominicum, meaning of word, 147

Domville, Silas (see Taylor, Silas)

Donative (= church outside episcopal jurisdiction), 132

Donington (Salop), 95

Donner-stral (= thunder-stone), 198

Doom-rings (= stone-circles), 65

Dooms, over church gateways, 336

Doors, church, notices on, 143;
baptisms at, 143;
marriages at, 143, 156;
position of, 348, 349

Doorward, the, 149

Dorchester (Dorset), 402;
Roman ash-pits, 468

Dorset, burials, 264, 288, 307;
employment of oxen in, 452, 454, 458

Douglas, J., his _Nenia Britannica_, 288, 289, 307;
fossil belemnites, 307

Doulting (Somerset), 95

Dovecots, in churches and churchyards, 188

Dover Castle, church at, 19, 20;
pharos, 19, 20

Down (Kent), 101

Downton (Wilts.), moot-hill, 64;
horse-burial, 431

Doyle, Sir A. Conan, quoted, 391

Drax, Col., on fossils found in Dorset barrow, 307

Drontheim (Norway), 433

Droxford (Hants.), 250 n.

Druids, and the Agglestone, 36;
circles of, 98;
as astronomers, 254, 257;
and yew-trees, 400, 401;
persistence of, 402

Dryburgh (Berwick), 372

Dryden, on the yew, 382;
translation of Virgil, 442

Duddingston (Midlothian), 157

Duddo (Northumberland), 426

Duff, Sir Mountstuart Grant, on Burgundian burial custom, 296

Dufour, M. L’Abbé V., translation of Keysler, 435 n., 438;
on horseflesh, 438-9

Duggleby Howe (Yorks.), 66

“Dug-out” coffins, 275, 278

Duguesclin, Bertrand, burial of, 431

Duloe (Cornwall), 48

“Dumb borsholder” (= court mace), 167, 496

Dun Cow of Warwick, 199, 485

Dungiven (co. Derry), 93

Dunsfold (Surrey), 221 n.

Dunsley (Yorks.), 289

Dunstable Downs (Beds.), 303

Dunston pillar (Lincoln), 130

Dupont, M., on shells found in caverns, 308

Durandus, on eggs in churches, 202;
on word “temple,” 210-11;
orientation of churches, 211, 224, 226;
editors of, 231;
orientation of graves, 243;
charcoal in graves, 291, 292;
evergreens at funerals, 291 n., 323;
reading of the Gospel, 337;
burial out of sanctuary, 353, 353 n.;
graveyards, 353

Durham, cathedral, court held in, 138;
St Cuthbert’s grave, 311;
Abbey, 459

Dymond, Mr C. W., on Stanton Drew circle, 46

Earle, John, quoted, 268

Earl’s Barton (Northants.), 62

Early Iron Age, 248, 249, 257, 261, 283, 312, 429, 433, 483

Earth-burial (see Inhumation)

“Earth-to-earth,” discussion of phrase, 315-16

_Earthwork of England_, cited, 14

Earthworks, churches near, 13-18;
classification, 14, 15, 16, 495;
Mediaeval, 16, 60, 89;
fairs held in, 193;
sports in, 193-4;
superstitions concerning, 195-6;
alinement of, 252, 258-9

Easington (Yorks.), 274

East, prayer towards the, 212, 214, 217;
orientation to, 214-24;
symbolism respecting, 217, 224;
Welsh superstition, 246;
as cardinal point, 326, 327;
in place-names, 339, 340

East-and-West burial, 80, 83, 243-9
(see also Orientation)

East Bedfont (Middlesex), 384

East Blatchington (Sussex), 79

Eastbourne (Sussex), 430

East Cardinham (Cornwall), 37

East Dean (Sussex), discovery at, 80;
church tower, 125

East Dereham (Norfolk), 97

Easter, feasts, 180, 255;
Passion Plays, 180-1;
dances, 185;
eggs, 202

East Harling (Norfolk), 448

East Ilsley (Berks.), 454

Eastville (Lincs.), 206

East Wellow (Hants.), 201

Ebchester (Durham), 12

Ecclesfield (Yorks.), name, 147;
church porch, 155;
burial on North side, 342

Eccleshall (Staffs.), 147

_Ecclesia_, meaning of word, 146, 148;
in place-names, 147

Ecclesiastes, cited, 337

Eccleston (Cheshire), 82 n.

Eccleston (Lancs.), 147

_Echinocorys ovatus_, 303

Echinoderms, fossil, 302-4, 309

Echternach (Luxembourg), 185

Eclipses, 397

Eddas, the, cited, 328

Edenbridge (Kent), 425, 426

Edgar, injunction of, 187

Edinburgh, graveyard, 351;
Bristol Street meeting-house, 445

Edlingham (Northumberland), 107

Edlington (Lincs.), 157

Edmund Ironsides, battle with Canute, 200

Edward the Confessor, 108

Edward VII, funeral of, 432

Efenechtyd (Denbigh), 98

Eggs, in churches, 202;
Easter, 202

Egypt, churches of, 220;
temples of, 221-2, 239, 254;
the horse in, 420;
horse-head custom, 440;
paintings on sepulchres, 481;
ox-worship, 484

Eisteddfod, its aims, 98;
stone-circles erected at, 98, 256

Ekkehard, the Younger, grace written by, 438

Elkstone (Glos.), 188

Elms, experiment on, 366-7;
in churchyards, 384, 385

Elsdon (Northumberland), 445, 446

Elton, Mr C. I., on amber ornaments, 301;
hive bees in Ireland, 395

Ely cathedral, market in, 192;
deflection, 230

Enclosure Act, of 1811, 141

Encrinites, fossil, 308

Enfield Chase, 162

_English Dialect Dictionary_, quoted, 473

Enisheim (Alsace-Lorraine), 198

Entasis, of spires, 239, 240

Eocene ancestors of the horse, 408-9

Eostre (deity), 195

Epistle, the, read from South side, 337

Epworth (Lincs.), 342

Equinoxes, orientation at, 211, 222, 229, 237, 241, 256, 258