Chapter II: Preface: 5

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 15

The Origin and Purpose of Festivals--Ideas suggested by
Christmas--Pagan and Christian Elements--The Names of the
Festival--Foundation of the Feast of the Nativity--Its
Relation to the Epiphany--December 25 and the _Natalis
Invicti_--The Kalends of January--Yule and Teutonic
Festivals--The Church and Pagan Survivals--Two Conflicting
Types of Festival--Their Interaction--Plan of the Book.

PART I--THE CHRISTIAN FEAST

CHAPTER II
CHRISTMAS POETRY (I) 29

Ancient Latin Hymns, their Dogmatic, Theological
Character--Humanizing Influence of Franciscanism--Jacopone da
Todi's Vernacular Verse--German Catholic Poetry--Mediaeval
English Carols.

CHAPTER III
CHRISTMAS POETRY (II) 53

The French _Noël_--Latin Hymnody in Eighteenth-century
France--Spanish Christmas Verse--Traditional Carols of Many
Countries--Christmas Poetry in Protestant
Germany--Post-Reformation Verse in England--Modern English
Carols. |8|

CHAPTER IV
CHRISTMAS IN LITURGY AND POPULAR DEVOTION 87

Advent and Christmas Offices of the Roman Church--The Three
Masses of Christmas, their Origin and their Celebration in
Rome--The Midnight Mass in Many Lands--Protestant Survivals of
the Night Services--Christmas in the Greek Church--The Eastern
Epiphany and the Blessing of the Waters--The _Presepio_ or
Crib, its Supposed Institution by St. Francis--Early Traces of
the Crib--The Crib in Germany, Tyrol, &c.--Cradle-rocking in
Mediaeval Germany--Christmas Minstrels in Italy and
Sicily--The _Presepio_ in Italy--Ceremonies with the _Culla_
and the _Bambino_ in Rome--Christmas in Italian London--The
Spanish Christmas--Possible Survivals of the Crib in England.

CHAPTER V
CHRISTMAS DRAMA 119

Origins of the Mediaeval Drama--Dramatic Tendencies in the
Liturgy--Latin Liturgical Plays--The Drama becomes
Laicized--Characteristics of the Popular Drama--The Nativity
in the English Miracle Cycles--Christmas Mysteries in
France--Later French Survivals of Christmas Drama--German
Christmas Plays--Mediaeval Italian Plays and Pageants--Spanish
Nativity Plays--Modern Survivals in Various Countries--The
Star Singers, &c.

POSTSCRIPT 155

PART II--PAGAN SURVIVALS

CHAPTER VI
PRE-CHRISTIAN WINTER FESTIVALS 159

The Church and Superstition--Nature of Pagan Survivals--Racial
Origins--Roman Festivals of the _Saturnalia_ and Kalends--Was
there a Teutonic Midwinter Festival?--The Teutonic, Celtic, and
Slav New Year--Customs attracted to Christmas or January 1--
The Winter Cycle of Festivals--_Rationale_ of Festival Ritual:
(_a_) Sacrifice and Sacrament, (_b_) The Cult of the Dead,
(_c_) Omens and Charms for the New Year--Compromise in the
Later Middle Ages--The Puritans and Christmas--Decay of Old
Traditions. |9|

CHAPTER VII
ALL HALLOW TIDE TO MARTINMAS 187

All Saints' and All Souls' Days, their Relation to a New Year
Festival--All Souls' Eve and Tendance of the Departed--Soul
Cakes in England and on the Continent--Pagan Parallels of All
Souls'--Hallowe'en Charms and Omens--Hallowe'en Fires--Guy
Fawkes Day--"Old Hob," the _Schimmelreiter_, and other Animal
Masks--Martinmas and its Slaughter--Martinmas Drinking--St.
Martin's Fires in Germany--Winter Visitors in the Low
Countries and Germany--St. Martin as Gift-bringer--St.
Martin's Rod.

CHAPTER VIII
ST. CLEMENT TO ST. THOMAS 209

St. Clement's Day Quests and Processions--St. Catherine's Day
as Spinsters' Festival--St. Andrew's Eve Auguries--The
_Klöpfelnächte_--St. Nicholas's Day, the Saint as
Gift-bringer, and his Attendants--Election of the Boy
Bishop--St. Nicholas's Day at Bari--St. Lucia's Day in Sweden,
Sicily, and Central Europe--St. Thomas's Day as School
Festival--Its Uncanny Eve--"Going a-Thomassin'."

CHAPTER IX
CHRISTMAS EVE AND THE TWELVE DAYS 227

Christkind, Santa Klaus, and Knecht Ruprecht--Talking Animals
and other Wonders of Christmas Eve--Scandinavian Beliefs about
Trolls and the Return of the Dead--Traditional Christmas Songs
in Eastern Europe--The Twelve Days, their Christian Origin and
Pagan Superstitions--The Raging Host--Hints of Supernatural
Visitors in England--The German _Frauen_--The Greek
_Kallikantzaroi_.

CHAPTER X
THE YULE LOG 249

The Log as Centre of the Domestic Christmas--Customs of the
Southern Slavs--The _Polaznik_--Origin of the Yule
Log--Probable Connection with Vegetation-cults or
Ancestor-worship--The _Souche de Noël_ in France--Italian and
German Christmas Logs--English Customs--The Yule Candle in
England and Scandinavia. |10|

CHAPTER XI
THE CHRISTMAS-TREE, DECORATIONS, AND GIFTS 261

The Christmas-tree a German Creation--Charm of the German
Christmas--Early Christmas-trees--The Christmas
Pyramid--Spread of the Tree in Modern Germany and other
Countries--Origin of the Christmas-tree--Beliefs about
Flowering Trees at Christmas--Evergreens at the
Kalends--Non-German Parallels to the Christmas-tree--Christmas
Decorations connected with Ancient Kalends Customs--Sacredness
of Holly and Mistletoe--Floors strewn with Straw--Christmas
and New Year Gifts, their Connection with the Roman _Strenae_
and St. Nicholas--Present-giving in Various
Countries--Christmas Cards.

CHAPTER XII
CHRISTMAS FEASTING AND SACRIFICIAL SURVIVALS 281

Prominence of Eating in the English Christmas--The Boar's
Head, the Goose, and other Christmas Fare--Frumenty, Sowens,
Yule Cakes, and the Wassail Bowl--Continental Christmas
Dishes, their Possible Origins--French and German Cakes--The
Animals' Christmas Feast--Cakes in Eastern Europe--Relics of
Animal Sacrifice--Hunting the Wren--Various Games of
Sacrificial Origin.

CHAPTER XIII
MASKING, THE MUMMERS' PLAY, THE FEAST OF FOOLS, AND THE BOY BISHOP 295

English Court Masking--"The Lord of Misrule"--The Mummers'
Play, the Sword-Dance, and the Morris Dance--Origin of St.
George and other Characters--Mumming in Eastern Europe--The
Feast of Fools, its History and Suppression--The Boy Bishop,
his Functions and Sermons--Modern Survivals of the Boy Bishop.

CHAPTER XIV
ST. STEPHEN'S, ST. JOHN'S, AND HOLY INNOCENTS' DAYS 309

Horse Customs of St. Stephen's Day--The Swedish St.
Stephen--St. John's Wine--Childermas and its Beatings. |11|

CHAPTER XV
NEW YEAR'S DAY 319

Principle of New Year Customs--The New Year in France,
Germany, the United States, and Eastern
Europe--"First-footing" in Great Britain--Scottish New Year
Practices--Highland Fumigation and "Breast-strip"
Customs--Hogmanay and Aguillanneuf--New Year Processions in
Macedonia, Roumania, Greece, and Rome--Methods of
Augury--Sundry New Year Charms.

CHAPTER XVI
EPIPHANY TO CANDLEMAS 335

The Twelfth Cake and the "King of the Bean"--French Twelfth
Night Customs--St. Basil's Cake in Macedonia--Epiphany and the
Expulsion of Evils--The Befana in Italy--The Magi as
Present-bringers--Greek Epiphany Customs--Wassailing
Fruit-trees--Herefordshire and Irish Twelfth Night
Practices--The "Haxey Hood" and Christmas Football--St. Knut's
Day in Sweden--Rock Day--Plough Monday--Candlemas, its
Ecclesiastical and Folk Ceremonies--Farewells to Christmas.