Chapter XIV: Section II (1)

On the Special Characteristics of the Climates of Certain Hot Countries.

There is perhaps no one topic of human conversation that comes in for more discussion than that of the weather, and yet it is no exaggeration to say that there is no other as to which exact information is so scanty or so little accessible, and it is believed that even the following scanty notes are more complete than can be found in any one work in the English language.

If the intending emigrant to foreign parts desires to find out something of the conditions under which he will find himself, he may perhaps, after much trouble, unearth some undigested data on the subject from the Agents-General of Colonies, &c.; but he will find it far easier to ascertain the amount of piece goods bought by the “Borrioula Gah” tribe than the mean temperature of their capital; and, practically speaking, the only library containing anything approaching an adequate collection of the literature of the subject is that of the Royal Meteorological Society, to whom and to their courteous librarian, Mr. W. Marriott, my best thanks are due for their ready assistance in the compilation of the present chapter. Owing to the very varied sources from which the information has been drawn, any attempt at close uniformity of treatment is out of the question, but wherever possible the data given comprise the average mean, mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures, the rainfall, number of rainy days, and average relative humidity for each month of the year.

When possible, the figures given are the averages of several years, but in many cases they refer to a single year only, being derived from isolated observations or from series which have not as yet been collated by a meteorological expert. No barometric data have been included, as they have little interest for any but specialists, and a study of those given will be found quite sufficient to enable anyone to judge with what sort of an outfit he should provide himself. It will be, for example, quite obvious that it is quite useless to take a mackintosh coat to Wadi Halfa, if anyone will glance at the table given for that favoured (?) locality. In some cases the maximum and minimum temperatures tabulated are not the mean, but the absolute maxima and minima, and therefore represent only exceptional experiences and not what one may fairly expect. It must be clearly understood, too, that absolute and mean data are in no sense comparable, as the latter will always lie several degrees within the former; but in the present state of meteorological science one has to be thankful for what one can get, and this, in the case of most of the less advanced countries, is remarkably little.

The plan of the following notes is to make a sort of climatic tour round the globe, but it is obvious that it is impossible within the scope of a work like the present to describe more than a few widely distant examples, so that it is not even possible to include all our tropical colonies; but it is hoped that those given will suffice to give a general idea of what may be expected in most parts of the world. With few exceptions all data are given both in the English and in the metric systems.

_THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN._--None of the countries comprising the European shores of this basin can be said to come well under the heading of “hot countries,” and those on the African shore are of interest rather as winter health resorts than as tropical places of residence. The first of these that requires notice is--

_Algeria._--Situated in lat. 37° N., within a couple of days’ steaming from Marseilles, this pleasant French colony is much the most easily accessible sub-tropical health station for the whole of western Europe, and forms an excellent resort for persons who find themselves unable to withstand the rigours of a northern winter. Thanks to the French talent in municipal organisation, the traveller finds himself at once among the novel sights and sounds of civilisation of the Oriental type, and yet surrounded with all the comforts and amenities of a fine European town. Few health-seekers venture far from the coast, though there must be many places in the interior that would be well suited for early cases of consumption, as the air of the coast is perhaps too “relaxing” for some cases of the sort. For the north coast of Africa, the rainfall is considerable, but in spite of this, on the average, the air is generally dry, as evidenced by the low average relative humidity.

The country may be divided into four zones, which present great differences of climate.

(1) A narrow littoral zone of low ground, often only a few miles wide. Most of the ports face eastward and are well sheltered by the neighbouring hills.

(2) The Tel, composed of plains and elevated mountain masses cut up by deep valleys, at the bottom of which are torrents which are dry for the greater part of the year.

(3) A high plateau of triangular form about 140 miles wide; intensely dry, but with scattered salt marshes which dry up during the summer.

(4) The Sahara, an immense sandy basin absolutely devoid of water-courses except quite to the north.

The following table of mean temperatures will give some idea of the degree of heat that is met with throughout the year in these different regions:--

MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE OF ALGERIAN STATIONS SITUATED IN THE FOUR ABOVE-MENTIONED ZONES.

======================+=====+=====+===========+===========+===========
Station | E.F.| E.M.| January | February | March
| | |----+------+----+------+----+------
| | | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
----------------------+-----+-----+----+------+----+------+----+------
Algiers (on the coast)| 68| 22|53·8|~12·1~|54·6|~12·6~|57·0|~13·9~
Orleansville (on the | 390| 119|48·3| ~9·1~|50·2|~10·1~|54·2|~12·3~
low “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Térriet el Haad (on |3,700|1,125|41·0| ~5·0~|43·0| ~6·1~|47·5| ~8·6~
the high “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Géryville (on the high|4,300|1,310|37·5| ~3·1~|40·2| ~4·5~|45·5| ~7·5~
plateau) | | | | | | | |
Biskra (Sahara) | 410| 125|50·2|~10·1~|54·3|~12·4~|57·0|~13·9~
======================+=====+=====+====+======+====+======+====+======

======================+===========+===========+===========+===========
Station | April | May | June | July
|----+------+----+------+----+------+----+------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
----------------------+----+------+----+------+----+------+----+------
Algiers (on the coast)|61·4|~16·3~|66·1|~19·0~|72·2|~22·3~|76·0|~24·4~
Orleansville (on the |61·7|~16·3~|68·4|~20·2~|77·9|~25·5~|85·0|~29·4~
low “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Térriet el Haad (on |52·3|~11·2~|59·6|~15·4~|69·8|~21·0~|77·4|~25·2~
the high “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Géryville (on the high|52·8|~11·6~|63·8|~17·7~|74·0|~22·2~|79·7|~26·5~
plateau) | | | | | | | |
Biskra (Sahara) |66·0|~18·9~|76·0|~24·4~|84·4|~29·1~|90·0|~32·2~
======================+====+======+====+======+====+======+====+======

======================+===========+===========+===========+===========
Station | August | September | October | November
|----+------+----+------+----+------+----+------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
----------------------+----+------+----+------+----+------+----+------
Algiers (on the coast)|77·0|~25·0~|74·2|~23·4~|67·5|~19·7~|60·5|~15·8~
Orleansville (on the |85·7|~29·8~|77·2|~25·1~|66·7|~19·3~|56·7|~13·7~
low “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Térriet el Haad (on |78·7|~25·9~|68·0|~20·0~|58·3|~14·6~|49·9| ~9·9~
the high “Tel”) | | | | | | | |
Géryville (on the high|79·7|~26·5~|68·5|~20·3~|56·7|~13·7~|46·5| ~8·1~
plateau) | | | | | | | |
Biskra (Sahara) |90·0|~32·2~|80·2|~26·8~|68·0|~20·0~|57·7|~14·3~
======================+====+======+====+======+====+======+====+======

======================+===========+===========
Station | December | Year
|----+------+----+------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
----------------------+----+------+----+------
Algiers (on the coast)|54·9|~12·7~|64·5|~18·1~
Orleansville (on the |49·9| ~9·9~|65·2|~18·4~
low “Tel”) | | | |
Térriet el Haad (on |43·5| ~6·4~|57·3|~14·1~
the high “Tel”) | | | |
Géryville (on the high|39·8| ~4·3~|56·7|~13·7~
plateau) | | | |
Biskra (Sahara) |51·5|~10·8~|68·5|~20·3~
======================+====+======+====+======

NOTE.--In this and all following tables, F. stands for degrees
Fahrenheit; C. for degrees Centigrade; E.F., elevation above the sea
in feet; E.M., the same expressed in metres; Ins., inches, English;
Mm., millimetres.

The character of the climate of the capital, which may be considered typical of the coast health resorts, may be gathered from the following table:--

ALGIERS. LAT. 33° 47′ N.; LONG. 0° 44′ E. E.F. 105; E.M. 33·5.

========+===========+===========+===========+=====+=============+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----
January |56·0|~13·3~|62·7|~17·0~|50·2|~10·1~| 60 | 3·25| ~82·5~| 16
February|61·3|~16·3~|70·2|~21·2~|54·8|~12·7~| 61 | 3·17| ~80·6~| 9
March |57·2|~14·0~|64·5|~18·1~|51·5|~10·8~| 62 | 3·14| ~79·1~| 15
April |60·5|~15·8~|67·8|~19·9~|54·2|~12·3~| 65 | 3·46| ~88·4~| 10
May |66·7|~19·3~|74·7|~23·7~|60·2|~15·7~| 62 | 3·53| ~89·2~| 6
June |72·5|~22·5~|79·7|~26·5~|66·7|~19·3~| 71 | 0·75| ~19·1~| 6
July |75·8|~24·1~|83·0|~28·3~|68·5|~20·3~| 68 | 0·70| ~17·2~| 2
August |77·0|~25·0~|84·3|~29·1~|70·0|~21·1~| 67 | 0·20| ~4·9~| 4
Septem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |75·5|~24·2~|83·2|~28·4~|70·3|~21·3~| 73 | 0·28| ~7·1~| 9
October |71·2|~21·8~|79·2|~26·2~|66·0|~18·9~| 72 | 1·52| ~38·6~| 11
November|59·8|~15·5~|67·3|~19·6~|55·7|~13·2~| 70 | 9·0 |~228·3~| 22
December|56·8|~13·8~|67·5|~19·7~|51·7|~10·9~| 69 | 1·65| ~42·0~| 7
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----
Year |65·8|~18·8~|73·2|~22·9~|59·8|~15·5~| 66·7|30·5 |~777·0~| 117
========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======+=====

From this it may be seen that Algiers possesses a very desirable climate all the year round, though a trifle too rainy in late autumn.

The figures are those of the year 1901, as the French Government does not appear to have furnished the library with mean normal results.

_Malta._--Owing to the large number of our officers and men serving there, the climate of this small island, which is delightful during the winter, is of interest to many, but it perhaps barely merits the name of a hot climate. While resembling in some respects the climate of southern Italy, it approximates more closely to that of northern Africa, the rainfall being very scanty.

The following are the principal climatic data:--

VALETTA. LAT. 35° 54′ N.; LONG. 14° 30′ E.; NEAR SEA LEVEL.

=========+===========+===========+=====+=============+==============
Month | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Remarks
| Maximum | Minimum | tive| |
|Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | |
+----+------+----+------+ mid +-----+-------+
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ity | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |
---------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+--------------
January |60·2|~15·7~|50·1|~10·0~| 78 | 5·51|~139·7~|Total Annual
February |63·0|~17·2~|50·3|~10·2~| 79 | 1·04| ~26·2~|Rainfall, 17·1
March |63·4|~16·8~|49·8|~9·9~ | 73 | 1·04| ~26·2~|ins., or 40·3
April |65·6|~18·5~|52·4|~11·3~| 78 | 2·18| ~55·2~|cm.
May |72·3|~22·4~|59·1|~15·0~| 78 | 0·55| ~14·0~|
June |80·7|~27·0~|64·9|~18·3~| 72 | 0·38| ~10·0~|
July |88·0|~31·1~|70·6|~21·3~| 70 | 0·00| ~0·0~|
August |84·9|~29·4~|70·7|~21·4~| 77 | 0·02| ~0·1~|
September|83·3|~28·5~|68·7|~20·4~| 77 | 0·10| ~2·5~|
October |81·7|~27·5~|67·3|~19·8~| 78 | 0·60| ~15·2~|
November |71·1|~21·7~|59·0|~15·0~| 83 | 3·64| ~92·5~|
December |62·6|~16·8~|52·2|~11·2~| 85 | 1·04| ~26·2~|
=========+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======+==============

During the summer, periods of hot dry winds blowing from the burning African deserts are somewhat trying, but these do not, as a rule, last for many consecutive days, and on the whole the climate is not unhealthy.

A peculiar infective fever, commonly known as “Malta fever,” but also met with in other parts of the Mediterranean littoral, as well as in India, and very troublesome on account of its obstinate tendency to relapse, is the most serious drawback in the matter of disease, but under improving modern sanitation the disease is yearly becoming less common.

The climate of the Syrian coast is very similar, but somewhat warmer, with a heavier rainfall; so also is that of Algiers and the North African coast generally, there being, however, mostly a wider range between the hottest and coldest months than in the purely insular Malta. Malaria, dysentery, and other tropical diseases are not uncommon, but seldom either widely spread or particularly virulent. As we leave the coast, the range of temperature, both annual and diurnal, rapidly increases, and is especially marked in the highlands of Asia Minor, as, for example, at Erzerum, where the temperature in January falls as low as -20° F. (-29° C.), and in summer may exceed 90° F. (31° C.).

_Cyprus._--Long. 32° 20′ to 34° 35′ E; lat. 34° 33′ to 35° 41′ N. Our administrative connection with this island, and the circumstance that it has of late been strongly recommended as a fairly stimulating winter health resort for delicate people, and especially for cases of chest diseases and others, make it desirable to include an account of it within our list.

The following are the principal climatic data:--

NIKOSIA, ON CENTRAL PLAIN.

=========+============+===========+======+===========+======
Month | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall |Number
| Maximum | Minimum | tive | |of
| Temperature|Temperature|Humid-| |Rainy
| | | ity | |Days
+-----+------+----+------+------+-----+-----+
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | % | Ins.|~Mm.~|
---------+-----+------+----+------+------+-----+-----+------
January | 73·4|~23·0~|32·3| ~0·2~| 84 | 4·0 |~101~| 11·8
February | 70·7|~21·5~|31·8| ~0·1~| 84 | 3·70| ~94~| 11·8
March | 76·5|~24·7~|36·4| ~2·4~| 81 | 1·23| ~31~| 7·4
April | 84·5|~29·2~|38·8| ~3·8~| 78 | 1·14| ~29~| 4·5
May | 90·4|~32·4~|46·2| ~7·9~| 74 | 0·63| ~16~| 4·3
June |100·0|~37·8~|52·4|~11·3~| 67 | 0·39| ~10~| 1·4
July |100·7|~38·3~|55·5|~13·1~| 68 | 0·13| ~3~| 0·3
August |103·0|~39·4~|57·2|~14·0~| 66 | 0·8 | ~20~| 0·5
September|100·5|~38·1~|54·4|~12·3~| 73 | 0·04| ~1~| 0·6
October | 93·5|~34·2~|47·7| ~8·7~| 76 | 0·36| ~9~| 2·3
November | 84·5|~29·0~|39·3| ~4·1~| 82 | 1·97| ~50~| 6·5
December | 77·5|~25·3~|34·0| ~1·1~| 85 | 2·31| ~59~| 7·8
=========+=====+======+====+======+======+=====+=====+======

The climate is somewhat cooler in summer on the coast, and the rainfall slightly higher, but with a smaller number of rainy days.

The island is mountainous; a great mass of hills occupying the greater part of the southern half, and reaching an elevation of over 6,400 feet at Mount Troödos, where a summer sanatorium has been established. A lower range of hills fringes the entire northern shore, and between the two is a central plain, on the highest part of which, at an elevation of about 500 feet, is situated the capital, Nikosia. These hills shelter the central plain from the bitter winds of the Taurus range in Asia Minor during winter, but, on the other hand, cut off the cooling sea-breezes in summer. For eight months in the year the rainfall is inappreciable, and the summer appearance of the plains arid in the extreme, but the advent of the winter rains in October changes the scene to one of the greatest fertility. The hill country, on the other hand, is generally well-clothed with pine-forests, and enjoys, during the summer, a very pleasant climate. At Nikosia the mean temperature of the year is 67·2°, the extreme maximum being 108°, and the minimum 28°, showing the large range of 80°.

At the hill station on Mount Troödos, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, the excessive heat of the plains is entirely avoided. The season there opens in June and closes in October, the temperature never exceeding 85° F. in 1901. The following table shows the great gain in coolness:--

MEAN TEMPERATURES, FAHRENHEIT.

1901 Nikosia Troödos Difference
June 77·2° 61·7° 15·5°
July 83·7° 71·7° 12·0°
August 83·3° 68·2° 15·1°
September 78·8° 61·6° 17·2°

During the greater part of the year the wind is usually from the north-west, but during the coldest part of the winter is usually from the east. It will be noticed that the general characters of the climate are rather those of a Continental than of an insular situation. The air is almost always highly charged with electricity, and there is comparatively little malaria or other specially tropical diseases.

_Egypt._--The climate of this country is, even from the all-the-year-round point of view, one of the finest in the world, and hence its well-deserved popularity as a winter health resort. Apart from the “Khamseen,” which those used to Indian hot weather might esteem a change for the better, its one drawback is what may be termed the co-efficient of rapacity of its hotel-keepers; as for the casual visitor, it is certainly an expensive country.

With endless sights of antiquarian interest, and a gay cosmopolitan society, there is little chance of boredom for either the studious or frivolous, and with the possible exception of California, no climate affords a better combination of warmth and sunlight, with a clean, stimulating atmosphere. It owes this to its peculiar geographical characters, for although it includes on the map a large area, the actually inhabited portion consists of only a narrow strip, a few miles wide, on either side of the Nile; as all the land beyond the reach of the annual overflow of the river, which is at its maximum in September, and lowest in June, is absolute desert, the intense dryness of which is necessarily fatal to all forms of vegetable life, including the organic germs of disease. On this account, even in the middle of the cultivated strip, the air has never been fouled by passing over any considerable extent of habitations and cultivation, with their inevitable emanations, but must always come, almost fresh and germ-free, from the illimitable expanse of sand and rock that immediately succeeds the narrow band of river alluvium.

Dr. Dalrymple, one of the earliest writers on the subject, remarks, “It is scarcely possible to imagine anything more invigorating and life-giving than the air of the desert; there is a dryness and elasticity about it like nothing else, and the sense of renovation when breathing it is, to the languid invalid, like a new lease of life.”

Both he and Dr. Sandwith, from whose excellent “Egypt as a Winter Resort” the following tables are taken, seem agreed as to its suitability for all cases of chest disease that have not gone too far to be amendable to climatic treatment of any sort, and Dr. Sandwith finds it also suitable for such cases of heart and kidney affections as are unfavourably affected by cold; while the sulphur baths of Helouan have been found remarkably useful in the chronic forms of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism and gout.

The main characteristic of the climate is its intense dryness. Even on the coast at Alexandria, the rainfall is but trifling, and above Cairo it may almost be neglected; but in spite of this even during the hottest months the climate is quite bearable. “Northern rooms, if closed in good time, need never exceed 83° in the hot weather, or fall below 52° in the cold season, provided the sun-warmed air be allowed free entry.” The prevailing wind is a gentle breeze from the north, but both at Cairo and Alexandria, during the fifty days about Easter-time, a peculiar dust-laden wind, highly charged with electricity, and known as “the Khamseen,” blows at intervals. It is very disagreeable while it lasts, the dust sometimes obscuring the sun almost as completely as a London fog, but it rarely persists more than two days at a time, and does not usually occur more than three or four times in a season. The following tables will give a good general idea of the climate:--

ALEXANDRIA. LAT. 31° 13′ N.; LONG. 26° 53′ E. E.F., 66 ft.

=========+==================+======+======+=======+=============
Month | Temperature, F. | Rela-| Rain |Clouds,| Winds
+----+------+------+ tive | in | 0-10 +------+------
|Mean| Mean | Mean |Humid-|Inches| |Direc-|Force,
| | Maxi-| Mini-| ity | | | tion |0-10
| | ma | ma | % | | | |
---------+----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
January |58·1| 64·0 | 53·2 | 67 | 2·33 | 4 | N. | 2·5
February |58·6| 64·2 | 54·0 | 65 | 1·43 | 4 | N.W. | 2·5
March |61·6| 68·0 | 56·0 | 65 | ·78 | 3 | N.W. | 2·7
April |66·0| 73·0 | 60·6 | 66 | ·12 | 2 | N. | 2·5
May |70·0| 75·4 | 65·6 | 70 | ·03 | 2 | N. | 2·2
June |75·0| 79·6 | 71·2 | 72 | -- | 1 | N. | 2·3
July |77·6| 81·2 | 74·8 | 75 | -- | 1 |N.N.W.| 2·4
August |79·0| 82·4 | 76·1 | 73 | -- | 1 | N. | 2·0
September|77·4| 81·2 | 74·3 | 69 | ·11 | 2 | N. | 2·3
October |74·6| 79·2 | 70·6 | 68 | ·33 | 2 | N. | 2·1
November |68·2| 73·4 | 64·0 | 67 | 1·32 | 3 | N. | 2·2
December |62·0| 67·8 | 57·0 | 67 | 1·79 | 4 | N. | 2·4
---------+----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
Annual |69·0| 74·1 | 64·8 | 68·6 | 8·24 | 2·4 | N. | 2·3
=========+====+======+======+======+======+=======+======+======

CAIRO. LAT. 30° 4′ N.; LONG. 31° 15′ E. E.F., 108.

=========+==================+======+======+=======+=============
Month | Temperature, F. | Rela-| Rain |Clouds,| Winds
+----+------+------+ tive | in | 0-10 +------+------
|Mean| Mean | Mean |Humid-|Inches| |Direc-|Force,
| | Maxi-| Mini-| ity | | | tion |0-10
| | ma | ma | % | | | |
---------+----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
January |53·6| 61·4 | 46·6 | 69·7 | ·19 | 4·1 | S.W. | 2·2
February |57·0| 65·3 | 48·8 | 66·2 | ·24 | 4·2 | N. | 1·4
March |62·8| 73·2 | 53·0 | 56·2 | ·03 | 3·4 | N. | 2·5
April |70·4| 81·2 | 59·9 | 47·8 | ·12 | 3·4 | N. | 2·6
May |75·2| 86·8 | 63·4 | 48·4 | ·22 | 2·3 | N. | 2·8
June |82·6| 94·7 | 70·2 | 44·0 | ·02 | 1·0 | N. | 3·0
July |83·8| 93·0 | 72·2 | 49·0 | -- | 1·2 | N. | 4·3
August |82·2| 92·9 | 71·4 | 55·3 | -- | 1·6 | N. | 4·1
September|77·8| 87·5 | 68·0 | 62·1 | -- | 1·8 | N. | 4·3
October |74·3| 84·0 | 64·8 | 65·8 | -- | 2·5 | N. | 3·2
November |64·4| 74·2 | 56·3 | 67·5 | ·21 | 3·0 | N. | 2·1
December |58·4| 67·7 | 50·4 | 69·6 | ·19 | 3·7 | N. | 2·2
---------+----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------
Year |70·2| 80·1 | 60·4 | 58·46| 1·22 | 2·6 | N. | 2·9
=========+====+======+======+======+======+=======+======+========

LUXOR. LAT. 25° 40′ N.; LONG. 32° 35′ E. E.F., 292.

Winter Climate.

=========+==================+======+======+=======+=============
Month | Temperature, F. | Rela-| Rain |Clouds,| Winds
+----+------+------+ tive | in | 0-10 +------+------
|Mean| Mean | Mean |Humid-|Inches| |Direc-|Force,
| | Maxi-| Mini-| ity | | | tion |0-10
| | ma | ma | % | | | |
---------+----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
November | -- | 78·99| 62·1 | -- | | -- | S.W.| 1·0
December | -- | 70·0 | 53·6 | -- | _N | -- | N.E.| 1·8
January |56·7| 65·1 | 41·3 | 53·2 | i | 2·9 | N.W.| 1·0
February |62·6| 70·6 | 42·4 | 51·0 | l | 1·9 | N.W.| 1·1
March |66·9| 80·1 | 47·6 | 45·0 | ._ | 2·1 | {N.W.|} 0·7
| | | | | | | {N.E.|}
=========+====+======+======+======+======+=======+======+======

_Assouan_, 133 miles further up the Nile, has a winter climate which is said to be almost 5° F. higher than Luxor, and to be freer from dust-storms. The building of the great dam and the large artificial lake which has been thus formed can hardly fail to modify the climate, so that it is hardly worth while reproducing Dr. Sandwith’s table.

For the rest, the whole of Egypt up to this latitude may be said to be very healthy for Europeans, there being much less malaria than one would be inclined to expect as a consequence of the annual overflowing of the Nile; a circumstance which may, I believe, be attributed to the generally neat character of the cultivation, and the care with which every square yard of cultivable soil is utilised. Internal worms are, however, extremely common amongst the natives, but care in the matter of drinking water will render the risk run by the European very trifling.

Another terribly common disease amongst the natives is granular ophthalmia, a disease easily acquired by contact, or indirectly through the agency of flies, but Dr. Sandwith finds that it is extremely rarely taken by Europeans, though soreness of the eyes from dust and glare is not uncommon, for which he recommends the daily use of a little boracic solution as a toilet wash. It might, however, be perhaps advisable to protect young children by means of a veil when abroad, especially when entrusted to the care of a native attendant.

_THE REMAINDER OF THE AFRICAN CONTINENT._--Our knowledge of African meteorology is necessarily in its infancy, and it is only possible to furnish a few tables of widely distant parts of this immense area, which may give some idea of its climatic characters. The whole of the northern part of the continent is extremely dry, much of it being quite rainless, especially towards its eastern side. Following on this is the equatorial belt, a great portion of which is barely, if at all, explored, but which seems to usually present the general characters of such latitudes and to be usually blessed with an ample rainfall across the entire width of the continent. Southward of the equatorial zone we again meet with immense dry and desert areas, such as the Karoo, but here it is the western side that is the more arid, none of the south-eastern coast being in any sense rainless.

Malaria is extremely rife in almost all parts of the huge peninsula, and in addition to this we have in “Blackwater fever” and sleeping sickness, diseases which seem to be at present its own peculiar privilege, though, fortunately, yellow fever is not as yet included in its list of dangers. The low-lying country along the coast and of the great rivers is notoriously unhealthy, such as the Bight of Benin, where, according to the sailor’s proverb,

“There’s two comes out
Where three goes in.”

But inland there are considerable tracts of elevated country which present climates by no means to be despised, and which will no doubt in time, with the advance of civilisation, become eligible and healthy sites for European occupation, and more than one example of climatic conditions that appear decidedly inviting will be found amongst the tables furnished below.

An example of the climate of the Sahara has already been furnished in the notice of Algeria, and in the northern part of the continent the only other at all well-known climate (apart from Egypt) is the _Soudan_.

Practically rainless in parts, the climate is intensely hot and dry, the relative humidity showing one of the lowest records in our collection; but as the equatorial zone is approached a moderate rainfall develops, and throughout the region the large daily range of temperature results in the nights being comparatively cool, and therefore less trying than many parts of India. The northern portion is too dry to be very unhealthy, apart from the danger of abdominal chills, but as we ascend the Nile it expands into the immense marshes described by Baker and others, which are necessarily intensely malarious, while round the great lakes the sleeping sickness, previously rare or unknown there, is spreading rapidly.

Commencing with the dry Soudanese region, climatic tables of three stations will be found below, the first and most northern of which, it will be seen, is practically rainless. The figures of the first table are averages of ten years’ observations.

WADI HALFA. LAT. 21° 55′ N.; LONG. 31° 19′ E. E.F., 590; E.M., 128.

=========+===========+============+===========+===========+===========
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean | Relative | Rainfall
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | Humidity |
| | Temperature|Temperature| |
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | At | At |
| | | | | | | 9 h.|21 h.|
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-----------
January |59·4|~15·2~|73.7 |~23·2~|47·5| ~8·6~| 42 | 44 |
February |62·6|~17·0~| 77·2|~25·1~|48·4| ~9·1~| 39 | 36 |
March |71·5|~21·9~| 87·5|~30·8~|56·5|~13·6~| 30 | 30 |
April |80·5|~26·9~| 95·8|~35·5~|63·7|~17·6~| 23 | 24 |
May |87·8|~31·0~|104·3|~40·2~|70·5|~21·4~| 17 | 19 |Practically
June |90·7|~32·6~|106·7|~41·6~|74·4|~23·5~| 20 | 22 |_nil_.
July |90·5|~32·5~|105·7|~40·9~|74·5|~23·6~| 23 | 30 |Drops
August |90·0|~32·2~|103·5|~39·7~|75·0|~23·9~| 31 | 34 |recorded
September|88·7|~31·4~| 99·6|~37·6~|73·5|~23·1~| 35 | 38 |15 times
October |82·5|~28·1~| 97·2|~36·2~|69·0|~20·6~| 37 | 10 |in 10 years
November |70·7|~21·8~| 85·0|~29·4~|58·7|~14·8~| 41 | 43 |
December |63·0|~17·2~| 76·6|~24·7~|51·0|~10·6~| 45 | 45 |
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+
Year |78·0|~25·6~| 92·9|~33·8~|63·5|~17·8~| -- | -- |
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+=====+=====+===========

The two remaining tables are for the year 1901, and are not even complete in places. Kassala is, of course, much nearer the sea than Omdurman, and hence its better rainfall.

OMDURMAN. LAT. 15° 38′; LONG. 32° 29′. E.F., 1,250; E.M., 376.

=========+===========+============+===========+======+============
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive |
| | Temperature|Temperature|Humid-|
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+ ity +----+-------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | |Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+------+----+-------
January |72·9|~22·7~| 88·5|~31·4~|62·6|~17·0~| 24 | -- | --
February |79·9|~26·3~| 94·5|~34·7~|70·2|~21·2~| 28 | -- | --
March |82·7|~28·2~| 99·7|~37·6~| -- | -- | 19 | -- | --
April |87·5|~30·8~|103·7|~39·8~|72·5|~22·5~| 14 | -- | --
May |93·0|~33·9~|112·0|~42·4~|79·0|~26·1~| 20 | -- | --
June |89·9|~32·1~|106·2|~41·2~|77·4|~25·2~| 46 |0·63| ~16·1~
July |90·4|~32·4~|103·9|~39·9~|79·3|~26·3~| 48 |0·50| ~12·8~
August |87·0|~30·6~| 99·0|~37·2~|77·7|~25·5~| 58 |0·13| ~3·3~
September|90·4|~32·4~|104·5|~40·3~|81·0|~27·2~| 40 | -- | --
October |89·9|~32·1~|103·2|~39·5~|79·5|~26·4~| 30 |0·32| ~8·0~
November |82·4|~28·0~| 96·7|~35·9~|72·4|~22·4~| 24 | -- | --
December |76·2|~24·5~| 91·2|~32·9~|65·5|~18·6~| 28 | -- | --
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+------+----+-------
Year |85·2|~29·5~| 99·9|~37·7~|74·4|~23·5~| 32 |1·58| ~40·2~
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+======+====+=======

KASSALA. LAT. 15° 28′ N.; LONG. 36° 24′ E.

=========+===========+============+===========+======+===========
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive |
| | Temperature|Temperature|Humid-|
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+ ity +----+-------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | |Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+------+----+-------
January |72·6|~22·6~| 86·4|~30·2~|58·9|~14·9~| -- | Drops
February | -- | -- | 95·6|~35·4~| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
March |82·0|~27·8~|100·5|~38·1~|68·1|~20·1~| 51 | -- | --
April |86·4|~30·2~|103·3|~39·6~|73·0|~22·8~| 32 |0·08| ~2·0~
May |89·6|~32·0~|106·2|~41·2~|76·9|~24·9~| 25 |0·25| ~6·4~
June |86·0|~30·0~|101·2|~38·4~|75·5|~24·2~| 40 |2·85| ~72·4~
July |83·7|~28·7~| 96·9|~36·0~|74·2|~23·4~| 59 |1·48| ~37·4~
August |79·8|~26·6~| 92·5|~33·6~|81·8|~27·7~| 64 |3·96|~100·6~
September| -- | -- | 99·8|~37·7~|75·4|~24·1~| -- |1·24| ~31·3~
October | -- | -- |101·4|~38·5~|76·5|~24·7~| -- | -- | --
November | -- | -- | 99·2|~37·3~|73·5|~23·1~| -- | -- | --
December | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+------+----+-------
Year |83·0|~28·3~| 98·5|~36·9~| -- | -- | 40 |9·84|~250·1~
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+======+====+=======

_Abyssinia._--The greater part of the Ethiopian empire is high ground, and in many parts of the country the climate may almost be described as temperate, as may be judged from the following statement (derived from a French official source) of the climatic factors of the capital during the year 1901.

ADIS-ABABA. LAT. 9° 1′ N.; LONG. 38° 43′ E. E.F., ABOUT 7,000.

========+====+======+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
January | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
February|55·4|~18·0~|73·4|~23·0~|47·9| ~8·8~| 81 | 2·15| ~54·6~| 8
March |58·0|~14·4~|75·7|~24·3~|50·4|~10·2~| 83 | 5·23| ~132·7~| 10
April |58·4|~14·6~|74·2|~23·3~|51·4|~10·7~| 86 | 4·39| ~111·1~| 11
May |60·9|~16·0~|78·5|~25·8~|52·7|~11·5~| 74 | 1·36| ~34·7~| 4
June |57·5|~14·2~|72·3|~22·4~|49·7| ~9·8~| 72 | 8·36| ~212·3~| 30
July |56·0|~13·3~|69·0|~20·6~|49·7| ~9·8~| 80 |10·10| ~256·5~| 30
August |60·2|~15·7~|69·0|~20·6~|50·0|~10·0~| 79 | 9·46| ~240·1~| 28
Septem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |63·0|~17·2~|73·5|~23·1~|49·8| ~9·9~| 66 | 5·48| ~139·2~| 14
October |61·5|~16·4~|77·2|~25·1~|46·5| ~8·1~| 37 | 0·60| ~15·2~| 3
November|60·0|~15·6~|77·0|~25·0~|44·5| ~6·9~| 28 | -- | -- | --
December|57·2|~14·0~|74·4|~23·5~|44·3| ~6·7~| 39 | 0·54| ~13·5~| 3
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
Year |58·4|~14·6~|72·2|~23·6~|48·7| ~9·3~| 66 |49·11|~1247·5~| 141
========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+========+=====

_The Region of the Great Lakes._--Turning now to the great lakes of Central Africa, the following data from Hann’s “Klimatologie” may give some notion of the conditions prevailing.

In the Victoria Nyanza region (at E.F., 3,900; E.M., 1,200), according to E. G. Rauenstein, the mean annual temperature is 71·2° F. (21·8° C.), March 73·7° F. (23·2° C.), July 67·7° F. (19·8° C.), October 75·2° F. (24·0° C.), December 71·7° F. (22·0° C.). The extreme mean monthly maxima and minima (of January and February), 94° to 54° F. (34·4° to 12·2° C.), and the absolute maximum and minimum, 99·7° and 50·2° F. (37·7° and 10·1° C.).

The average rainfall for nine years was as follows:--

====+====+====+====+====+===+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====+=====
|Jan.|Feb.|Mar.|Apl.|May|June|July|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|Dec.|Year
----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----
Ins.|2·5 |3·3 |3·7 |4·8 |4·2|3·4 |2·5 |3·3 | 4·8 |4·8 |5·3 |3·2 | 40·6
Mm. | 63 | 84 | 94 |122 |106| 87 | 63 | 83 | 122 |122 |136 | 80 |1,160
====+====+====+====+====+===+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====+=====

In the north (Uganda) the climate is warm and moist, though without excessive rainfall, but the air is a good deal drier along the southern coast.

In Tanganyika, in lat. 4° S., long. 29° E. (E.F., 2,670, E.M., 813), the mean annual temperature is 76·7° F. (24·8° C.), the mean of the hottest month (of October) being 81·7° F. (27·6° C.), and of the coolest, in December, 74·2° F. (23·4° C.), the extremes being 90·7° and 64·4° F. (32·6° and 18° C.). The rains occur in April and May and November and December, while from June to September is dry, the annual rainfall being 50 ins. (1,270 mm.).

Further south, Zoruba, in Nyassaland, has a total rainfall of 62·23 ins. (1,581 mm.), falling on 144 days in the year, but should otherwise be a pleasant climate, as the relative humidity is usually low.

ZORUBA. LAT. 16° S. E.F., 1800. E.M., 548.

========+====+======+===========+===========+=====+=============+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days
| | | | | | | at 2| | |
| | | | | | | p.m.| | |
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----
January |69·8|~21~ |81·2|~27·3~|65·9|~18·9~| 78 |11·62|~295~ | 27
February|66·7|~19·3~|77·6|~25·3~|63·7|~17·6~| 74 |15·42|~391~ | 20
March |66·7|~19·3~|78·9|~26·1~|64·7|~18·2~| 90 | 7·60|~193~ | 23
April |64·4|~18·1~|75·4|~24·2~|61·7|~16·5~| 76 |11·74|~298·5~| 14
May |61·1|~16·1~|76·9|~25·0~|58·0|~14·4~| 65 | 0·37| ~9·0~| 7
June |57·1|~13·9~|68·4|~20·3~|54·4|~12·5~| 66 | 2·55| ~64·8~| 12
July |55·0|~12·8~|68·8|~20·5~|52·9|~11·7~| 65 | 0·87| ~21·8~| 6
August |55·4|~13·1~|71·4|~21·9~|52·3|~11·3~| 51 | 0·15| ~3·8~| 4
Septem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |62·7|~17·0~|79·0|~26·1~|58·1|~14·4~| 48 | 1·80| ~45·7~| 4
October |68·5|~20·3~|85·4|~29·7~|62·6|~16·9~| 53 | ·95| ~24·1~| 4
November|72·0|~22·2~|88·3|~31·3~|67·1|~19·4~| 53 | ·35| ~8·9~| 4
December|73·2|~23·0~|83·6|~28·6~|65·6|~18·6~| 66 | 8·81|~223·8~| 19
========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======+=====

The capital, Blantyre, at E.F., 3,280, E.M., 1,000, is naturally even cooler, but has a heavier rainfall, distributed as below:--

====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+====+
| Jan.| Feb.| Mar.| Apl.| May |June|
----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
Ins.|19·51|17·60|14·48|13·77| 4·05|3·28|
Mm. |484·6| 447 | 368 |349·5|102·9|83·7|
====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+====+

====+====+====+=====+=====+=====+=====
|July|Aug.|Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.
----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----
Ins.|3·34|1·56| 1·83| 4·13| 5·54|15·35
Mm. |85·1|39·5| 46·8|105·3| 140| 390
====+====+====+=====+=====+=====+=====

_The Congo Basin._--The climate of the basin of the Congo is notoriously unhealthy, especially as the portion as yet opened up seldom extends far beyond the low malarious banks of the great river and its tributaries. The warmest month is February or March, and the coldest July or August.

Hann gives the following table of the temperatures of the following stations:--

===============+========+===========+============+============
Station |Latitude|Mean Annual|Mean Temper-|Mean Temper-
| |Temperature| ature of | ature of
| | | Warmest | Coldest
| | | Month | Month
| |----+------+-----+------+-----+------
| | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
---------------+--------+----+------+-----+------+-----+------
Luluaberg |5·9° S. |81·3|~27·4~| 81·7|~27·6~| 80·8|~27·1~
Congo, mouth of|6·0° S. |76·8|~24·9~| 80·5|~26·9~| 70·9|~21·6~
Vivi |5·7° S. |77·2|~25·1~| 80·5|~26·9~| 71·7|~22·0~
San Salvador |6·3° S. |77·9|~25·5~| 81·0|~27·2~| 72·8|~22·7~
Brazzaville |4·3° S. |81·2|~27·3~| 84·7|~29·3~| 75·2|~24·0~
Bolobo |2·2° S. |80·5|~26·9~| 81·5|~27·5~| 79·4|~26·3~
Equatorville |0·0 |79·1|~26·2~| 80·6|~27·0~| 78·2|~25·7~
Bangala |1·5° N. |78·9|~26·0~| 80·8|~27·1~| 77·7|~25·4~
===============+========+====+======+=====+======+=====+======

These are typical equatorial climates, the greatest range between the means of the coldest and hottest months being at most 9·5° F. (5·3° C.), while in one case the range is less than one degree of the Fahrenheit scale, and though the temperatures are in no case excessive, the dampness of the atmosphere makes the heat of a very trying character, especially in certain localities, as at Stanley’s Pool, where during August and September there are certain peculiar night-winds which, not unfrequently, are the cause of cases of heat apoplexy, and this although the highest temperature recorded is but 97°, at Brazzaville.

There are two rainy seasons, in April and November. The dry period falls in June and July, but is not very marked in the interior.

The table on next page will give an idea of the amount and distribution of the rainfall.

_On the West Coast_, at Bathurst, the highest temperature occurs in October, during the period of the greater rains, the annual extremes being 98·8° F. (37·1° C.) and 57·4° F. (14·1° C.); the greatest daily variation of temperature being met with during the dry season, January to April, when it amounts to about 20° F. (11·5° C.). The rainfall varied during eleven years from about 32 ins. (813 mm.) to 78 ins. (1,980 mm.). In December, a cool morning breeze known as the Harmattan sets in, and continues till February or March. The rains begin in June and end in September.

MONTHLY RAINFALL IN THE CONGO BASIN.

=========+=======================================
Month | STATION.
+-----------+-------------+-------------
| Congo, | Lower Congo | Bolobo
| Mouth of | |
+-----+-----+-----+-------+-----+-------
| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-----+-------
January | 3·70| ~94~| 2·93| ~74~| 5·0 | ~127~
February | 3·12| ~79~| 3·87| ~98~| 6·97| ~177~
March | 4·09|~104~| 4·73| ~120~| 4·61| ~117~
April | 3·86| ~98~| 8·87| ~225~| 7·17| ~182~
May | 2·98| ~76~| 2·84| ~72~| 5·64| ~143~
June | 0·23| ~6~| 0·19| ~5~| 0·39| ~10~
July | 0 | ~0~| 0 | ~0~| 0·04| ~1~
August | 0·08| ~2~| 0 | ~0~| 2·60| ~66~
September| 0·16| ~4~| 0 | ~0~| 3·98| ~101~
October | 0·48| ~12~| 2·17| ~55~| 6·54| ~166~
November | 3·95|~100~| 8·31| ~211~| 9·58| ~243~
December | 2·28| ~58~| 4·64| ~118~|10·80| ~260~
---------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-----+-------
Year |24·95|~633~|39·85|~1,008~|62·7 |~1,593~
=========+=====+=====+=====+=======+=====+=======

_At Sierra Leone_, in spite of its lying north of the equator, the distribution of the monthly temperature resembles that of the Southern Hemisphere, the minimum falling in August, while the hot season lasts from February to May. The mean annual temperature is 77·6° F. (25·4° C.), and the average annual extreme temperatures 97·5° F. (36·4° C.) and 64·8° F. (18·2° C.). No month is absolutely rainless, and the annual rainfall is very heavy, ranging from 100 ins. (2,540 mm.) to 204·5 ins. (5,230 mm.).

Curiously enough, the Cape Verd Islands are very dry, although they agree generally as to temperature with the coast, tempered by their insular position and the influence of the trade wind, having a rainfall of only about 10 ins. (260 mm.), the most rainy month being September.

_Gulf of Guinea._--Along this coast there is a double rainy season; the greater from March to the end of July, and the lesser in October and November; with the dry season in August and September, and the cool Harmattan blowing between November and March. In speaking of the Harmattan as a cool breeze, it must be remembered that one refers only to the sensations produced by it; for as a matter of fact, it has no appreciable effect on the mean temperature, and feels cool only by virtue of the accelerated evaporation from the skin caused by its intense dryness. On the coast it really raises the mid-day temperatures, although it renders the mornings and evenings cooler. In the interior the Harmattan may figure indeed as a hot wind, and may be additionally disagreeable on account of the red dust it carries.

The rainfall is everywhere very heavy, that of the Cameroon district reaching the enormous figure of 350 ins. (8,970 mm.), the second greatest in the world.

The mean annual temperature is about 77° F. (25° C.), with annual extremes of 89·6° F. (32° C.) and 68° F. (20° C).

The following table of the climatic data for the coast of British Nigeria will give a fair idea of the conditions that will be met with in the coast towns of the group of colonies in this region:--

OLD CALABAR. LAT. 4° 58′ N.; LONG. 8° 17′ E.

=========+===========+===========+===========+======+
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean | Rela-|
| Monthly | Monthly | Monthly | tive |
|Temperature| Maxima | Minima |Humid-|
| | | | ity |
+----+------+----+------+----+------+ Per +
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | Cent.|
---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+------+
January |83·4|~28·6~| 90 |~32·2~| 68 |~20·0~| 78·8 |
February |86·5|~30·3~| 94 |~34·4~| 72 |~22·2~| 78·1 |
March |84·8|~29·2~| 94 |~34·4~| 71 |~21·7~| 81·6 |
April |85·5|~29·7~| 93 |~33·9~| 71 |~21·7~| 75·8 |
May |81·9|~27·8~| 94 |~34·4~| 75 |~23·9~| 77·6 |
June |80·8|~27·0~| 92 |~33·3~| 71 |~21·7~| 84·4 |
July |77·9|~25·5~| 90 |~32·2~| 70 |~21·1~| 85·8 |
August |77·1|~25·0~| 86 |~30·0~| 70 |~21·1~| 88·2 |
September|80·8|~27·0~| 92 |~33·3~| 70 |~21·1~| 85·7 |
October |82·3|~28·0~| 91 |~32·8~| 70 |~21·1~| 83·6 |
November |82·3|~28·0~| 91 |~32·8~| 71 |~21·7~| 83·9 |
December |81·9|~27·8~| 89 |~31·7~| 70 |~21·1~| 83·6 |
---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+------+
Year |82·2|~28·0~| 94 |~34·4~| 68 |~20·0~| 82·1 |
=========+====+======+====+======+====+======+======+

=========+==============+=====
Month | Rainfall | Num-
| | ber
| | of
| |Rainy
+------+-------+Days
| Ins. | ~Mm.~ |
---------+------+-------+-----
January | 2·68| ~68·1~| 1
February | 6·69|~170·0~| 5
March | 7·70|~195·6~| 8
April | 11·01|~279·5~| 10
May | 10·95|~279·0~| 19
June | 32·59|~827·0~| 22
July | 13·61|~345·4~| 25
August | 6·39|~162·4~| 15
September| 11·84|~300·0~| 25
October | 9·38|~238·0~| 17
November | 11·34|~288·3~| 12
December | 1·32| ~33·6~| 1
---------+------+-------+-----
Year |119·50|~303·6~| 150
=========+======+=======+=====

The remarkable uniformity of the temperature data is very striking. In the interior of Nigeria, however, much higher temperatures are experienced, especially at the times when the hot Harmattan is blowing off the northern deserts, the noon temperature at such times being rarely under 100° F. (37·8° C).

As we get farther south the temperature moderates and the rainfall rapidly diminishes; the mean temperature in Angola being no more than 68° F. (20° C.), while in the elevated interior the climate is neither disagreeable nor unhealthy.

Dr. Yale Massey sends me the following information from his Mission station in the Benguela district, at 4,700 feet, lat. _circa_ 12° S.; and long. 17° E. “The distinctly wet months are from October to April inclusive, and this is also the hot season. There are usually a few showers in September, and rarely some in May, and during the dry season there is usually a strong breeze. In the wet season the mid-day temperature ranges from 80° to 100° F., at night from 45° to 60° F.; while during the dry weather the mid-day temperature is from 70° to 90° F., and at night even slight frost may occur. As might be expected from the elevation and climate, this is a generally healthy locality, but there is a certain amount of fever, most of the cases occurring in April and May.”

_East Coast._--The reputation borne by the east coast is scarcely more enviable than that of the western, the accounts of travellers voyaging on the Zambesi being generally alternate wails on attacks of mosquitoes and upsets from hippopotami. The rainfall is, however, much lighter, and at corresponding latitudes the temperatures generally seem somewhat lower.

Owing to the presence of a considerable Arab element, the population have attained, in some places, a larger grade of civilisation than is the case on the west coast, so that the introduction of hygienic measures might be somewhat more practicable, albeit that Arab civilisation, _per se_, has hardly reached the stage of promoting sanitation.

The two following tables of a tropical and subtropical station, each on this coast, will give some general conception of the conditions prevailing.

ZANZIBAR ISLAND. LAT. _circa_ 7° 30′ S.

=========+=============+=============+================
Month | Mean Maximum| Mean Minimum| Rainfall
| Temperature | Temperature |
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins. | ~Mm.~
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----------
January | 86·1 |~30·0~| 79·6 |~26·5~| 3·26| ~82·6~
February | 87·0 |~30·6~| 80·3 |~26·8~| 1·51| ~38·3~
March | 86·3 |~30·2~| 79·3 |~26·3~| 6·24| ~159·1~
April | 84·7 |~29·3~| 77·6 |~25·4~|11·94| ~303·3~
May | 82·4 |~28·0~| 75·6 |~24·3~|10·23| ~250·2~
June | 81·5 |~27·5~| 74·2 |~23·5~| 1·36| ~34·7~
July | 80·2 |~26·8~| 72·7 |~22·6~| 2·75| ~69·8~
August | 81·8 |~27·0~| 72·7 |~22·6~| 1·68| ~43·0~
September| 82·0 |~27·8~| 73·4 |~23·0~| 2·10| ~53·3~
October | 83·2 |~28·1~| 75·3 |~24·0~| 3·74| ~95·1~
November | 83·7 |~28·7~| 77·1 |~25·1~| 8·23| ~209·1~
December | 85·8 |~29·8~| 79·5 |~26·4~| 4·18| ~106·3~
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----------
Year | 83·6 |~28·7~| 76·4 |~24·6~|57·25|~1,454·2~
=========+======+======+======+======+=====+==========

NATAL, DURBAN. LAT. 29° 50′ S.; NEAR SEA-LEVEL. (1902.)

=========+===========+============+===========+===============+=======
|Temperature| Monthly | Monthly | Rainfall |Number
Month | at 9 a.m. | Maxima | Minima | | of
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+---------+ Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Days
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+---------+-------
January |74·0|~23·3~| 92·1|~33·4~|56·4|~13·6~| 6·53| ~166·2~| 23
February |78·2|~25·7~| 95·2|~35·1~|60·5|~15·8~| 2·09| ~53·2~| 12
March |74·5|~23·6~| 93·8|~34·3~|59·2|~15·1~|10·23| ~256·5~| 20
April |70·1|~21·1~| 86·2|~30·1~|56·9|~13·8~| 2·52| ~64·0~| 9
May |66·5|~19·2~| 83·5|~28·6~|52·0|~11·1~| 1·21| ~30·6~| 10
June |61·6|~16·5~| 78·3|~25·7~|47·4| ~8·6~| 0·73| ~18·0~| 3
July |62·0|~16·7~| 88·0|~31·1~|49·5| ~9·7~| 0·27| ~7·0~| 4
August |63·5|~17·5~| 79·0|~26·1~|48·4| ~9·2~| 3·90| ~99·1~| 12
September|67·1|~19·5~|105·6|~40·9~|51·5|~10·8~| 2·54| ~64·7~| 13
October |69·6|~20·8~| 91·2|~32·9~|51·3|~10·7~| 2·23| ~56·6~| 17
November |70·9|~21·6~| 92·3|~33·5~|57·1|~13·9~| 5·15| ~130·8~| 19
December |75·2|~24·0~| 91·4|~33·1~|58·2|~14·5~| 3·96| ~100·4~| 18
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+---------+-------
Year |69·4|~20·8~|105·6|~40·9~|47·4| ~8·6~|41·18|~1,047·0~| 160
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+=====+=========+=======

_Madagascar._--With the exception of the littoral, which is rather warm and extremely malarious, the greater part of this island is too elevated to present a really hot climate, but the rainfall in the interior is rather heavier than on the mainland, that of the capital, Antananarivo, being 52·4 ins. (1,331 mm.), which is distributed as follows:--

MONTHLY RAINFALL OF ANTANANARIVO. E.F., 4,850; E.M., 1,478.

====+=====+====+=====+=====+====+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====
| Jan.|Feb.|March|April| May|June|July|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|Dec.
----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----
Ins.|11·54|9·28|7·36 | 2·00|0·71|0·33|0·20|0·28| 3·18|3·51|5·25|11·0
Mm. | 294 | 236| 187 | 51 | 18 | 8 | 5 | 7 | 17 | 89 | 133| 280
====+=====+====+=====+=====+====+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====

_The Island of Mauritius._--Latitude _circa_ 20° 20′ S. The mean annual temperature of Port Louis is 77·2° F. (25·1° C.), the absolute extremes of temperature in nineteen years being 89° and 53·5° F. (31·6° and 11·9° C.), and the mean relative humidity 74 per cent., so that in the matter of heat there is nothing to be feared; but unfortunately malaria, which was quite unknown in the earlier days of its colonisation, is now very rife and of a very obstinate type. The rainfall amounts to 74·5 ins. (1,892 mm.), which is rather heavier than that of Madagascar, and is distributed as below:--

MONTHLY RAINFALL OF PORT LOUIS, MAURITIUS; NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

====+=====+====+=====+=====+====+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====
|Jan. |Feb.|March|April|May |June|July|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|Dec.
----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----
Ins.|11·55|8·18|11·35|9·14 |5·73|4·65|4·25|3·86|2·71 |2·64|3·24|6·98
Mm. | 293 |208 | 288|232 |145 |118 |108 | 98 | 69 | 67 | 82 |177
====+=====+====+=====+=====+====+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====

The southernmost portions of Africa, Cape Colony, &c., do not belong to the category of hot climates, either in climate or in their diseases, and so need not be considered here.

_Red Sea and its Coasts, including Somaliland._--The horrors of the climate of the Red Sea are too well known to need comment. The whole region is almost rainless, subject to suffocating calms, and the presence of the large, but completely land-locked, sheet of water renders the relative humidity constantly high. Moreover, the whole basin is comparatively shallow, so that it becomes highly warmed even in its depths. At its southern end the temperature of the water at the surface may reach 95° F. (35° C.), and 90° F. (32·2° C.) has been registered at a depth of 5 fathoms. In the Gulf of Suez, pleasantly fresh days may be met with during winter, but in the south the mean temperature of a day seldom falls below 80° F. (26·7° C.), and in July the mean maximum temperature exceeds 108° F. (42° C.) July is the hottest month, but there is little to choose between the discomforts of any of the four months, June to September. The least hot month is January, but the climate is a singularly uniform one, the night bringing comparatively little relief, and when followed by a breeze of about the same speed as the ship, cases have occurred in which steamers have actually been obliged to put about and steam against the wind, in order to prevent the crew from falling victims to heat apoplexy.

North of lat. 19°, the prevailing winds are from the north or north-west, while in the south the predominating winds are from the south and south-east, between the two lying a belt of variable winds. From June to August north-west winds prevail over the whole Red Sea. This is known as the “Kamsin,” or fifty days’ wind, the word being derived from the Arabic root of that numeral, which, originally, intensely hot and dry, rapidly takes up moisture from the water, and is hence particularly insupportable on the Arabian side of the sea; though the fine sand with which it is loaded makes it equally objectionable from another point of view on the African side. Its velocity is often considerable, and under such circumstances may be even dangerous to the lives of those who are so unfortunate as to be exposed to its fury in the open desert. The extremely fine dust penetrates everywhere in spite of closed doors and windows, reaching even ships far out at sea. Fortunately, on the coast it is generally a good deal modified by sea-breezes springing up in the afternoon, but there is also a tendency to fall dead calm at night, under which circumstances the dark hours are even more intolerable than those of the day.

The following table of the principal climatic data of Massawa in the Italian colony of Erythrea, compiled from data contained in a pamphlet by Dr. Giovani Petella, of the Royal Italian Navy, gives a good idea of the character of the climate of the Red Sea littoral.

MASSAWA. LAT. 16° N.; NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+============+===========+=====+===========+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| | Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+midi-+----+------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty |Ins.| ~Mm.~| Days
| | | | | | | % | | |
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+----+------+-----
January |78·0|~25·6~| 90·4|~32·4~|68·0|~20·0~| 75 |2·05|~52·1~| 5·2
February |78·9|~26·0~| 92·2|~33·4~|68·4|~20·2~| 76 |0·63|~16·2~| 1·6
March |81·0|~27·2~| 94·8|~34·9~|70·1|~21·2~| 74 |0·68|~17·5~| 1·7
April |84·3|~29·0~| 98·2|~36·8~|72·8|~22·6~| 69 |0·11| ~2·5~| ·2
May |88·5|~31·3~|101·7|~38·7~|76·6|~24·7~| 66 |0·56|~14·1~| 1·4
June |92·4|~33·5~|105·9|~41·0~|80·7|~27·0~| 51 | -- | -- | --
July |94·7|~34·8~|108·5|~42·5~|84·5|~29·2~| 56 |0·13| ~3·3~| 1·3
August |94·6|~34·7~|106·7|~41·5~|83·4|~28·5~| 57 |0·26| ~5·7~| 1·7
September|92·0|~33·3~|103·0|~39·4~|78·2|~25·7~| 60 |0·17| ~4·0~| 1·0
October |89·0|~31·7~| 98·7|~37·0~|77·2|~25·1~| 60 |0·35| ~9·0~| 1·0
November |84·3|~29·0~| 95·2|~35·1~|75·0|~23·8~| 65 |0·78|~20·0~| 2·1
December |80·7|~27·0~| 92·0|~33·3~|69·5|~20·8~| 70 |2·27|~57·6~| 3·7
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+=====+====+======+=====

The total rainfall amounts only to 7·86 ins. (198 mm.), falling on 29·2 days in the year, but the amount and distribution is very capricious, varying greatly in different years. In so far, however, as Massawa can be said to possess a rainy season at all, the wet weather comes in the winter, instead of about August, as is normally the case in the Tropics of the Northern Hemisphere.

Sometimes a whole year may be practically rainless, as for example 1885, in which only 41·2 mm. (about 1¹⁄₂ ins.) was collected, whereas 1891 had the respectable rainfall of 500 mm. (or 19¹⁄₂ ins.). Apparently, however, it never rains in June.

Owing to the antiseptic powers of the intense light and heat, the place is singularly free from zymotic diseases, the cases of fever being usually not malarial, but truly climatic.

For the greater part of the year the skin is kept in a continuous bath of perspiration, and accordingly prickly heat in its most acute form, with the usual sequel of boils, is very common; as also, of course, are heatstroke and less acute forms of nervous prostration. During the continuance of the Kamsin Dr. Petella finds that the temperature of even strong and healthy individuals is raised distinctly above the normal.

The extreme character of the climate of Suakim, the frequent scene of British military activity, may be gathered from the following nearly complete table for portions of the years 1902-1903.

SUAKIM. LAT. 19° 5′ N. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=====+============+===========+============+===+=====+================
Month| Absolute | Absolute | Rainfall | C |Rela-| Wind
| Maximum | Minimum | | l | tive|
| Temperature|Temperature| | o | Hu- |
+-----+------+----+------+----+-------+ u |midi-|
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins.| ~Mm.~ | d | ty |
| | | | | | | s | |
-----+-----+------+----+------+----+-------+---+-----+----------------
Jan. | 78·5|~25·8~|68·4|~20·2~|1·17| ~29·7~|4·5| 71 |N.N.W., occasio-
| | | | | | | | |nally N. and E.
| | | | | | | | |in afternoon
Feb. | 79·0|~26·7~|70·4|~21·3~|0·68| ~17·0~|4·8| 78 |N.W., shifting
| | | | | | | | |to N.E. or N.
Mar. | 82·5|~28·1~|71·9|~22·1~|0 | ~0~ |2·1| 90 |Ditto, ditto
April| Wanting | | | | | |
May | 95·0|~35·0~|76·1|~24·5~|0 | ~0~ |0·5| 78 |Ditto, ditto
June |100·2|~37·9~|78·0|~25·6~|0·13| ~3·0~|1·2| 69 |Variable, but
| | | | | | | | |generally N.E.
| | | | | | | | |in afternoon
July |107·8|~42·1~|82·0|~27·8~|0·36| ~9·3~|1·5| 48 |S.W. to S.,
| | | | | | | | |shifting to E.
| | | | | | | | |or N.E. in
| | | | | | | | |afternoon
Aug. |112·0|~44·4~|84·4|~29·1~|0 | ~0~ |1·3| 68 |Ditto, ditto
Sept.| Wanting | | | | | |
Oct. | 92·0|~33·3~|78·0|~25·6~|4·80|~122·0~|3·5| 75 |N.W. to W.,
| | | | | | | | |shifting to N.E.
| | | | | | | | |in afternoon
Nov. | 86·5|~30·3~|75·9|~24·3~|6·10|~154·9~|5·6| 78 |Ditto, ditto
Dec. | 81·0|~27·2~|69·5|~20·8~|2·02| ~51·5~|4·5| 78 |Ditto, ditto
=====+=====+======+====+======+====+=======+===+=====+================

No European constitution could, however, endure such climates for any considerable time with impunity without periods of relief in a more moderate climate, and it is therefore fortunate that, owing to configuration of the Colony of Erythrea, the inland portion of which for the most part consists of elevated plateaux and mountains; these extreme conditions of heat and moisture are limited to a comparatively narrow belt of country, consisting of plains formed of slightly elevated coral formation, and the foothills which gradually rise to elevations at which the climate is necessarily temperate, some of the peaks reaching over 7,000 feet above the sea.

The progressive improvement of climate as one gains increasing elevations, even where that at the sea-level is of the most extreme character, is instructively shown in the table on next page, taken from Dr. Petella’s pamphlet.