Chapter XVI: Section II (3)

_Straits Settlements._--Singapore has, or had, a yacht club, “The Equatorial,” the course for whose regattas was supposed to be “the Line,” so that the climate of this colony is necessarily of the equatorial type. There is practically no seasonal change, as although the maxima of rainfall occur in March-April and December, the other months have also an amount of precipitation not far short of these specially rainy months. The annual range of temperature is under 18° F. (10° C), and though the climate is rather moist, excessive heat is never met with; the mean maximum of April, the warmest month, being but 89° F. The main climatic facts may be gathered from the subjoined table:--

SINGAPORE. LAT. 1° 16′ N.; LONG. 103° 53′ E. OBSERVATORY A FEW FEET ABOVE THE SEA.

========+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty %| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
January |78·2|~25·7~|85·6|~29·8~|71·7|~22·0~| 79 |10·30| ~261·6~| 16
February|79·0|~26·1~|87·1|~30·6~|71·6|~21·9~| 79 | 6·18| ~156·3~| 9
March |79·9|~26·6~|88·0|~31·1~|73·3|~23·0~| 80 | 8·41| ~213·7~| 14
April |81·2|~27·3~|89·0|~31·7~|74·8|~23·7~| 79 | 8·39| ~213·5~| 15
May |82·7|~28·2~|88·9|~31·6~|76·4|~24·6~| 79 | 5·58| ~141·3~| 13
June |80·9|~27·1~|86·7|~30·4~|75·6|~24·3~| 81 | 6·37| ~161·7~| 16
July |81·7|~27·6~|87·5|~30·8~|75·4|~24·1~| 76 | 7·74| ~196·6~| 13
August |80·8|~27·0~|86·3|~30·2~|74·9|~23·8~| 78 | 6·83| ~173·0~| 14
Septem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |80·5|~26·9~|86·9|~30·5~|74·2|~23·5~| 77 | 5·83| ~148·2~| 12
October |80·4|~26·8~|87·1|~30·7~|74·1|~23·4~| 79 | 8·61| ~218·8~| 17
November|79·3|~26·3~|86·1|~30·1~|73·6|~23·2~| 82 | 9·24| ~234·5~| 18
December|77·4|~25·2~|83·2|~28·5~|73·5|~23·1~| 89 |10·84| ~275·5~| 17
Year |80·1|~26·7~|86·9|~30·5~|74·0|~26·7~| 80 |93·99|~2387~ | 174
--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+----
| Figures for 1896 | Averages of 10
| | years
========+=========================================+===================

During January and February the wind is mainly from the north-east, but varies greatly, often veering round to the north-west. The south-west monsoon, known here as the “Java winds,” comes on about April and continues only to July, after which month, till November, the winds are again very variable, the most common directions being south-south-west, south-east, and west.

Considering its proximity to the Equator the climate is wonderfully pleasant, the nights being always cool enough to sleep at ease, and though there is generally a pleasant breeze, the island enjoys an almost complete immunity from storms.

_Siam_, owing to its geographical position, is to some extent preserved from the heat, rain, and devastating cyclones common in adjoining countries, the high mountains with which it is almost completely surrounded, cutting it off from most of their effects. The coolest month is December, though the absolute minimum may occur at any time from November to February; and the hottest, April.

The lowest temperature recorded during ten years by Staff-Surg. J. Campbell, R.N., from whose observations these notes are compiled, was 57° F. (13·9° C), and the highest 97·5° F. (36·4° C). December is the driest, and September the moistest month of the year, and hail fell once in fifteen years. Droughts are rare. The south-west monsoon becomes weak in September. Early in October northerly breezes set in, varying at first to east and west of north, and by November the north-east monsoon is established, to reach its strongest in December, and then gradually failing till early in March, when the “Kiti” breezes--south to south-south-west--usher in the monsoon. From May to August the winds are sometimes boisterous. The above remarks apply to Lower Siam and to Bangkok in particular, for which the table below, compiled from Campbell’s figures, gives the main climatic data.

BANGKOK. LAT. 13° 58′ N.; LONG. 100° 34′ W. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
January|76·1|~24·5~|87·7|~30·9~|69·4|~20·7~| 75 | 0·09| ~2·4~| 2
Februa-| | | | | | | | | |
ry |79·1|~26·2~|88·6|~31·5~|74·1|~23·4~| 78 | 0·56| ~14·2~| 7
March |82·5|~28·1~|93·0|~33·9~|74·5|~23·6~| 74 | 0·83| ~21·4~| 1
April |83·4|~28·5~|94·1|~34·5~|79·0|~26·1~| 75 | 2·42| ~51·1~| 10
May |82·3|~27·9~|89·7|~32·0~|76·8|~24·8~| 78 |10·54| ~268·0~| 20
June |82·3|~27·9~|89·4|~31·8~|78·1|~25·7~| 78 | 7·72| ~195·7~| 16
July |81·4|~27·4~|88·1|~31·2~|76·2|~24·5~| 78 | 8·02| ~204·0~| 26
August |81·4|~27·4~|89·0|~31·7~|76·2|~24·5~| 79 | 5·65| ~143·5~| 17
Septem-| | | | | | | | | |
ber |80·3|~26·8~|88·6|~31·5~|76·7|~24·8~| 82 |11·30| ~287·0~| 22
October|80·1|~26·7~|87·3|~30·7~|75·1|~24·0~| 82 | 7·46| ~189·3~| 14
Novem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |76·8|~24·9~|83·7|~28·8~|70·3|~21·3~| 77 | 2·36| ~59·8~| 6
Decem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |74·8|~23·8~|81·6|~27·6~|63·3|~17·4~| 74 | 0·09| ~2·4~| 2
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
Year |80·1|~26·6~|88·4|~31·3~|74·1|~23·4~| 77 |67·04|~1703~ | 143
=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+========+=====

Some authorities make the rainfall of Bangkok considerably less, but Campbell’s observations extended over several years and may perhaps be preferred. The delta of the Menam River is annually flooded between June and November, and the spring levels are close to the surface all the year round. North of the delta of the Menam is the Korat Plateau, some 700 feet above the sea-level, a wilderness of shadeless bush, interspersed with salt marshes. One of the main drawbacks of the country is the scarcity of potable water, the supplies both in the Menam delta and on the Korat being almost always brackish and a nearly certain cause of digestive disturbance for Europeans, who thus have to rely greatly on aerated waters imported from the Straits.

Upper Siam, on the other hand, enjoys a dry climate with cool nights, but speaking generally the climate is an exceptionally trying one for European residents.

_Cochin China_ has a moist, hot climate. During the dry season, which lasts from November to April, the temperature varies from 95° F. during the day to 63° F. at night (35° to 17° C.), whereas during the rains, which last from May to October, the range of variation is only between 86° and 68° F. (30° to 20° C.); the relative humidity at this season reaching 89 per cent. Further north, in Tongking, the range of temperature is wider, from 99° to 18° F. (36° to -7° C.). The rainfall is much heavier than in Siam; Saigon, lat. 10° 47′ N., receiving its maximum of 17·7 ins. (423 mm.) in September and a total rainfall of 74 ins. (1,873 mm.); while at Hue, lat. 16° 33′ N., the wettest month is October, with 26·15 ins. (664 mm.), and a total of 102 ins. (2,592 mm.). Further north, at Hai-fong, in lat. 20° 57′ N., the most rainy month is August, with 14·8 ins. (374 mm.). July falls but little short of this, but the total is less than that of the other two stations, amounting to no more than 64 ins. (1,627 mm.).

The change to the north-east monsoon in November is not unfrequently marked by sudden and devastating storms. The climate has a very bad reputation, malaria, dysentery of a peculiarly deadly type, and diseases due to internal worms, being very common, especially during the rainy season.

_China._--Owing to the backward state of the country, there is singularly little information of a definite character available with respect to the enormous Chinese Empire, the entire southern half of which comes within the scope of the tropical climatologist. In the south, regular observations are carried on in the British colony of Hong Kong, and in the north at Zi-ka-Wei, near Shanghai, an admirably conducted observatory is conducted by the Jesuit missionaries, who so often enrol themselves as the pioneers of science.

Speaking generally, however, whether in the case of littoral or continental climates, those of China appear to compare favourably with localities of the same latitude in India and the Indo-Malay peninsula.

The following are the figures for the island of Hong Kong for the year 1901, as I am unable to discover any collated statistics.

HONG KONG. LAT. 22° 12′ N., LONG. 114° 13′ E. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+===========+=====+=============
Month | Monthly | Monthly |Rela-| Monthly
| Maxima | Minima | tive| Rainfall
| | | Hu- |
+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------
January |68·5|~20·3~|62·5|~16·9~| 83 | 0·68| ~17·4~
February |59·5|~13·3~|50·5|~10·3~| 48 | 0·76| ~19·3~
March |67·9|~19·9~|60·4|~15·7~| 77 | 1·27| ~32·1~
April |75·4|~24·1~|69·1|~20·7~| 89 | 9·03|~229·9~
May |81·8|~27·7~|73·7|~23·2~| 85 |14·10|~358·1~
June |85·9|~29·9~|78·2|~25·7~| 80 | 2·33| ~59·7~
July |87·0|~30·6~|78·5|~25·8~| 81 | 5·58|~141·0~
August |85·7|~29·8~|76·9|~24·9~| 84 |14·00|~355·6~
September|86·0|~30·0~|76·4|~24·6~| 76 | 3·89| ~99·1~
October |82·6|~28·2~|73·6|~23·2~| 68 | 2·50| ~63·5~
November |75·4|~24·1~|64·9|~18·2~| 64 | 0·77| ~19·5~
December |66·9|~19·3~|57·5|~14·2~| 66 | 0·83| ~21·2~
=========+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======

In the _Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps_, vol. i., No. 1, Major S. F. Clark writes: “The climate of Hong Kong varies in the different places. At the Peak, 1,500 feet above the sea, it is always bearable in summer, and is quite crisp in winter, an occasional film of ice being sometimes visible in the mornings. In fact, if one had not to descend to the lower levels for work, it would be no hardship to live at the Peak, where the fog is really the main trouble. Children do well up there, but get very white down below.

“In the city the summer is very trying. From May to September, both inclusive, the sun is strong--reaching 94° or so in July and August--and the humidity of the air is practically at saturation point. With the breeze cut off by the Peak the situation is thus by no means pleasant, and cases of heat apoplexy always occur at this time. The temperature averages 86° to 88° during these months, and the nights also are stiflingly hot. By the help of punkahs, electric fans, rickshaws and chairs, the work of the colony goes on. The summer is also the rainy and typhoon season, and these visitations luckily cool the air for some days. The rain is very heavy at times, but of late years droughts have prevailed. For the other seven months the climate is not unpleasant, and in December, January and February, is quite cold, without reaching freezing point. The humidity of the air, however, is always considerable. This dampness of the air, especially foggy weather at the Peak, is very destructive to clothing, books, &c., and tin-lined boxes are essential. Ladies’ garments require much care to preserve them from destruction.”

It is, however, fortunately possible for most people to live at “the Peak,” between which and the town there is frequent communication by means of cable tram.

Considering that Hong Kong lies well to the south of Calcutta, it must be confessed that the climate is wonderfully good, and one cannot but think that Major Clark would wish himself back in Hong Kong were he to negotiate an exchange to almost any station in the plains of India.

On the mainland, at Canton, the climate is much less uniform, the north-east wind of the cold season rendering the nights singularly cold for so southerly a position.

The China seas are visited by revolving storms of a most violent character, known locally as typhoons, but as in those of the Bay of Bengal, their more serious effects do not appear to extend far inland.

The Island of Formosa, with a mean annual temperature of 74·6° F. (23·7° C.), has a typically marine climate, the difference between the coldest and hottest months, February and June, being but from 67·7° F. (19·8° C.) to 81° F. (27·1° C.), or only 13·5° F. (7·3° C.). The south-west monsoon bursts towards the end of May, and the rainfall, especially in the north of the island, is very heavy and evenly distributed, though there is a distinct dry, winter season in the south, as may be seen by the contrast of the rainfall of the following two Formosan stations--Kilung, in lat. 25° 8′ N., and Takao Anping, in 22° 47′ N. (Hann).

RAINFALL IN THE ISLAND OF FORMOSA.

===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+
| Jan.| Feb.| Mar.|April| May | June|
-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
Kilung{Ins.|17·53|14·98|14·98| 8·68|10·74| 9·33|
{Mm. | 445 | 379 | 379 | 220 | 273 | 237 |
| | | | | | |
Takao {Ins.| 6·67| 0·58| 1·64| 2·48| 9·45|13·58|
{Mm. | 17 | 13 | 41 | 63 | 240 | 345 |
===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

===========+=====+=====+=====+====+=====+=====
| July| Aug.|Sept.|Oct.| Nov.| Dec.
-----------+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----
Kilung{Ins.| 7·72| 7·53|16·53|9·84|11·61|11·63
{Mm. | 196 | 191 | 420 | 249| 294 | 294
| | | | | |
Takao {Ins.|14·65|14·63| 4·69|1·54| 0·49| 1·08
{Mm. | 372 | 370 | 119 | 39| 12 | 27
===========+=====+=====+=====+====+=====+=====

The total annual rainfall is 122 ins. (3,581 mm.) for Kilung, and 65·25 ins. (1,658 mm.) for Takao Anping.

Further north, the monsoon bursts somewhat later, very much in the same way as it does in India; but here, again, the climate is much cooler than would be met with west of the Malay Peninsula in the same latitudes.

ZI-KA-WEI. LAT. 31° 12′ N.; TIME 8 HRS. 5 MINS. 43 SECS. EAST OF GREENWICH. ELEVATION OF OBSERVATORY, 22 FEET ABOVE THE SEA.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====
Month | Mean | Maximum | Minimum |Rela-| Rainfall |Num-
| Monthly | Tempera- | Tempera- | tive| | ber
|Temperature| tures | tures | Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy
| F. | C. | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |days
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
January|37·0| ~2·8~|60·0|~15·6~|20·0|~-6·7~| 78 | 2·03| ~51·8~| 10
Februa-| | | | | | | | | |
ry |39·4| ~4·0~|61·9|~16·6~|23·8|~-4·9~| 79 | 2·44| ~62·0~| 11
March |46·0| ~7·8~|74·1|~23·4~|29·0|~-1·7~| 77 | 3·29| ~83·6~| 13
April |56·5|~13·6~|84·0|~28·9~|36·9| ~2·7~| 77 | 3·49| ~88·8~| 13
May |65·5|~18·6~|88·5|~31·4~|46·4| ~8·0~| 76 | 3·64| ~92·0~| 13
June |73·4|~23·0~|95·0|~34·9~|57·3|~14·1~| 79 | 6·78| ~172·0~| 14
July |80·6|~27·0~|98·5|~36·9~|67·5|~19·7~| 80 | 4·74| ~120·1~| 11
August |80·1|~26·8~|97·4|~36·3~|67·0|~19·4~| 80 | 6·08| ~154·6~| 11
Septem-| | | | | | | | | |
ber |72·8|~22·7~|92·0|~33·3~|56·6|~13·7~| 79 | 4·89| ~124·3~| 12
October|63·2|~17·3~|83·5|~28·6~|41·4| ~5·2~| 76 | 3·23| ~82·0~| 10
Novem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |52·0|~11·1~|73·4|~23·0~|29·9|~-1·2~| 76 | 1·94| ~49·2~| 8
Decem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |41·7| ~5·5~|65·0|~18·3~|21·8|~-5·7~| 76 | 1·15| ~29·2~| 7
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----
Year |59·0|~15·0~|99·4|~27·3~|20·0|~-6·7~| 78 |43·68|~1109·1~| 131
=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+========+=====

The above table, which is drawn up from the observations of several years, shows, apart from the remarkably low temperatures, an amount of both diurnal and annual variation that is very remarkable in a place so close to the sea. Strictly speaking, indeed, it should not come in the category of hot climates at all, but in the absence of other accurate material it is valuable for the purpose of showing how soon tropical temperatures are left behind as we proceed northward along the Pacific coast of Asia.

_The Malay Archipelago._--Consists of a number of large islands situated on either side of the Equator, and generally too close to it to enjoy the benefits of a well-developed monsoon.

BATAVIA. LAT. 6° 11′ S.; LONG. 106° 53′ E.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+=============+=====
Month | Mean | Absolute | Absolute |Rela-| Mean |Num-
|Temperature| Maxima | Minima | tive| Monthly | ber
| | | | Hu- | Rainfall | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------+Rainy
| F. | C. | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |days
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----
January|77·6|~25·4~|91·5|~33·1~|68·4|~20·4~| 87·1|13·75| ~350~| 22·5
Februa-| | | | | | | | | |
ry |77·6|~25·4~|90·5|~32·5~|69·1|~20·7~| 87·5|12·56| ~319~| 20·7
March |78·5|~25·8~|90·6|~32·6~|70·3|~21·2~| 85·9| 7·53| ~191~| 17·4
April |79·4|~26·3~|90·5|~32·5~|70·3|~21·2~| 85 | 4·78| ~121~| 14·1
May |79·5|~26·4~|91·1|~32·9~|70·3|~21·2~| 83·0| 3·48| ~88~| 9·2
June |79·4|~26·3~|90·5|~32·5~|68·6|~20·4~| 83·1| 3·64| ~92~| 9·1
July |78·5|~25·8~|90·0|~32·2~|67·0|~19·4~| 80·8| 2·53| ~64~| 6·9
August |78·9|~26·0~|92·4|~33·4~|67·0|~19·4~| 77·7| 1·49| ~38~| 8·0
Septem-| | | | | | | | | |
ber |79·5|~26·4~|94·0|~34·4~|66·0|~18·9~| 77·5| 2·74| ~69~| 7·3
October|79·7|~26·8~|95·0|~35·0~|69·0|~20·6~| 79·0| 4·19| ~106~| 10·0
Novem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |79·1|~26·2~|96·0|~35·6~|68·2|~20·2~| 82·0| 5·08| ~127~| 13·7
Decem- | | | | | | | | | |
ber |78·2|~25·7~|92·5|~33·6~|70·0|~21·1~| 84·8| 9·03| ~229~| 19·0
-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----
Year |78·9|~26·0~|96·0|~35·6~|68·2|~20·2~| 82·8|70·71|~1,796~|154·9
=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======+=====

South of lat. 10°-12°, a north-west monsoon, developing in October or November, takes the place of the south-west monsoon appearing in May in northern latitudes, and when we are sufficiently far from the Equator to be clear of the zone of calms and variable winds, it is the development of this wind that determines the appearance of the rainy season.

This, however, does not so much affect the Malay Archipelago, as nearly the whole of it is within the zone of double annual rainy seasons, and the winds on which they depend to temper the tropical heat are mainly land and sea breezes of necessarily very variable direction.

The Dutch have long had a first-class observatory established at Batavia, the capital of Java, and their results being thus of the first value may be very well taken as a type of the weather conditions of the islands to the south of the Equator, while the table already furnished of Singapore will serve sufficiently to illustrate the northern portion of the Archipelago.

A mild, equable, damp climate, not so hot as would be met with at a corresponding distance north of the line, never cool, and equally free from excessive heat, but very enervating; and unfortunately the health records of these islands are by no means satisfactory.

From January to early April the winds are usually from the north-west, and from May to October north-east, the remaining two months of the year being characterised by winds of very variable direction.

The two following tables will give some idea of the temperature and rainfall of a few sites in this Archipelago, arranged progressively in their order north and south of the Equator.

As examples of places in this archipelago which chance to have a special interest for English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, I give below fuller data of the climates of Manila in America’s new acquisition of the Philippines, based on from 16 to 34 years of Spanish records; and of Port Moresley, in the newly established British colony in New Guinea, which naturally cannot as yet do more than furnish a single year’s experience:--

MANILA. LAT. 14° 36′ N.; LONG. 120° 58′ E. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+============+===========+=====+===============
Month | Mean | Absolute | Absolute |Rela-| Mean
| Monthly | Monthly | Monthly | tive| Monthly
|Temperature| Maxima | Minima | Hu- | Rainfall
+----+------+-----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+---------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+---------
January |77·0|~25·0~| 93·0|~33·9~|62·1|~16·7~| 77·7| 1·19| ~29·4~
February |77·7|~25·4~| 95·7|~35·4~|61·0|~16·1~| 74·1| 0·41| ~10·3~
March |80·4|~26·8~| 95·9|~35·5~|63·3|~17·4~| 71·7| 0·74| ~18·8~
April |82·9|~28·2~| 99·0|~37·2~|66·0|~18·9~| 70·9| 1·14| ~29·1~
May |83·3|~28·5~|100·0|~37·8~|71·1|~21·7~| 76·9| 4·20| ~106·7~
June |82·0|~27·8~| 97·0|~36·1~|70·9|~21·6~| 81·5| 9·62| ~244·1~
July |80·8|~27·1~| 94·8|~34·9~|70·0|~21·1~| 84·9|14·57| ~369·3~
August |80·8|~27·1~| 94·3|~34·5~|69·1|~20·6~| 84·4|13·87| ~351·8~
September|80·4|~26·8~| 93·7|~34·3~|70·5|~21·4~| 85·6|14·93| ~378·9~
October |80·4|~26·8~| 94·8|~34·8~|68·7|~20·4~| 82·6| 7·54| ~191·6~
November |79·0|~26·1~| 92·1|~33·4~|64·9|~18·2~| 81·6| 5·13| ~129·7~
December |77·4|~25·2~| 91·9|~33·2~|60·3|~15·7~| 80·7| 2·13| ~53·5~
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+---------
Year |77·0|~26·8~|100 |~37·8~|60·3|~15·7~| 97·4|75·46|~1,916·6~
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=========

TABLE OF TEMPERATURES IN MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

=============+==========+==========+===========+=====================+
Place | Island | Latitude |Mean Annual| Coldest Month |
| | |Temperature+---------+-----------+
| | | | Name |Temperature|
| | +----+------+ +-----+-----+
| | | F. | ~C.~ | | F. | ~C.~ |
-------------+----------+----------+----+------+---------+----+------+
Bayombong | Lugon |16° 29′ N.|76·1|~24·8~|December |70·8|~21·6~|
C. Boliano | „ |16° 23′ N.|77·5|~25·3~| „ |73·6|~23·2~|
Manila | „ |14° 35′ N.|79·5|~26·4~| January |76·1|~24·5~|
Malion | „ |18° 9′ N.|77·6|~25·4~| „ |74·2|~23·4~|
Iloilo | Sebu |10° 42′ N.|79·8|~26·6~| „ |77·1|~25·1~|
Carlotta | Negros |10° 25′ N.|77·5|~25·3~|December |75·5|~24·2~|
Bohol | Bohol | 9° 30′ N.|78·6|~25·9~|February |76·2|~24·5~|
Sandakan | Borneo | 5° 49′ N.|80·5|~26·9~|Dec.-Jan.|79·0|~26·1~|
Papar | „ | 6° 49′ N.|77·6|~25·4~| „ „ |76·1|~24·5~|
Padang | Sumatra | 0° 56′ S.|79·8|~26·6~|November |79·1|~26·2~|
Palembang | „ | 2° 50′ S.|80·6|~27·0~| January |79·8|~26·6~|
Baryermassing| „ | 3° 34′ S.|79·9|~27·1~|December |80·0|~26·7~|
Amboina | Seram | 3° 41′ S.|79·3|~26·3~| July |77·4|~25·2~|
Lahat | Sumatra | 3° 48′ S.|78·9|~26·0~| January |79·1|~26·2~|
North Coast |New Guinea| 4° 54′ S.|79·0|~26·1~| August |77·5|~25·3~|
Batavia | Java | 6° 11′ S.|78·6|~25·9~| January |77·5|~25·3~|
Buitenzorg | „ | 6° 37′ S.|77·0|~25·0~|February |78·0|~25·5~|
Banjoewangie | „ | 8° 17′ S.|79·9|~26·7~| July |78·9|~26·0~|
South coast |New Guinea| 9° 28′ S.|80·5|~26·9~| August |77·5|~25·3~|
=============+==========+==========+====+======+=========+====+======+

=============+====================+=========
Place | Hottest Month | Diffe-
|--------+-----------+ rence
| Name |Temperature|
| +----+------+---+-----
| | F. | ~C.~ | F.| ~C.~
-------------+--------+----+------+---+-----
Bayombong | May |80·0|~26·7~|9·2|~5·1~
C. Boliano | „ |81·3|~27·4~|7·5|~4·2~
Manila | „ |82·9|~28·2~|6·6|~3·7~
Malion | „ |81·6|~27·6~|7·5|~4·2~
Iloilo | „ |82·4|~28·0~|5·2|~2·9~
Carlotta | „ |80·6|~27·0~|5·1|~2·8~
Bohol | June |80·6|~27·0~|4·5|~2·5~
Sandakan |Apl.-May|81·9|~27·7~|2·9|~1·6~
Papar | June |79·3|~26·3~|3·2|~1·8~
Padang | May |81·0|~27·2~|1·8|~1·0~
Palembang | „ |81·4|~27·4~|1·4|~0·8~
Baryermassing| „ |81·9|~27·7~|1·8|~1·0~
Amboina |February|81·0|~27·2~|3·6|~2·0~
Lahat | April |81·2|~27·3~|2·3|~1·3~
North Coast | March |79·8|~26·6~|2·8|~1·3~
Batavia |May-Oct.|79·5|~26·4~|1·9|~1·1~
Buitenzorg | Sept. |77·7|~25·5~|1·8|~1·0~
Banjoewangie | April |81·2|~27·3~|2·3|~1·3~
South coast |December|82·6|~28·2~|5·2|~2·9~
=============+========+====+======+===+=====

The remarkable uniformity of these climates, albeit with a slightly more distinct tendency to variation as one recedes from the Equator, are well illustrated in these tables, as also is the dependence of season on purely local conditions in these latitudes.

TABLE SHOWING MONTHLY RAINFALL OF LOCALITIES IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

=========+==============+=============+==============+
Place | SINGKEL, | KOTA RAJA, | SARAWAK, |
| S. W. coast, | N. coast, | N. coast, |
| Sumatra | Sumatra | Borneo |
---------+--------------+-------------+--------------+
Latitude | 2° 11′ N. | 5° 32′ N. | 1° 28′ N. |
---------+--------------+-------------+--------------+
Longitude| 97° 45′ E. | 95° 20′ E. | 110° 8′ E. |
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+
Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ |
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+
January | 11·23| ~285~| 5·98| ~151~| 27·17| ~690~|
February | 10·68| ~271~| 3·13| ~79~| 23·67| ~601~|
March | 14·64| ~372~| 3·32| ~84~| 10·14| ~257~|
April | 15·97| ~406~| 4·58| ~116~| 10·04| ~255~|
May | 14·45| ~367~| 5·55| ~141~| 9·09| ~231~|
June | 13·18| ~335~| 3·28| ~82~| 8·73| ~222~|
July | 11·46| ~291~| 4·38| ~111~| 4·78| ~121~|
August | 15·28| ~388~| 4·84| ~123~| 8·86| ~225~|
September| 16·75| ~426~| 7·29| ~185~| 7·78| ~198~|
October | 20·16| ~512~| 7·48| ~190~| 9·92| ~252~|
November | 19·64| ~499~| 8·24| ~209~| 13·56| ~345~|
December | 16·37| ~416~| 9·17| ~233~| 25·12| ~663~|
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+
Year |179·62|~4,562~|67·08|~1,704~|159·45|~4,050~|
=========+======+=======+=====+=======+======+=======+

=========+==============+==============+=============+
Place | SANDAKAN, | MENADO, | TERNATA, |
| British | N. Peninsula,| Small Island|
| N. Borneo | Celebes | off Jilolo |
---------+--------------+--------------+-------------+
Latitude | 5° 49′ N. | 1° 30′ N. | 0° 47′ N. |
---------+--------------+--------------+-------------+
Longitude| 118° 12′ E. | 124° 50′ E. | 127° 23′ E. |
---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+
Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |
---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+
January | 21·43| ~544~| 18·78| ~478~| 7·83| ~199~|
February | 10·33| ~262~| 13·27| ~337~| 7·98| ~201~|
March | 7·53| ~192~| 10·67| ~271~| 6·30| ~160~|
April | 4·37| ~111~| 8·08| ~205~|10·33| ~262~|
May | 5·32| ~135~| 6·58| ~167~| 8·89| ~226~|
June | 8·32| ~211~| 7·08| ~179~| 8·89| ~226~|
July | 9·62| ~244~| 4·93| ~125~| 5·38| ~137~|
August | 6·98| ~176~| 4·78| ~121~| 4·73| ~120~|
September| 10·08| ~256~| 3·24| ~82~| 4·07| ~103~|
October | 10·07| ~255~| 4·93| ~125~| 6·58| ~167~|
November | 16·45| ~418~| 8·08| ~205~| 8·32| ~211~|
December | 19·14| ~486~| 16·45| ~418~| 9·28| ~236~|
---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+
Year |129·73|~3,296~|106·82|~2,713~|88·51|~2,248~|
=========+======+=======+======+=======+=====+=======+

=========+==============+=============+=============
Place | BENKULEN, | BANGAWANJI, | KUPANG,
| S. W. coast, | Java | N. coast of
| Sumatra | | Timor
---------+--------------+-------------+-------------
Latitude | 3° 47′ S. | 8° 13′ S. | 10° 10′ S.
---------+--------------+-------------+-------------
Longitude| 102° 15′ E. | 114° 23′ E. | 123° 34′ E.
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
January | 12·40| ~315~| 7·57| ~192~|16·15| ~423~
February | 9·83| ~249~| 7·57| ~192~|15·03| ~404~
March | 11·34| ~288~| 5·38| ~138~| 7·60| ~193~
April | 10·35| ~263~| 4·08| ~104~| 2·38| ~60~
May | 10·33| ~262~| 4·97| ~126~| 1·85| ~47~
June | 9·15| ~233~| 4·62| ~117~| 0·38| ~10~
July | 7·13| ~181~| 3·03| ~77~| 0·17| ~4~
August | 9·48| ~241~| 2·48| ~63~| 0·13| ~3~
September| 9·82| ~249~| 2·67| ~68~| 0·04| ~1~
October | 14·22| ~361~| 2·60| ~66~| 0·47| ~12~
November | 13·53| ~344~| 2·77| ~70~| 3·34| ~85~
December | 13·60| ~349~| 7·97| ~202~|10·44| ~265~
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
Year |131·30|~3,335~|55·12|~1,415~|59·34|~1,507~
=========+======+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======

The gradual development of a dry season as one proceeds southward from the Equator, as well as the gradual diminution of the rainfall that accompanies it, is very instructive.

PORT MORESLEY, BRITISH NEW GUINEA. S.E. COAST.

=========+=========+=========+===========+=============+===========
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean | Monthly | Direction
| Monthly | Maximum | Minimum | Rainfall | of
| Tempera-| Tempera-| Tempera- | | Wind
| ture | ture | ture | |
+--+------+--+------+----+------+-----+-------+
|F.| ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |
---------+--+------+--+------+----+------+-----+-------+-----------
January |89|~31·7~|91|~32·8~|75 |~23·9~|11·68|~296·7~| N.W.
February |86|~30·0~|90|~32·2~|72 |~22·2~|11·88|~301·2~| N.W.
March |86|~30·0~|90|~32·2~|74 |~23·3~|10·15|~257·8~| N.W.
April |86|~30·0~|88|~31·1~|74 |~23·3~| 2·40| ~61·0~|N.W. & S.E.
May |86|~30·0~|87|~30·6~|72 |~22·2~| 2·96| ~73·0~| S.E.
June |83|~28·3~|87|~30·6~|71 |~21·7~| Wanting | S.E.
July |82|~27·8~|83|~28·3~|68·5|~20·3~| 5·94|~151·0~| S.E.
August |84|~28·9~|82|~27·8~|68 |~20·0~| 1·45| ~36·8~| S.E.
September|85|~29·4~|86|~30·0~|71 |~21·7~| 0·12| ~2·7~| S.E.
October |84|~28·9~|87|~30·6~|71 |~21·7~| 0·16| ~4·0~| S.E.
November |88|~31·1~|88|~31·1~|71 |~21·7~| 0·60| ~15·2~| S.E.
December |88|~31·1~|91|~32·8~|73 |~22·8~| 6·88|~174·8~| N.W.
=========+==+======+==+======+====+======+=====+=======+===========

The rainfall, therefore, appears to be from 56-60 ins., and the reporter remarks:--

“On the sea coast, the experience so far gained seems to prove that the climate of the western portion (of the island) is rainy. Port Moresley is apparently near the centre of a dry belt that extends 100-150 miles along the coast. Eastward of this the climate becomes more rainy as far as the East Cape. The north-east coast, as far as Cape Nelson, is drier, and beyond this again, more rainy--Mamlaro is a wet district. As far as known, the mountain region is more rainy. Thunder storms are more frequent and mist and drizzle also prevail on the high lands.”

Exploration in New Guinea is, however, a pursuit which requires the traveller to brave to an exceptional extent the dangers of poisonous snakes and other venomous vermin.

Capt. I. A. Lawson (“Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea,” Chapman and Hall, London, 1875) describes an apparently undoubted case of death from scorpion sting in an adult, and states that large numbers of Papuans are killed by them. He saw several scorpions ten inches long. The patient became comatose. After about three hours, thin watery, almost colourless, blood began to flow from his ears, eyes and nose, which exhaled a horrible stench, and the man died. He measured one scorpion thirteen inches long, and a second exceeded ten inches.

_Australia._--The greater part, fortunately, of the island continent is typically “a white man’s country,” the temperature of latitudes south of the line being so much lower than those of the northern hemisphere that only the extreme northern part of the country comes within our limits.

One would expect, for example, Brisbane, lying in 27° 28′ S., to be very hot, but an inspection of the table below shows that it is only in the north of Queensland that one may expect to meet anything approaching a tropical climate.

Unfortunately the Queensland official statistics do not appear to have been collated, but the year chosen seems to be a fairly representative one. This deficiency is the more surprising as, in a country so often affected with destructive droughts, one would have expected that every effort would have been made to elucidate, by carefully drawn-up normal tables, the usual sequence of good and bad seasons.

BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND.

=========+===========+===========+===========+=====+===========+=====
Month | Mean | Mean | Mean |Rela-| Rainfall | Num-
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | tive| | ber
| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of
+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+----+------+Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty |Ins.| ~Mm.~| Days
---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+----+------+-----
January |72·2|~22·3~|80·9|~27·1~|63·4|~17·4~| 66 |1·40|~35·6~| 10
February |76·7|~24·8~|86·2|~30·1~|67·2|~19·5~| 64 |0·75|~19·1~| 4
March |79·7|~26·5~|88·9|~31·6~|70·4|~21·3~| 62 |1·38|~35·0~| 10
April |78·4|~25·7~|87·0|~30·6~|69·8|~21·0~| 66 |2·67|~67·4~| 7
May |74·3|~23·5~|84·2|~29·0~|64·4|~18·0~| 61 |0·63|~16·0~| 2
June |69·7|~20·9~|80·5|~26·9~|58·9|~14·9~| 64 |0·17| ~4·3~| 7
July |64·7|~18·2~|75·9|~24·3~|53·5|~11·9~| 68 |0·47|~11·9~| 3
August |63·0|~17·2~|75·1|~24·0~|50·8|~10·4~| 69 |0·06| ~1·5~| 2
September|60·4|~15·7~|71·1|~21·8~|49·7| ~9·8~| 70 |0·55|~14·0~| 9
October |60·4|~15·7~|71·5|~21·9~|49·3| ~9·6~| 67 |0·98|~24·9~| 10
November |67·0|~19·4~|76·9|~24·9~|57·1|~14·0~| 71 |1·30|~33·0~| 7
December |68·9|~20·5~|78·6|~25·9~|59·2|~15·1~| 64 |3·25|~82·5~| 9
=========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+====+======+=====

Unfortunately, the greater part of the interior of the country is an almost waterless desert, the development of which, unless subterranean sources of water can be tapped, seems almost hopeless, and almost the whole west coast shares in this terrible disability, and would probably have remained as deserted as the interior but for the recent discoveries of its richness in gold. Even in the extreme north, at Port Darwin, the climate is by no means unendurable for a place within 12¹⁄₂ degrees of the line, and the mean rainfall, 63·21 ins., is very moderate for a place so situated.

PORT DARWIN, NORTHERN TERRITORY.

=========+===========+===========+===========+=============+======
| Mean | Absolute | Absolute | Rainfall |Number
|Temperature| Maximum | Minimum | | of
Month +----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-------+ Rainy
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |Days
---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-------+------
January |84·4|~29·1~|93·6|~34·3~|73·0|~22·8~|15·85|~402·6~| 23
February |83·5|~28·6~|93·9|~34·3~|73·4|~23·0~|13·77|~374·8~| 14
March |84·6|~29·3~|91·4|~33·0~|71·0|~21·7~|10·10|~258·5~| 26
April |84·4|~29·1~|97·8|~36·5~|69·2|~20·7~| 4·36|~110·6~| 6
May |81·5|~27·5~|95·2|~35·1~|66·6|~19·2~| 1·04| ~26·6~| --
June |78·7|~25·9~|92·4|~33·5~|59·9|~15·5~| 0·08| ~1·7~| 3
July |76·8|~24·9~|88·1|~31·2~|58·6|~14·8~| 0·01| ~0·3~| --
August |79·3|~26·3~|92·0|~33·3~|63·7|~17·6~| 0·12| ~3·0~| --
September|82·8|~28·2~|94·1|~34·5~|67·9|~19·9~| 0·43| ~10·9~| 1
October |85·7|~29·8~|96·7|~35·9~|72·4|~22·4~| 2·19| ~54·5~| 8
November |86·0|~30·0~|97·0|~36·1~|72·4|~22·4~| 5·21|~132·2~| 4
December |85·5|~29·7~|95·4|~35·2~|73·7|~23·2~|10·27|~260·4~| 16
=========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=======+======

The climate of the tropical portion of Western Australia will be sufficiently indicated by the following table for Wyndham, in lat. 15° 27′ S.

=========+============+============+=============
Month |Mean Monthly|Mean Monthly|Mean Rainfall
| Maxima | Minima | Monthly
+-----+------+-----+------+----+--------
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+-----+------+-----+------+----+--------
January | 98·0|~36·7~| 78·8|~26·0~|5·32|~134·7~
February | 98·7|~37·0~| 78·7|~25·9~|4·24|~106·8~
March | 98·2|~36·8~| 79·4|~26·3~|4·02|~102·8~
April | 98·1|~36·7~| 76·8|~24·9~| Nil
May | 93·1|~34·0~| 71·2|~21·8~| Nil
June | 89·1|~31·8~| 67·7|~19·8~|0·15| ~3·8~
July | 88·7|~31·5~| 62·8|~17·0~| Nil
August | 91·8|~33·2~| 66·8|~19·3~| Nil
September| 97·0|~36·1~| 74·0|~23·3~|0·04| ~1·2~
October |100·3|~37·9~| 78·9|~26·0~| Nil
November |101·3|~38·5~| 80·3|~26·8~|4·32|~109·4~
December |100·1|~37·8~| 80·4|~26·9~|2·47| ~62·3~
=========+=====+======+=====+======+====+========

The total annual rainfall here only amounts to 20·54 ins. (521·8 mm.); and Freemantle, in lat. 32° S., on the coast, only receives 28·15 ins. (715 mm.); and Coolgardie, far in the interior, but 7·18 ins. (181·7 mm.); but the temperature records of neither of the two last-mentioned places quite entitles them to be considered in the light of hot countries.

From 20° to 25° south latitude the coast is even drier; Cossach, in latitude 20° 40′ S., receiving but 9·3 ins. (247 mm.), and Carnarvon, in latitude 24° 52′ S., but 7·83 ins. (199 mm.). In these localities the perceptible rainfall occurs in June and July. In the summer (January, February) some of these places are no doubt very hot, but the nights are nearly always fairly cool. In many of these places water is so scarce that a bath is a luxury scarcely attainable by any but the very rich, the precious fluid having to be eked out at what seems to us a fabulous price per gallon, or even pint. This difficulty is, however, being met in some places by enormous engineering works, and colonists may be met with who have a good deal to say in favour of these apparently inhospitable shores.

_Pacific Islands._--The pages of Stevenson and Ralf Bolderwood have so familiarised us with the delights of these favoured spots--where it is always summer, but rarely oppressively hot--that it is probable that the general public have a better idea of their climates than is the case with almost any other tropical region. Owing to their comparatively small economic importance, it is, however, impossible to do more than supply a pair of tables illustrative of the climate of a few of the better-known spots.

TABLE OF TEMPERATURE OF PACIFIC ISLANDS.

==========+==========+======================+
Island or| Latitude | Warmest Month |
Place | +----------+-----------+
| | Name | Mean |
| | |Temperature|
| | +-----+-----+
| | | F. | ~C.~ |
----------+----------+----------+----+------+
Kauai |22° 15′ N.| August |76·4|~24·6~|
Honolulu |21° 18′ N.| August |77·5|~25·3~|
Hilo |19° 40′ N.|Aug.-Sept.|74·4|~23·5~|
Jaluit | 5° 55′ N.|Jan.-Feb. |81·0|~27·2~|
Apia |13° 49′ S.|Feb.-Mar. |78·6|~25·9~|
Papiti |17° 32′ S.| March |78·5|~25·8~|
Vanua Levu|16° 38′ S.| December |80·5|~26·9~|
Levuka |17° 4′ S.| December |79·5|~26·4~|
Tana |19° 28′ S.| March |79·7|~26·6~|
Tongatabu |21° 8′ S.| February |79·0|~26·1~|
Noumea |22° 16′ S.| February |80·0|~26·7~|
Oparu |27° 36′ S.| March |72·5|~22·3~|
==========+==========+==========+====+======+

==========+=====================+==========
Island or| Coldest Month |Difference
Place +---------+-----------+
| Name | Mean |
| |Temperature|
| +----+------+----+-----
| | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~
----------+---------+----+------+----+-----
Kauai | January |66·5|~19·2~| 9·9|~5·5~
Honolulu | January |69·5|~20·8~| 7·5|~4·4~
Hilo | January |71·5|~21·9~| 2·9|~1·6~
Jaluit | June |80·5|~26·9~| 0·7|~0·4~
Apia | July |75·5|~24·2~| 3·2|~1·8~
Papiti | July |73·5|~23·1~| 4·8|~2·7~
Vanua Levu|July-Aug.|76·0|~24·4~| 4·3|~2·4~
Levuka | July |74·5|~23·6~| 5·2|~2·9~
Tana | July |69·0|~20·6~|10·8|~6·0~
Tongatabu | August |68·5|~20·3~|10·4|~5·8~
Noumea | August |68·0|~20·0~|11·4|~6·7~
Oparu |September|65·3|~18·5~| 7·2|~4·0~
==========+=========+====+======+====+=====

The places have also been selected so as to illustrate the changes in season we met with in passing from North to South, and indicate much the same sequence that has already been noticed in the case of the Malay Archipelago, but the temperatures are several degrees lower in the case of each corresponding latitude, so that, while the Malay Islands are stormy and trying, the Polynesian groups are amongst the most pleasant of the warm climates of the world. Except in the Marshall groups, and in some of the Fijis, the rainfall is moderate for localities situated so near the equator.

TABLE OF RAINFALL OF PACIFIC ISLANDS.

=========+=============+==============+==============+
Month | Honolulu, | Marshall | Apia, |
| Hawaii | Group | Samoa |
| | | |
+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ |
---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
January | 4·03| ~102~| 11·46| ~291~| 16·42| ~417~|
February | 4·58| ~116~| 11·90| ~300~| 20·23| ~514~|
March | 3·77| ~96~| 17·92| ~455~| 12·68| ~321~|
April | 3·14| ~79~| 14·15| ~359~| 8·66| ~220~|
May | 3·15| ~80~| 20·20| ~513~| 6·97| ~177~|
June | 1·82| ~46~| 15·58| ~396~| 5·39| ~137~|
July | 2·53| ~64~| 15·44| ~392~| 3·32| ~84~|
August | 2·28| ~58~| 13·58| ~345~| 6·18| ~157~|
September| 1·85| ~47~| 13·45| ~342~| 8·54| ~217~|
October | 2·28| ~58~| 15·47| ~293~| 6·97| ~177~|
November | 5·16| ~131~| 11·30| ~387~| 12·20| ~310~|
December | 4·93| ~125~| 17·48| ~444~| 17·63| ~447~|
---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
Year |39·45|~1,002~|177·87|~4,517~|125·15|~3,178~|
=========+=====+=======+======+=======+======+=======+

=========+==============+=============+=============
Month | Fiji, | New | New
| Qara Valu | Hebrides, | Caledonia,
| | Tongatabu | Noumea
+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
| Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
January | 22·48| ~571~| 9·18| ~233~| 3·98| ~101~
February | 17·48| ~450~| 6·83| ~173~| 4·38| ~110~
March | 36·97| ~932~| 6·37| ~162~| 4·58| ~116~
April | 31·26| ~794~|10·35| ~263~| 5·20| ~132~
May | 10·95| ~276~| 8·19| ~208~| 5·18| ~130~
June | 24·10| ~612~| 8·12| ~206~| 4·18| ~106~
July | 12·76| ~324~| 1·66| ~42~| 3·32| ~84~
August | 32·95| ~835~| 3·68| ~93~| 2·38| ~60~
September| 14·65| ~372~| 7·08| ~180~| 2·83| ~72~
October | 19·28| ~490~| 7·18| ~182~| 2·56| ~65~
November | 7·14| ~181~| 3·58| ~91~| 3·03| ~77~
December | 17·48| ~444~| 4·45| ~113~| 3·23| ~82~
---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------
Year |247·85|~6,281~|76·62|~1,946~|44·68|~1,135~
=========+======+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======

Qara Valu has been selected as having the heaviest rainfall recorded in this part of the world, and it must not be imagined that such a chronic downpour is in any way typical of the Fiji Islands, most of which have a comparatively moderate rainfall; Bua with 98·35 ins. (2,497 mm.), and Lesuha with 97·15 ins. (2,465 mm.), being fairer examples; but there is the same tendency to a comparatively even distribution throughout the year.

These islands are, it is almost needless to remark, occasionally visited by terrible tornadoes, but are normally continuously under the influence of the trade winds, which here do not suffer from interruption, during the summer solstice, from disturbance due to the area of low pressure that originates from the superheating of land and water over Australia and the islands and confined seas that intervene between it and the Asiatic continent.

_THE AMERICAN CONTINENT._--Like the islands of the Pacific, climatic data in America are characterised by lower levels than are met with in the great land masses of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As a result of this we find that, although we know that New York can produce a most discreditable array of cases of sunstroke in the height of summer, it is only the extreme southern portion of the United States that really merits the title to belong to the category of hot climates. There are doubtless to be met with fiercely hot places in Mexico, and malarious foci in the isthmus of Darien, which may rival anything to be met with in the old world, but speaking generally, climates are generally milder than those of corresponding places on this side of the “herring pond.”

Commencing with the Southern United States, all that need be described in the present work is the belt extending from California in the west to Florida in the east.

The climate of California is undoubtedly one of the finest in the world. Like the rest of the western seaboard of America, the rainfall is small, but there is always sufficient water for cultivation by the agency of irrigation; and the clearness of the atmosphere and genial temperature renders this State the ideal of the physician in search for health resorts. Apart, indeed, from the excitements of “euchre” and the germs introduced by the Chinese settler, it seems difficult to understand why anyone should suffer illness in such a climate as that of Los Angeles, whose principal characteristics are epitomised in the above table. Let us hope, however, that “Ah Sin” has not driven the angels too far away for recall by the rapidly advancing sanitation of American civilisation.

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA.

=========+=========+==========+=========+=====+===========+======
Month | Monthly | Absolute | Absolute|Rela-| Monthly |Number
| Means | Maxima | Minima |tive | Rainfall | of
| | | | Hu- | | Rainy
+--+------+---+------+--+------+midi-+----+------+ Days
|F.| ~C.~ | F.| ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ | ty %|Ins.| ~Mm.~|
---------+--+------+---+------+--+------+-----+----+------+------
January |54|~12·2~| 87|~30·6~|30|~-1·1~| 66 |2·80|~71·1~| 6
February |55|~12·8~| 88|~31·1~|28|~-2·2~| 69 |2·82|~71·3~| 6
March |57|~13·9~| 99|~37·2~|31|~-0·6~| 73 |2·72|~68·7~| 7
April |60|~15·6~| 99|~37·2~|38| ~3·3~| 73 |1·10|~27·9~| 4
May |63|~17·2~|103|~39·4~|41| ~5·0~| 74 |0·51|~12·7~| 3
June |67|~19·4~|100|~37·8~|46| ~7·8~| 73 |0·10| ~2·5~| 1
July |71|~21·7~|109|~42·8~|50|~10·0~| 74 |0·02| ~0·0~| 0
August |72|~22·2~|106|~41·1~|51|~10·6~| 74 |0·04| ~0·1~| 0
September|70|~21·1~|108|~42·2~|44| ~6·7~| 72 |0·04| ~0·1~| 0
October |64|~17·8~| 96|~35·6~|40| ~4·4~| 71 |0·81|~20·4~| 3
November |60|~15·6~| 96|~35·6~|34| ~1·1~| 64 |1·47|~36·9~| 3
December |56|~13·3~| 88|~31·1~|30|~-1·1~| 65 |3·28|~82·7~| 6
=========+==+======+===+======+==+======+=====+====+======+======

With a total rainfall of only 15·43 ins. (392 mm.), and a remarkably high percentage of hours of sunshine, even during the rainy months, one begins to understand how it is that a Californian fellow-member of the Golf Club of Rome used to complain of the “gloom” of a Roman winter. The one drawback is the enormous daily range of over 50° F., which must be necessarily trying to delicate subjects who neglect obvious precautions; but avoidance of the fierce heat out of doors of the afternoon, and the chill that follows sunset, should suffice to neutralise this defect. Across the sierras, in Texas the rainfall remains very scanty, amounting to no more than 9·8 ins. (250 mm.) in the district of El Paso, but improves steadily as we approach the eastern frontier, where it reaches 52 ins. (1,320 mm.) at Galveston, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This place is regarded as a health resort for the Southern States; Dr. Solly, the American authority on medical climatology, writes:--

“The climate of Galveston, in the Gulf of Mexico, is warm, mild and humid. Occasionally, there are winters when the temperature does not fall below 32°. During the past twenty years there have been thirteen years in which the temperature has not fallen below 24°, and but two years below 20°. The seasonal mean temperatures are: Winter, 55°; Spring, 69°; Summer, 83°; Autumn, 71°. The annual mean is 70°. Monthly mean for January, 53°; for July, 84°. The extreme temperature record is 98°, and the minimum 20°. The mean rainfall is 51 inches, distributed as follows: Winter, 11·5 inches; Spring, 10·2 inches; Summer, 13·3 inches; Autumn, 16·6 inches. The heaviest rain takes place in September, and the least in February and July. The mean annual relative humidity is 77 per cent.; for Winter, 81 per cent. Wind movement averages 11·1 miles, the prevailing winds being from S. and S.E. The highest winds occur in winter and blow from the N., but the average ‘northers’ of upper Texas are but little felt in the Gulf of Mexico.”

Proceeding westward along the Mexican Gulf we find the climate grows steadily moister, New Orleans, which is placed very nearly in the middle of its northern coast, presenting the following climatic factors.

NEW ORLEANS. LAT. 29° 58′ N. LONG. 90° 11′ W.

=========+===========+=========+=========+=====+=============+======
Month | Monthly | Monthly| Monthly|Rela-| Mean |Number
| Mean | Absolute| Absolute| tive| Monthly | of
|Temperature| Maxima | Minima | Hu-| Rainfall | Rainy
+-----+-----+---+-----+---+-----+midi-+-----+-------+ Days
| F. | ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |
---------+----+------+--+------+--+------+-----+-----+-------+------
January |58·8|~14·8~|82|~27·8~|15|~-9·4~| 79 | 5·17|~130·9~| 11
February |58·1|~14·4~|82|~27·8~|25|~-3·9~| 81 | 4·56|~115·7~| 10
March |62·0|~16·7~|84|~28·9~|30|~-1·1~| 76 | 5·35|~135·9~| 9
April |69·0|~20·6~|88|~31·1~|38| ~3·3~| 76 | 5·28|~133·5~| 8
May |74·6|~23·7~|92|~33·3~|53|~11·7~| 74 | 4·76|~120·7~| 9
June |80·3|~26·8~|97|~36·1~|58|~14·4~| 78 | 6·49|~165·0~| 14
July |82·2|~27·9~|99|~37·2~|67|~19·4~| 78 | 6·50|~165·1~| 16
August |81·5|~27·5~|96|~35·6~|63|~17·2~| 79 | 6·02|~153·6~| 14
September|78·3|~25·7~|95|~35·0~|56|~13·3~| 77 | 4·70|~119·4~| 11
October |69·8|~21·0~|90|~32·2~|40| ~4·4~| 74 | 3·25| ~82·5~| 7
November |60·7|~15·9~|85|~29·4~|30|~-1·1~| 79 | 4·30|~109·2~| 9
December |55·5|~13·1~|81|~27·2~|20|~-6·7~| 80 | 4·38|~111·7~| 4
---------+----+------+--+------+--+------+-----+-----+-------+------
Year |68·8|~20·4~|99|~37·2~|15|~-9·4~| 78 |60·52|~153·7~| 128
=========+====+======+==+======+==+======+=====+=====+=======+======

The amenity of the climate of Florida is proverbial, as the maxima rarely run so high, and the annual and daily range is much smaller than is the case further west, owing to the effect of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps out past its projecting shore. On this account there is an almost entire absence of frost, and the State has become celebrated for its cultivation of oranges, a fruit which is at once nipped by any approach to freezing point. Dr. Solly describes it as follows:--

“The climate is marine in character, and is very equable and temperate for its latitude. The mean annual temperature runs from 69° at Sanford to 79·8° at Jacksonville; for the winter, the variation is from 54·6° at Pensacola to 66·5°, at Jupiter. Frost, snow and ice are very rare. Annual rainfall varies from 53·19 inches at Pensacola to 57·16 at Cedar Keys; of this, one half usually occurs in the summer. The mean relative humidity varies from 76 per cent. at Pensacola to 80 at Cedar Keys. In the winter months it is from 76 to 87 per cent. The total number of rainy days ranged from 103·8 at Cedar Keys to 124·1 at Pensacola, and the number of cloudy days in the same places was 66.8 and 84·5. Dr. Hall, while admitting the prevalence of malaria, states that there are many places quite free from it, and that it is generally diminishing.”

_Mexico._--Extending, as it does, completely across the southern portion of the North American Continent, the climate of Mexico presents the same sequence from the drought of the eastern to the moderately ample rainfall of the western coasts; and here too, there are places in the central highlands that are much drier than any to be found on either coast. These points are illustrated in the table on following page.

The corresponding data as to temperature are given below.

TABLE OF TEMPERATURES OF MEXICAN STATIONS.

=========+===========+====================+==================
Place |Mean Annual| Coldest Month | Warmest Month
|Temperature+--------+-----------+------+-----------
| | Name | Mean | Name | Mean
| | |Temperature| |Temperature
+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------
| F. | ~C.~ | | F. | ~C.~ | | F. | ~C.~
---------+----+------+--------+----+------+------+----+------
Mazatlan |74·5|~23·6~|January |66·1|~19~ | July |81·6|~27·6~
Culiacan |76·5|~24·8~|January |65·0|~18·3~| July |84·5|~29·2~
Leon |65·5|~18·5~|December|56·4|~13·5~| May |73·6|~23·2~
Mexico |59·5|~15·4~|December|53·6|~12·0~| May |64·5|~18·1~
Puebla |60·0|~15·6~|January |53·1|~11·8~| May |64·5|~18·2~
Matamoros|73·5|~23·2~|January |62·6|~17·0~| July |84·2|~29·0~
Montery |70·4|~21·3~|January |54·6|~12·6~| June |82·0|~27·8~
Vera Cruz|76·6|~24·8~|December|70·5|~21·4~|August|81·3|~27·4~
Cordoba |69·0|~20·6~|January |64·4|~18·0~| May |73·5|~23·1~
=========+====+======+========+====+======+======+====+======

_Central America and the Isthmus of Panama._--This portion of the American continent is notoriously unhealthy, especially along the only routes practicable for an inter-oceanic canal.

It is said that the construction of the railway across Panama cost a human life for every sleeper that was laid.

Much of this is due to malaria, but yellow fever also frequently attacked the workers, and it is to be hoped that as both these diseases are known to be capable of transmission only by the agency of mosquitoes, that a rational prophylaxis against the bites of these insects will form part of the sanitary programme of the huge work that is now being proceeded with. In any case, when the new canal comes to be finished it will behove passengers by the mail boats to provide themselves with mosquito nets for this portion of the voyage.

RAINFALL TABLE OF MEXICAN STATIONS.

=============+===========+===================================+
Place | PACIFIC | CENTRAL |
| COAST | PLATEAU |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Mazatlan | Chihuahua | Leon | Mexico |
-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
Latitude, N. | 23° 11′ | 28° 38′ | 21° 7′ | 19° 26′ |
-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
Longitude, W.| 106° 24′ | 106° 30′ | 101° 40′ | 99° 8′ |
-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
Elevation | 30 ft. | 4,650 ft. | 5,850 ft. | 7,400 ft .|
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
Scale | Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~|
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
January | 1·34| ~34~| 1·49| ~38~| 0·36| ~9~| 0·16| ~4~|
February | 0·24| ~6~| 0·28| ~7~| 0·34| ~8~| 0·24| ~6~|
March | 0·24| ~6~| 0·0 | ~0~| 0·36| ~9~| 0·59| ~15~|
April | 0·04| ~1~| 0·24| ~6~| 0·28| ~7~| 0·59| ~15~|
May | 0·28| ~7~| 1·38| ~35~| 1·14| ~29~| 2·02| ~51~|
June | 1·85| ~47~| 8·51|~216~| 4·88|~124~| 4·09|~104~|
July | 6·54|~166~| 6·04|~153~| 5·68|~144~| 4·09|~104~|
August |10·35|~257~| 5·24|~133~| 5·91|~150~| 4·83|~123~|
September | 8·63|~219~| 1·08| ~27~| 5·07|~129~| 3·97|~101~|
October | 3·15| ~80~| 1·14| ~29~| 1·69| ~43~| 1·68| ~43~|
November | 0·48| ~12~| 0·0 | ~0~| 0·39| ~10~| 0·43| ~11~|
December | 0·91| ~23~| 0·08| ~2~| 0·36| ~9~| 0·16| ~4~|
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
Year |33·92|~863~|25·44|~646~|26·39|~671~|22·97|~581~|
=============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

=============+=====================================
Place | ATLANTIC
| COAST
+-----------+-----------+-------------
| Oxaca | Matamoros | Vera Cruz
-------------+-----------+-----------+-------------
Latitude, N. | 16° 57′ | 25° 49′ | 19° 12′
-------------+-----------+-----------+-------------
Longitude, W.| 94° 42′ | 97° 38′ | 96° 8′
-------------+-----------+-----------+-------------
Elevation | 5,150 ft. | 63 ft. | 48 ft.
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
Scale | Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.| ~Mm.~
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
January | 0·13| ~3~| 1·58| ~40~| 0·39| ~10~
February | 0·55| ~14~| 2·34| ~59~| 0·55| ~14~
March | 0·59| ~15~| 2·44| ~62~| 0·60| ~18~
April | 1·77| ~45~| 2·24| ~57~| 0·13| ~3~
May | 3·94|~100~| 2·22| ~56~| 4·26| ~108~
June | 8·64|~219~| 3·63| ~92~|12·48| ~317~
July | 4·09|~104~| 2·37| ~60~|14·81| ~376~
August | 4·26|~108~| 1·66| ~42~| 8·74| ~222~
September | 5·94|~151~| 7·04|~179~|11·62| ~295~
October | 2·92| ~74~| 4·45|~113~| 9·03| ~229~
November | 0·39| ~10~| 4·47|~114~| 3·24| ~82~
December | 0·03| ~1~| 2·24| ~57~| 2·03| ~51~
-------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
Year |33·21|~844~|36·66|~931~|67·92|~1,728~
=============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=======

The north-east Trades dominate the Atlantic coast of these regions throughout the year, but on the Pacific side, during the summer months, a southerly breeze takes its place.

The rainfall is very heavy, but even here, in spite of the narrowness of the dividing belt of land, the comparative dryness of the Southern or Pacific coast is quite obvious, as may be seen from a glance at the table on the following page.

The rainfall, it will be noted, varies greatly owing to small local differences of environment, and includes at least one place far up on the world’s list of the wettest spots.

The stifling heat and damp of Greytown used to be well known to naval officers of the last generation, and it is probably a fortunate circumstance for their successors that the harbour has now so silted up as to be useless, for at one time it was frequently visited by our men-of-war.

The corresponding temperature records, given below, do not run very high, but the places on the Atlantic shore are extremely enervating on account of the extreme dampness of the air.

TABLE OF TEMPERATURES IN LOCALITIES IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

=============+===========+===========+====================+
Place | Absolute | Absolute | Coldest Month |
| Mean | Mean +--------+-----------+
| Annual | Annual | Name | Mean |
| Maxima | Minima | |Temperature|
+----+------+----+------+ +-----+-----+
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | | F. | ~C.~ |
-------------+----+------+----+------+--------+----+------+
San Salvador |93·4|~34·1~|56 |~13·3~|December|70·2|~21·2~|
Taboga Island|96·5|~35·8~|66·4|~19·1~|February|77·2|~25·1~|
San José |88·5|~31·4~|50·2|~10·1~|December|65·6|~18·7~|
Coban |88·3|~31·3~|40·2| ~4·5~|December|62·3|~16·8~|
Guatemala |87·5|~30·8~|45·6| ~7·6~|January |62·0|~16·7~|
Quezaltenango|76·4|~24·6~|26·7|~-3·0~|January |50·2|~10·1~|
Belize |91·2|~32·9~|59·6|~15·4~|December|74·5|~23·6~|
Colon |94·3|~34·5~|66·0|~18·9~|November|78·5|~25·8~|
Gamboa |96·6|~35·9~|57·2|~14·0~|February|76·8|~24·9~|
=============+====+======+====+======+========+===========+

=============+==================
Place | Warmest Month
|------+-----------
| Name | Mean
| |Temperature
+ +----+------
| | F. | ~C.~
-------------+------+----+------
San Salvador | April|75·2|~24~
Taboga Island| June |80·2|~26·8~
San José | May |68·7|~20·4~
Coban | May |68·8|~20·5~
Guatemala | May |68·5|~20·3~
Quezaltenango| May |62·0|~16·7~
Belize |August|82·5|~28·1~
Colon | June |79·8|~26·6~
Gamboa | June |80·4|~26·8~
=============+==================

RAINFALL TABLE FOR CENTRAL AMERICA.

=============+=============+=============+=============+
Place | SAN SALVADOR|TABOGA ISLAND| RIVAS |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Situation |Pacific Coast| Pacific, | Costa Rica, |
| of Salvador | off Panama | near |
| | |Pacific Coast|
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Latitude, N. | 13° 39′ | 8° 52′ | 11° 30′ |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Longitude, W.| 89° 13′ | 79° 31′ | 85° 47′ |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Elevation | 2,970 | near sea- | 1,500 |
(feet) | | level | |
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
Scale | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~|
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
January | 0·07| ~2~| 0·48| ~12~| 0·38| ~10~|
February | 0·07| ~2~| 0·03| ~1~| 0·01| ~2~|
March | 0·59| ~15~| 0·16| ~4~| 0·19| ~5~|
April | 1·54| ~39~| 0·87| ~22~| 0·33| ~8~|
May | 7·83| ~199~| 5·27| ~134~| 7·53| ~191~|
June |10·01| ~255~| 5·17| ~131~|11·11| ~282~|
July |13·22| ~336~| 4·43| ~112~| 7·47| ~190~|
August |11·58| ~293~| 5·67| ~144~| 8·13| ~206~|
September |11·34| ~288~| 7·22| ~183~| 9·42| ~239~|
October | 6·66| ~169~| 6·83| ~173~|16·88| ~429~|
November | 2·60| ~66~| 5·54| ~140~| 3·88| ~99~|
December | 0·48| ~12~| 4·73| ~120~| 1·48| ~38~|
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
Year |65·97|~1,676~|46·37|~1,178~|66·88|~1,699~|
=============+=====+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======+

=============+=============+=============+=============+
Place | SAN JOSÉ | GUATEMALA | COBAN |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Situation | Costa Rica, | Guatemala, | Guatemala, |
| near | Inland | Inland |
|Pacific Coast| | |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Latitude, N. | 90° 56′ | 14° 38′ | 15° 30′ |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Longitude, W.| 84° 8′ | 90° 31′ | 90° 25′ |
-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
Elevation | 3,600 | 4,810 | 2,500 |
(feet) | | | |
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
Scale | Ins.| ~Mm.~| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
January | 0·38| ~10~| 0·42| ~11~| 5·36| ~136~|
February | 0·13| ~3~| 0·13| ~3~| 4·58| ~116~|
March | 0·83| ~22~| 0·88| ~20~| 3·67| ~93~|
April | 1·17| ~30~| 2·38| ~60~| 2·44| ~62~|
May | 7·98| ~203~| 4·97| ~126~| 7·22| ~183~|
June |10·16| ~258~|10·36| ~263~|12·47| ~317~|
July | 7·98| ~203~| 9·18| ~232~|12·22| ~310~|
August | 9·81| ~249~| 9·28| ~236~| 8·28| ~210~|
September |12·13| ~308~| 9·73| ~247~| 9·53| ~242~|
October |12·68| ~322~| 7·38| ~187~| 9·82| ~249~|
November | 4·57| ~116~| 0.78| ~20~| 8·90| ~226~|
December | 2·10| ~53~| 0·24| ~6~| 6·66| ~169~|
-------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
Year |70·97|~1,777~|55·55|~1,411~|98·94|~2,313~|
=============+=====+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======+

=============+=============+==============+==============
Place | BELIZE | GREYTOWN | COLON
-------------+-------------+--------------+--------------
Situation | Atlantic | Atlantic | Atlantic
| Coast, Brit-| Coast, | Coast,
| ish Honduras| Costa Rica | Panama
-------------+-------------+--------------+--------------
Latitude, N. | 17° 32′ | 10° 30′ | 9° 22′
-------------+-------------+--------------+--------------
Longitude, W.| 88° 10′ | 83° 22′ | 79° 55′
-------------+-------------+--------------+--------------
Elevation | near sea- | near sea- | near sea-
(feet) | level | level | level
-------------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------
Scale |Ins. | ~Mm.~| Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~
-------------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------
January | 5·78| ~147~| 21·39| ~543~| 1·88| ~48~
February | 3·08| ~78~| 5·78| ~147~| 1·49| ~38~
March | 1·54| ~39~| 4·75| ~120~| 1·30| ~33~
April | 1·54| ~39~| 10·39| ~264~| 2·65| ~68~
May | 3·24| ~83~| 12·73| ~328~| 11·40| ~290~
June | 8·18| ~208~| 16·63| ~422~| 13·67| ~347~
July | 9·09| ~231~| 29·87| ~760~| 14·14| ~359~
August | 8·18| ~208~| 20·03| ~509~| 14·64| ~372~
September | 8·63| ~219~| 9·29| ~236~| 12·40| ~315~
October |12·68| ~322~| 14·42| ~366~| 13·54| ~345~
November | 9·14| ~232~| 20·96| ~530~| 23·18| ~589~
December | 7·08| ~180~| 26·57| ~675~| 11·98| ~304~
-------------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------
Year |78·18|~1,986~|192·67|~4,895~|122·37|~3,108~
=============+=====+=======+======+=======+======+=======

_The West Indies._--These islands are all under the influence of the north-east Trades, and enjoy a mild but rather moist climate, with comparatively little variation through the year. Nearly all of them are extremely healthy for places in the Tropics, although they are occasionally visited by devastating outbreaks of yellow fever.

The Americans have, however, proved in the case of Havana that it is quite possible to reduce the risk of this disease to a minimum by the adoption of appropriate measures against the mosquitoes that carry the disease, and it ought to be possible for any one, who takes the matter in earnest, to insure himself almost completely against this danger.

In the north, among the lesser Antilles, the Trade wind has an almost purely easterly direction. During the months from June to November terrific revolving storms, known as hurricanes, are of not uncommon occurrence and constitute one of the gravest drawbacks to cultivation, besides often causing much injury to life. So enormous is the force of the wind during these visitations that even objects of great weight and small surface are set in motion, it being an absolute fact that huge Admiralty anchors have been shifted from the position in which they lay in the dockyard at Port Royal in Jamaica.

HAVANA, CUBA. LAT. 23° 9′ N.; LONG. 82° 23′ W. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+============+===========+
Month | Mean | Absolute | Absolute |
|Temperature| Maxima | Minima |
+-----+-----+-----+------+----+------+
| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+
January |70·3|~21·3~| 84·4|~29·1~|52·3|~11·3~|
February |72·0|~22·2~| 87·6|~30·9~|51·4|~10·7~|
March |73·2|~22·9~| 91·4|~33·0~|55 |~12·8~|
April |76·1|~24·5~| 93·6|~34·3~|52·9|~11·6~|
May |78·8|~26·0~| 99·0|~37·2~|64·4|~18·0~|
June |81·5|~27·5~| 97·7|~36·5~|69·1|~20·6~|
July |82·4|~28·0~|100·6|~38·2~|71·2|~21·8~|
August |82·2|~27·9~| 98·6|~37·0~|69·8|~21·0~|
September|80·7|~27·0~| 96·1|~35·6~|70·9|~21·6~|
October |78·1|~25·7~| 91·9|~33·2~|61·9|~16·6~|
November |75·3|~24·0~| 88·7|~31·5~|56·5|~13·6~|
December |71·4|~21·8~| 86·0|~30·0~|51·8|~11·0~|
---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+
Year |76·3|~24·8~|100·6|~38·2~|51·4|~10·8~|
=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+

=========+=====+===============+======
Month |Rela-| Rainfall |Number
| tive| | of
+humi-+------+--------+ Rainy
| dity| Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Days
---------+-----+------+--------+------
January | 75 | 2·71 | ~68·7~| 7·5
February | 73 | 2·27 | ~57·2~| 5·7
March | 70 | 1·83 | ~46·0~| 5·5
April | 69 | 2·83 | ~72·0~| 4·6
May | 71 | 4·47 | ~113·2~| 9·3
June | 76 | 7·16 | ~181·7~| 12·8
July | 74 | 5·06 | ~128·5~| 12·7
August | 75 | 6·02 | ~153·1~| 12·6
September| 79 | 6·71 | ~171·0~| 15·4
October | 78 | 7·42 | ~188·5~| 15·1
November | 77 | 3·08 | ~78·3~| 10·2
December | 74 | 2·15 | ~54·6~| 8·5
---------+-----+------+--------+------
Year | 74 |51·73 |~1313·5~|119·9
=========+=====+======+========+======