Chapter XXXII: Part 32

Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two collections are found, word for word, in the dialogues. And there are numerous instances of the introductory story stating how, and when, and to whom the sutta was enunciated--a sort of narrative framework in which the sutta is set--recurring also. This is very suggestive as to the way in which the earliest Buddhist records were gradually built up. The suttas came first embodying, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be handed down. Those episodes, found in two or three different places, and always embodying several suttas, came next. Then several of these were woven together to form a suttanta. And finally the suttantas were grouped together into the two Nik[=a]yas, and the suttas and episodes separately into the two others. Parallel with this evolution, so to say, of the suttas, the short statements of doctrine, in prose, ran the treatment of the verses. There was a great love of poetry in the communities in which Buddhism arose. Verses were helpful to the memory. And they were adopted not only for this reason. The adherents of the new view of life found pleasure in putting into appropriate verse the feelings of enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the reforming doctrines inspired. When particularly happy in literary finish, or peculiarly rich in religious feeling, such verses were not lost. These were handed on, from mouth to mouth, in the small companies of the brethren or sisters. The oldest verses are all lyrics, expressions either of emotion, or of some deep saying, some pregnant thought. Very few of them have been preserved alone. And even then they are so difficult to understand, so much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from the first by a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why, and by whom they were supposed to have been uttered. As a general rule such a framework in prose is actually preserved in the old Buddhist literature. It is only in the very latest books included in the canon that the narrative part is also regularly in verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of ballads. The last step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic poem, was not taken till after the canon was closed. The whole process, from the simple anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called _[=a]khy[=a]na_, to the complete epic, comes out with striking clearness in the history of the Buddhist canon. It is typical, one may notice in passing, of the evolution of the epic elsewhere; in Iceland, for instance, in Persia and in Greece. And we may safely draw the conclusion that if the great Indian epics, the Mah[=a]-bh[=a]rata and the R[=a]m[=a]yana, had been in existence when the formation of the Buddhist canon began, the course of its development would have been very different from what it was.

As will easily be understood, the same reasons which led to literary activity of this kind, in the earliest period, continued to hold good afterwards. A number of such efforts, after the Nik[=a]yas had been closed, were included in a supplementary Nik[=a]ya called the _Khuddaka Nik[=a]ya_. It will throw very useful light upon the intellectual level in the Buddhist community just [v.04 p.0692] after the earliest period, and upon literary life in the valley of the Ganges in the 4th or 5th century B.C., if we briefly explain what the tractates in this collection contain. The first, the _Khuddaka P[=a]tha_, is a little tract of only a few pages. After a profession of faith in the Buddha, the doctrine and the order, there follows a paragraph setting out the thirty-four constituents of the human body--bones, blood, nerves and so on--strangely incongruous with what follows. For that is simply a few of the most beautiful poems to be found in the Buddhist scriptures. There is no apparent reason, except their exquisite versification, why these particular pieces should have been here brought together. It is most probable that this tiny volume was simply a sort of first lesson book for young neophytes when they joined the order. In any case that is one of the uses to which it is put at present. The text book is the _Dhammapada_. Here are brought together from ten to twenty stanzas on each of twenty-six selected points of Buddhist self-training or ethics. There are altogether 423 verses, gathered from various older sources, and strung together without any other internal connexion than that they relate more or less to the same subject. And the collector has not thought it necessary to choose stanzas written in the same metre, or in the same number of lines. We know that the early Christians were accustomed to sing hymns, both in their homes and on the occasions of their meeting together. These hymns are now irretrievably lost. Had some one made a collection of about twenty isolated stanzas, chosen from these hymns, on each of about twenty subjects--such as Faith, Hope, Love, the Converted Man, Times of Trouble, Quiet Days, the Saviour, the Tree of Life, the Sweet Name, the Dove, the King, the Land of Peace, the Joy Unspeakable--we should have a Christian Dhammapada, and very precious such a collection would be. The Buddhist Dhammapada has been edited by Professor Fausböll (2nd ed., 1900), and has been frequently translated. Where the verses deal with those ideas that are common to Christians and Buddhists, the versions are easily intelligible, and some of the stanzas appeal very strongly to the Western sense of religious beauty. Where the stanzas are full of the technical terms of the Buddhist system of self-culture and self-control, it is often impossible, without expansions that spoil the poetry, or learned notes that distract the attention, to convey the full sense of the original. In all these distinctively Buddhist verses the existing translations (of which Professor Max Müller's is the best known, and Dr Karl Neumann's the best) are inadequate and sometimes quite erroneous. The connexion in which they were spoken is often apparent in the more ancient books from which these verses have been taken, and has been preserved in the commentary on the work itself.

In the next little work the framework, the whole paraphernalia of the ancient akhy[=a]na, is included in the work itself, which is called _Ud[=a]na_, or "ecstatic utterances." The Buddha is represented, on various occasions during his long career, to have been so much moved by some event, or speech, or action, that he gave vent, as it were, to his pent-up feelings in a short, ecstatic utterance, couched, for the most part, in one or two lines of poetry. These outbursts, very terse and enigmatic, are charged with religious emotion, and turn often on some subtle point of Arahatship, that is, of the Buddhist ideal of life. The original text has been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. The little book, a garland of fifty of these gems, has been translated by General Strong. The next work is called the _Iti Vuttaka_. This contains 120 short passages, each of them leading up to a terse deep saying of the Buddha's, and introduced, in each case, with the words _Iti vuttam Bhagaval[=a]_--"thus was it spoken by the Exalted One." These anecdotes may or may not be historically accurate. It is quite possible that the memory of the early disciples, highly trained as it was, enabled them to preserve a substantially true record of some of these speeches, and of the circumstances in which they were uttered. Some or all of them may also have been invented. In either case they are excellent evidence of the sort of questions on which discussions among the earliest Buddhists must have turned. These ecstatic utterances and deep sayings are attributed to the Buddha himself, and accompanied by the prose framework. There has also been preserved a collection of stanzas ascribed to his leading followers. Of these 107 are brethren, and 73 sisters, in the order. The prose framework is in this case preserved only in the commentary, which also gives biographies of the authors. This work is called the _Thera-ther[=i]-g[=a]th[=a]_.

Another interesting collection is the _J[=a]taka_ book, a set of verses supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha in some of his previous births. These are really 550 of the folk-tales current in India when the canon was being formed, the only thing Buddhist about them being that the Buddha, in a previous birth, is identified in each case with the hero in the little story. Here again the prose is preserved only in the commentary. And it is a most fortunate chance that this--the oldest, the most complete, and the most authentic collection of folklore extant--has thus been preserved intact to the present day. Many of these stories and fables have wandered to Europe, and are found in medieval homilies, poems and story-books. A full account of this curious migration will be found in the introduction to the present writer's _Buddhist Birth Stories_. A translation of the whole book is now published, under the editorship of Professor Cowell, at the Cambridge University Press. The last of these poetical works which it is necessary to mention is the _Sutta Nip[=a]ta_, containing fifty-five poems, all except the last merely short lyrics, many of great beauty. A very ancient commentary on the bulk of these poems has been included in the canon as a separate work. The poems themselves have been translated by Professor Fausböll in the _Sacred Books of the East_. The above works are our authority for the philosophy and ethics of the earliest Buddhists. We have also a complete statement of the rules of the order in the _Vinaya_, edited, in five volumes, by Professor Oldenberg. Three volumes of translations of these rules, by him and by the present writer, have also appeared in the _Sacred Books of the East_.

There have also been added to the canonical books seven works on _Abhidhamma_, a more elaborate and more classified exposition of the Dhamma or doctrine as set out in the _Nik[=a]yas_. All these works are later. Only one of them has been translated, the so-called Dhamma Sangani. The introduction to this translation, published under the title of _Buddhist Psychology_, contains the fullest account that has yet appeared of the psychological conceptions on which Buddhist ethics are throughout based. The translator, Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, estimates the date of this ancient manual for Buddhist students as the 4th century B.C.

_Later Works._--So far the canon, almost all of which is now accessible to readers of P[=a]li. But a good deal of work is still required before the harvest of historical data contained in these texts shall have been made acceptable to students of philosophy and sociology. These works of the oldest period, the two centuries and a half, between the Buddha's time and that of Asoka, were followed by a voluminous literature in the following Periods--from Asoka to Kanishka, and from Kanishka to Buddhaghosa,--each of about three centuries. Many of these works are extant in MS.; but only five or six of the more important Have so far been published. Of these the most interesting is the Milinda, one of the earliest historical novels preserved to us. It is mainly religious and philosophical and purports to give the discussion, extending over several days, in which a Buddhist elder named N[=a]gasena succeeds in converting Milinda, that is Menander, the famous Greek king of Bactria, to Buddhism. The P[=a]li text has been edited and the work translated into English. More important historically, though greatly inferior in style and ability, is the Mah[=a]vastu or Sublime Story, in Sanskrit. The story is the one of chief importance to the Buddhists--the story, namely, of how the Buddha won, under the Bo Tree, the victory over ignorance, and attained to the Sambodhi, "the higher Wisdom," of Nirv[=a]na. The story begins with his previous births, in which also he was accumulating the Buddha qualities. And as the Mah[=a]vastu was a standard work of a particular sect, or rather school, called the Mah[=a]-sanghikas, it has thus preserved for us the theory of the Buddha as held outside the followers of the cannon, by those whose views developed, in after centuries, into the Mah[=a]y[=a]na or modern form of Buddhism in India. But this book, like all the ancient books, was composed, not in the north, in Nepal, but in the valley of the Ganges, and it is partly [v.04 p.0693] in prose, partly in verse. Two other works, the _Lalita Vistara_ and the _Buddha Carita_, give us--but this, of course, is later--Sanskrit poems, epics, on the same subject. Of these, the former may be as old as the Christian era; the latter belongs to the 2nd century after Christ. Both of them have been edited and translated. The older one contains still a good deal of prose, the gist of it being often repeated in the verses. The later one is entirely in verse, and shows off the author's mastery of the artificial rules of prosody and poetics, according to which a poem, a mah[=a]-k[=a]vya, ought, according to the later writers on the _Ars poetica_, to be composed.

These three works deal only quite briefly and incidentally with any point of Buddhism outside of the Buddha legend. Of greater importance for the history of Buddhism are two later works, the _Netti Pakarana_ and the _Saddharma Pundar[=i]ka_. The former, in P[=a]li, discusses a number of questions then of importance in the Buddhist community; and it relies throughout, as does the Milinda, on the canonical works, which it quotes largely. The latter, in Sanskrit, is the earliest exposition we have of the later Mah[=a]y[=a]na doctrine. Both these books may be dated in the 2nd or 3rd century of our era. The latter has been translated into English. We have now also the text of the _Prajn[=a] P[=a]ramit[=a]_, a later treatise on the Mah[=a]y[=a]na system, which in time entirely replaced in India the original doctrines. To about the same age belongs also the _Divy[=a]vad[=a]na_, a collection of legends about the leading disciples of the Buddha, and important members of the order, through the subsequent three centuries. These legends are, however, of different dates, and in spite of the comparatively late period at which it was put into its present form, it contains some very ancient fragments.

The whole of the above works were composed in the north of India; that is to say, either north or a few miles south of the Ganges. The record is at present full of gaps. But we can even now obtain a full and accurate idea of the earliest Buddhism, and are able to trace the main lines of its development through the first eight or nine centuries of its career. The P[=a]li Text Society is still publishing two volumes a year; and the Russian Academy has inaugurated a series to contain the most important of the Sanskrit works still buried in MS. We have also now accessible in P[=a]li fourteen volumes of the commentaries of the great 5th-century scholars in south India and Ceylon, most of them the works either of Buddhaghosa of Budh Gaya, or of Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]ncipura (the ancient name of Conjeeveram). These are full of important historical data on the social, as well as the religious, life of India during the periods of which they treat.

_Modern Research._--The striking archaeological discoveries of recent years have both confirmed and added to our knowledge of the earliest period. Pre-eminent among these is the discovery, by Mr William Peppé, on the Birdpur estate, adjoining the boundary between English and Nepalese territory, of the st[=u]pa, or cairn, erected by the S[=a]kiya clan over their share of the ashes from the cremation pyre of the Buddha. About 12 m. to the north-east of this spot has been found an inscribed pillar, put up by Asoka as a record of his visit to the Lumbini Garden, as the place where the future Buddha had been born. Although more than two centuries later than the event to which it refers, this inscription is good evidence of the site of the garden. There had been no interruption of the tradition; and it is probable that the place was then still occupied by the descendants of the possessors in the Buddha's time. North-west of this another Asoka pillar has been discovered, recording his visit to the cairn erected by the Sakyas over the remains of Kon[=a]gamana, one of the previous Puddhas or teachers, whose follower Gotama the Buddha had claimed to be. These discoveries definitely determine the district occupied by the S[=a]kiya republic in the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. The boundaries, of course, are not known; but the clan must have spread 30 m. or more along the lower slopes of the Himalayas and 30 m. or more southwards over the plains. It has been abandoned jungle since the 3rd century A.D., or perhaps earlier, so that the ruined sites, numerous through the whole district, have remained undisturbed, and further discoveries may be confidently expected.

The principal points on which this large number of older and better authorities has modified our knowledge are as follows:--

1. We have learnt that the division of Buddhism, originating with Burnouf, into northern and southern, is misleading. He found that the Buddhism in his P[=a]li MSS., which came from Ceylon, differed from that in his Sanskrit MSS., which came from Nepal. Now that the works he used have been made accessible in printed editions, we find that, wherever the existing MSS. came from, the original works themselves were all composed in the same stretch of country, that is, in the valley of the Ganges. The difference of the opinions expressed in the MSS. is due, not to the place where they are now found, but _to the difference of time_ at which they were originally composed. Not one of the books mentioned above is either northern or southern. They all claim, and rightly claim, to belong, so far as their place of origin is concerned, to the Majjhima Desa, the middle country. It is undesirable to base the main division of our subject on an adventitious circumstance, and especially so when the nomenclature thus introduced (it is not found in the books themselves) cuts right across the true line of division. The use of the terms northern and southern as applied, not to the existing MSS., but to the original books, or to the Buddhism they teach, not only does not help us, it is the source of serious misunderstanding. It inevitably leads careless writers to take for granted that we have, historically, two Buddhisms--one manufactured in Ceylon, the other in Nepal. Now this is admittedly wrong. What we have to consider is Buddhism varying through slight degrees, as the centuries pass by, in almost every book. We may call it one, or we may call it many. What is quite certain is that it is not two. And the most useful distinction to emphasize is, not the ambiguous and misleading geographical one--derived from the places where the modern copies of the MSS. are found; nor even, though that would be better, the linguistic one--but the chronological one. The use, therefore, of the inaccurate and misleading terms northern and southern ought no longer to be followed in scholarly works on Buddhism.

2. Our ideas as to the social conditions that prevailed, during the Buddha's lifetime, in the eastern valley of the Ganges have been modified. The people were divided into clans, many of them governed as republics, more or less aristocratic. In a few cases several of such republics had formed confederations, and in four cases such confederations had already become hereditary monarchies. The right historical analogy is not the state of Germany in the middle ages, but the state of Greece in the time of Socrates. The S[=a]kiyas were still a republic. They had republics for their neighbours on the east and south, but on the western boundary was the kingdom of Kosala, the modern Oudh, which they acknowledged as a suzerain power. The Buddha's father was not a king. There were r[=a]jas in the clan, but the word meant at most something like consul or archon. All the four real kings were called Mah[=a]-r[=a]ja. And Suddhodana, the teacher's father, was not even r[=a]ja. One of his cousins, named Bhaddiya, is styled a r[=a]ja; but Suddhodana is spoken of, like other citizens, as Suddhodana the S[=a]kiyan. As the ancient books are very particular on this question of titles, this is decisive.

3. There was no caste--no caste, that is, in the modern sense of the term. We have long known that the connubium was the cause of a long and determined struggle between the patricians and the plebeians in Rome. Evidence has been yearly accumulating on the existence of restrictions as to intermarriage, and as to the right of eating together (commensality) among other Aryan tribes, Greeks, Germans, Russians and so on. Even without the fact of the existence now of such restrictions among the modern successors of the ancient Aryans in India, it would have been probable that they also were addicted to similar customs. It is certain that the notion of such usages was familiar enough to some at least of the tribes that preceded the Aryans in India. Rules of endogamy and exogamy; privileges, restricted to certain classes, of eating together, are not only Indian or Aryan, but world-wide phenomena. Both the spirit, and to a large degree the actual details, of modern Indian caste-usages are identical [v.04 p.0694] with these ancient, and no doubt universal, customs. It is in them that we have the key to the origin of caste.

At any moment in the history of a nation such customs seem, to a superficial observer, to be fixed and immutable. As a matter of fact they are never quite the same in successive centuries, or even generations. The numerous and complicated details which we sum up under the convenient, but often misleading, single name of caste, are solely dependent for their sanction on public opinion. That opinion seems stable. But it is always tending to vary as to the degree of importance attached to some particular one of the details, as to the size and complexity of the particular groups in which each detail ought to be observed.

Owing to the fact that the particular group that in India worked its way to the top, based its claims on religious grounds, not on political power, nor on wealth, the system has, no doubt, lasted longer in India than in Europe. But public opinion still insists, in considerable circles even in Europe, on restrictions of a more or less defined kind, both as to marriage and as to eating together. And in India the problem still remains to trace, in the literature, the gradual growth of the system--the gradual formation of new sections among the people, the gradual extension of the institution to the families of people engaged in certain trades, belonging to the same group, or sect, or tribe, tracing their ancestry, whether rightly or wrongly, to the same source. All these factors, and others besides, are real factors. But they are phases of the extension and growth, not explanations of the origin of the system.

There is no evidence to show that at the time of the rise of Buddhism there was any substantial difference, as regards the barriers in question, between the peoples dwelling in the valley of the Ganges and their contemporaries, Greek or Roman, dwelling on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The point of greatest weight in the establishment of the subsequent development, the supremacy in India of the priests, was still being hotly debated. All the new evidence tends to show that the struggle was being decided rather against than for the Brahmins. What we find in the Buddha's time is caste in the making. The great mass of the people were distinguished quite roughly into four classes, social strata, of which the boundary lines were vague and uncertain. At one end of the scale were certain outlying tribes and certain hereditary crafts of a dirty or despised kind. At the other end the nobles claimed the superiority. But Brahmins by birth (not necessarily sacrificial priests, for they followed all sorts of occupations) were trying to oust the nobles from the highest grade. They only succeeded, long afterwards, when the power of Buddhism had declined.

4. It had been supposed on the authority of late priestly texts, where boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of the decline of Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution. The now accessible older authorities, with one doubtful exception,[27] make no mention of persecution. On the other hand, the comparison we are now able to make between the canonical books of the older Buddhism and the later texts of the following centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint, a continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the other philosophies and religions of India. We can see now that the very event which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the most striking proof of the success of the new movement, the conversion and strenuous support, in the 3rd century B.C., of Asoka, the most powerful ruler India had had, only hastened the decline. The adhesion of large numbers of nominal converts, more especially from the newly incorporated and less advanced provinces, produced weakness rather than strength in the movement for reform. The day of compromise had come. Every relaxation of the old thoroughgoing position was welcomed and supported by converts only half converted. And so the margin of difference between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually faded almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained again the upper hand. The popular gods and the popular superstitions are once more favoured by Buddhists themselves. The philosophical basis of the old ethics is overshadowed by new speculations. And even the old ideal of life, the salvation of the Arahat to be won in this world and in this world only, by self-culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned only to be condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of a separate organization became less and less apparent. The whole pantheon of the Vedic gods, with the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated with them, passed indeed away. But the ancient Buddhism, the party of reform, was overwhelmed also in its fall; and modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of both.

AUTHORITIES.--The attention of the few scholars at work on the subject being directed to the necessary first step of publishing the ancient authorities, the work of exploring them, of analysing and classifying the data they contain, has as yet been very imperfectly done. The annexed list contains only the most important works.

TEXTS.--_P[=a]li Text Society_, 57 vols.; _J[=a]taka_, 7 vols., ed. Fausböll, 1877-1897; _Vinaya_, 5 vols., ed. Oldenberg, 1879-1883; _Dhammapada_, ed. Fausböll, 2nd ed., 1900; _Divy[=a]vad[=a]na_, ed. Cowell and Neil, 1882; _Mah[=a]vastu_, ed. Senart, 3 vols., 1882-1897; _Buddha Carita_, ed. Cowell, 1892; _Milinda-pañho_, ed. Trenckner, 1880.

TRANSLATIONS.--_Vinaya Texts_, by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, 3 vols., 1881-1885; _Dhammapada_, by Max Müller, and _Sutta Nipata_, by Fausböll, 1881; _Questions of King Milinda_, by Rhys Davids, 2 vols., 1890-1894; _Buddhist Suttas,_ by Rhys Davids, 1881; _Saddharma Pundar[=i]ka_, by Kern, 1884; _Buddhist Mah[=a]y[=a]na Texts_, by Cowell and Max Müller, 1894--all the above in the "Sacred Books of the East"; _J[=a]taka_, vol. i., by Rhys Davids, under the title _Buddhist Birth Stories_, 1880; vols. i.-vi., by Chalmers, Neil, Francis, and Rouse, 1895-1897; _Buddhism in Translations_, by Warren, 1896; _Buddhistische Anthologie_, by Neumann, 1892. _Lieder der Mönche und Nonnen_, 1899, by the same; _Dialogues of the Buddha_, by Rhys Davids, 1899; _Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas_, by Neumann, 3 vols., 1899-1903; _Buddhist Psychology_, by Mrs Rhys Davids, 1900.

MANUALS, MONOGRAPHS, &C.--_Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 12mo, 20th thousand, 1903; _Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und seine Gemeinde_, by Oldenberg, 5th edition, 1906; _Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in Indien_, by Kern, 1882; _Der Buddhismus_, by Edmund Hardy, 1890; _American Lectures, Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 1896; _Inscriptions de Piyadasi_, by Senart, 2 vols., 1881-1886; _Mara und Buddha_, by Windisch, 1895; _Buddhist India_, by Rhys Davids, 1903.

(T. W. R. D.)

[1] That is by the Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of himself. He does not call himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as such.

[2] One very ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved in three places in the canon: _D[=i]gha_, ii. 305-307 and 311-313, _Majjhima_, iii. 251, and _Samyutta_, v. 8.

[3] _Mah[=a]li Suttanta_; translated in Rhys Davids' _Dialogues of the Buddha_, vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).

[4] See _Iti-vuttaka_, p. 44; _Samyutta_, iii. 57.

[5] See _D[=i]gha_, ii. 28; _J[=a]t_. v. 48, ii. 80.

[6] Burnett, _Early Greek Philosophy_, p. 149.

[7] _Katha Up_. 2, 10; _Bhag. G[=i]t[=a]_, 2, 14; 9, 33.

[8] The _Anatta-lakkhana Sutta_ (_Vinaya_, i. 13 = _Samyutta_, iii. 66 and iv. 34), translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 100-102.

[9] See article on "Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the _J.R.A.S._ for 1892.

[10] _Questions of King Milinda_, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford, 1890-1894), vol. i. pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.

[11] _Majjhima_, iii. 251, cf. _Samyutta_, v. 8.

[12] _D[=i]gha_, ii. 290-315. _Majjhima_, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys Davids' _Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 81.

[13] No. 8 in the _Sutta Nipata_ (p. 26 of Fausböll's edition). It is translated by Fausböll in vol. x. of the _S.B.E._, and by Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p. 109.

[14] _D[=i]gha_, ii. 186-187.

[15] _Majjhima_, i. 129.

[16] _Iti-vuttaka_, pp. 19-21.

[17] On the details of these see _D[=i]gha_, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 82-84.

[18] _D[=i]gha_, i. 74.

[19] _Samyutta_, iv. 251, 261.

[20] _Phaedo_, 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in connexion with a belief in transmigration.

[21] _Samyutta_, iv. 302.

[22] _Majjhima_, iii. 99 et seq.

[23] The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written. On the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' _Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 73-120, and Dahlke, _Aufsatze zum Verstandnis des Buddhismus_ (Berlin, 1903), i. 92-106, and ii. l-11.

[24] For instance, _Majjhima_, i. 163-166

[25] _Anguttara_, iii. 119.

[26] _D[=i]gha_, i. 38.

[27] See _Journal of the P[=a]li Text Society_, 1896, pp. 87-92.

BUDÉ [BUDAEUS], GUILLAUME (1467-1540), French scholar, was born at Paris. He went to the university of Orleans to study law, but for several years, being possessed of ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When about twenty-four years of age he was seized with a sudden passion for study, and made rapid progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek languages. The work which gained him greatest reputation was his _De Asse et Partibus_ (1514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held in high esteem by Francis I., who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du Bellay, bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue, afterwards the Collège de France, and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliothèque Nationale. He also induced Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been advised by the Sorbonne in 1533. He was sent by Louis XII. to Rome as ambassador to Leo X., and in 1522 was appointed _maître des requêtes_ and was several times _prévôt des marchands_. He died in Paris on the 23rd of August 1540.

Budé was also the author of _Annotationes in XXIV. libros Pandectarum_ (1508), which, by the application of philology and history, had a great influence on the study of Roman law, and of _Commentarii linguae Graecae_ (1529), an extensive collection of lexicographical notes, which contributed greatly to the study of Greek literature in France. Budé corresponded with the most learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the marvel of France, and Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek and Latin, although his Latin is inferior to his Greek, being somewhat harsh and full of Greek constructions. His request that he should be buried at night, and his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where she retired after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings towards Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house, while others settled in Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus.

[v.04 p.0695] See Le Roy, _Vita G. Budaei_ (1540); Rebitté, _G. Budé, restaurateur des études grecques en France_ (1846); E. de Budé, _Vie de G. Budé_ (1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant views; D'Hozier, _La Maison de Budé_; L. Delaruelle, _Études sur l'humanisme français_ (1907).

BUDE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast at the mouth of the river Bude. With the market town of Stratton, 1½ m. inland to the east, it forms the urban district of Stratton and Bude, with a population (1901) of 2308. Bude is served by a branch of the London & South-Western railway. Its only notable building is the Early English parish church of St Michael and All Angels. The climate is healthy and the coast scenery in the neighbourhood fine, especially towards the south. There the gigantic cliffs, with their banded strata, have been broken into fantastic forms by the waves. Many ships have been wrecked on the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The figure-head of one of these, the "Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in the churchyard. The harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will admit vessels of 300 tons at high water; and the river has been dammed to form a basin for the canal which runs to Launceston. Some fishing is carried on: but the staple trade is the export of sand, which, being highly charged with carbonate of lime, is much used for manure. There are golf links near the town. The currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.

BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737), English man of letters, the son of Dr Gilbert Budgell, was born on the 19th of August 1686 at St Thomas, near Exeter. He matriculated in 1705 at Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards joined the Inner Temple, London; but instead of studying law he devoted his whole attention to literature. Addison, who was first cousin to his mother, befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary to Lord Wharton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell with him as one of the clerks of his office. Budgell took part with Steele and Addison in writing the _Tatler_. He was also a contributor to the _Spectator_ and the _Guardian_,--his papers being marked with an X in the former, and with an asterisk in the latter. He was subsequently made under-secretary to Addison, chief secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk of the council, and became a member of the Irish parliament. In 1717, when Addison became principal secretary of state in England, he procured for Budgell the place of accountant and comptroller-general of the revenue in Ireland. But the next year, the duke of Bolton being appointed lord-lieutenant, Budgell wrote a lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary. This led to his being removed from his post of accountant-general, upon which he returned to England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison, published his case in a pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost £20,000 by the South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent £5000 more in unsuccessful attempts to get into parliament. He began to write pamphlets against the ministry, and published many papers in the _Craftsman_. In 1733 he started a weekly periodical called the _Bee_, which he continued for more than a hundred numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in 1733, a legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the bequest (which had, it was alleged, been inserted in the will by Budgell himself) was successfully disputed by Tindal's nephew and nearest heir, Nicholas Tindal, who translated and wrote a _Continuation_ of the _History of England_ of Paul de Rapin-Thoyras. Hence Pope's lines--

"Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
And write whate'er he pleased--except his will."[1]

Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's _Christianity as Old as the Creation_ to Bishop Gibson, by whom it was destroyed. The scandal caused by these transactions ruined him. On the 4th of May 1737, after filling his pockets with stones, he took a boat at Somerset-stairs, and while the boat was passing under the bridge threw himself into the river. On his desk was found a slip of paper with the words--"What Cato did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Besides the works mentioned above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the _Characters_ of Theophrastus. He never married, but left a natural daughter, Anne Eustace, who became an actress at Drury Lane.

See Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.

[1] _Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot_, lines 378-379.

BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as _bulga_, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. _bougette_, from which the Eng. form is derived), the name applied to an account of the ways and means by which the income and expenditure for a definite period are to be balanced, generally by a finance minister for his state, or by analogy for smaller bodies.[1] The term first came into use in England about 1760. In the United Kingdom the chancellor of the exchequer, usually in April, lays before the House of Commons a statement of the actual results of revenue and expenditure in the past finance year (now ending March 31), showing how far his estimates have been realized, and what surplus or deficit there has been in the income as compared with the expenditure. This is accompanied by another statement in which the chancellor gives an estimate of what the produce of the revenue may be in the year just entered upon, supposing the taxes and duties to remain as they were in the past year, and also an estimate of what the expenditure will be in the current year. If the estimated revenue, after allowing for normal increase of the principal sources of income, be less than the estimated expenditure, this is deemed a case for the imposition of some new, or the increase of some existing, tax or taxes. On the other hand, if the estimated revenue shows a large surplus over the estimated expenditure, there is room for remitting or reducing some tax or taxes, and the extent of this relief is generally limited to the amount of surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the exchequer has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates, both as regards revenue and expenditure; and these estimates are prepared by the various departments of the administration. They are divided into two parts, the consolidated fund services and the supply services, the first comprising the civil list, debt charge, pensions and courts of justice, while the "supply" includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as the army, the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the post-office and telegraph services. The consolidated fund services are an annual charge, fixed by statute, and alterable only by statute, but the supply services may be gone through in detail, item by item, by the House of Commons, which forms itself into a committee of supply for the purpose. These items can be criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by amendments proposed by private members. The committee of ways and means (also a committee of the whole House) votes the supplies when granted and originates all taxes. The resolutions of these committees are reported to the House, and when the taxation and expenditure obtain the assent of parliament, the results as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate for the year, and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only in the British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget, giving the results of income and expenditure in the year ending 31st of December, and the prospective estimates, is laid before the imperial parliament in the course of the ensuing session.

The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long been practised in France, the United States, and other constitutional countries, and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic Powers. Russia began the publication of annual budgets in 1866; Egypt has followed the example; so also has Turkey, by an imperial decree of 1875. All countries agree in taking a yearly period, but the actual date of commencement varies considerably. The German and Danish financial year, like that of the United Kingdom, begins on the 1st of April; in France, Belgium and Austria, it begins on the 1st of January; in Italy, Spain, the United States and Canada, on the 1st of July. [v.04 p.0696] Previously to 1832, however, the English financial year ran from the 1st of January to the 31st of December.

It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget (on which he was defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in 1860, owing to the ratification of the commercial treaty with France, the budget was introduced on the 10th of February. In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget was not introduced until the 18th of July, while in 1880 there were two budgets, one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration, and the other in June, under Gladstone's administration.

National budgets are to be discriminated (1) as budgets passing under parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year, and (2) budgets emitted on executive authority. In most constitutional countries the procedure is somewhat of a mean between the extremes of the United Kingdom and the United States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed by the executive before the whole House, without any previous examination except by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House sitting as a committee; in the majority of countries, however, the budget undergoes a preliminary examination by a specially selected committee, which has the power to make drastic changes in the proposals of the executive. In the United States, on the other hand, the budget practically emanates from Congress, for there is no connexion between the executive and the legislative departments. The estimates prepared by the various executive departments are submitted to the House of Representatives by the secretary of the treasury. With these estimates two separate committees deal. The committee on ways and means deals with taxation, and the committee on appropriations with expenditure. The latter committee is divided into various sub-committees, each of which brings in an appropriation bill for the department or subject with which it is charged.

There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal taxations and expenditures of only less account than the national. In federal governments such as the United States, the German empire, or the Argentine republic, the budgets of the several states of the federation have to be consulted, as well as the federal budgets, for a knowledge of the finances.

AUTHORITIES.--Stourm, _Le Budget, son histoire et son mécanisme_ (1889), which gives a comparative study of the budgets of different countries, is the best book upon the subject. See also Siedler, _Budget und Budgetrecht_(1885); Sendel, _Über Budgetrecht_(1890); Besson, _Le Contrôle des budgets en France et à l'étranger_ (1899); Bastable, _Public Finance_ (3rd ed., 1903); Eugene E. Agger, _The Budget in American Commonwealths_ (New York, 1907).

[1] It was a name applied also to a leather-covered case or small coffer. Cotgrave translates _bougette_ "a little coffer or trunk ... covered with leather." It became a common word for a despatch box in which official papers were kept. The chancellor of the exchequer thus was said to "open his budget" when he made his annual statement.

BUDINI, an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia (_q.v._) of Herodotus (iv, 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle course of the Volga about Samara. They are described as light-eyed and red-haired, and lived by hunting in their thick forests. They were probably Finns of the branch now represented by the Votiaks and Permiaks, forced northwards by later immigrants. In their country was a wooden city inhabited by a distinct race, the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an Indo-European tongue. Later writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are chiefly interested in the tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods of the Budini and seems to have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap. Aelian, _Hist. Anim._ xv. 33).

(E. H. M.)

BUDWEIS (Czech _Bud[ve]jovice_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 80 m. S.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is situated at the junction of the Maltsch with the Moldau, which here becomes navigable, and possesses a beautiful square, lined with fine arcaded buildings, the principal one being the town-hall, built in 1730 in Renaissance style. Other interesting buildings are the cathedral with its detached tower, dating from 1500, and the Marien-Kirche with fine cloisters. Budweis has a large, varied and growing industry, which comprises the manufacture of chemicals, matches, paper, machinery, bricks and tiles, corn and saw mills, boat-building, bell-founding and black-lead pencils. It is the principal commercial centre of South Bohemia, being an important railway junction, as well as a river port, and carries on a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt, industrial products and beer, the latter mostly exported to America. It is the see of a bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in Czech Bohemia. But the Czech element is steadily increasing, and the population of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway from Budweis to Linz, laid in 1827 for horse-cars, was the first line constructed in Austria. A little to the north, in the Moldau valley, stands the beautiful castle of Frauenberg, belonging to Prince Schwarzenberg. It stands on the site formerly occupied by a 13th-century castle, and was built in the middle of the 19th century, after the model of Windsor Castle.

The old town of Budweis was founded in the 13th century by Budivoj Vitkovec, father of Závi[vs] of Falkenstein. In 1265 Ottokar II. founded the new town, which was soon afterwards created a royal city. Charles IV. and his son Wenceslaus granted the town many privileges. Although mainly Catholic, Budweis declared for King George Pod[ve]brad, and in 1468 was taken by the crusaders under Zdenko of Stenberg. From this time the town remained faithful to the royal cause, and in 1547 was granted by the emperor Ferdinand the privilege of ranking at the diet next to Prague and Pilsen. After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Budweis was confirmed in all its privileges.

BUELL, DON CARLOS (1818-1898), American soldier, was born near Marietta, Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He graduated at West Point in 1841, and as a company officer of infantry took part in the Seminole War of 1841-42 and the Mexican War, during which he was present at almost all the battles fought by Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of captain at Monterey, and that of major at Contreras-Churubusco, where he was wounded. From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff duties, chiefly as assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was appointed lieutenant-colonel on the 11th of May 1861, brigadier-general of volunteers a few days later, and major-general of volunteers in March 1862. He aided efficiently in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at the instance of General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to Kentucky to succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he employed himself in the organization and training of the Army of the Ohio (subsequently of the Cumberland), which to the end of its career retained a standard of discipline and efficiency only surpassed by that of the Army of the Potomac. In the spring of 1862 Buell followed the retiring Confederates under Sidney Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh (_q.v._) at the end of the first day's fighting. On the following day, aided by Buell's fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all before him. Buell subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on Corinth, and in the autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky against Bragg. After a period of manoeuvring in which Buell scarcely held his own, this virtually ended in the indecisive battle of Perryville. The alleged tardiness of his pursuit, and his objection to a plan of campaign ordered by the Washington authorities, brought about Buell's removal from command. With all his gifts as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was haughty in his dealings with the civil authorities, and, in high command, he showed, on the whole, unnecessary tardiness of movement and an utter disregard for the requirements of the political situation. Moreover, as McClellan's friend, holding similar views, adverse politically to the administration, he suffered by McClellan's displacement. The complaints made against him were investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the investigation was not published. Subsequently he was offered military employment, which he declined. He resigned his volunteer commission in May, and his regular commission in June 1864. He was president of Green River ironworks (1865-1870), and subsequently engaged in various mining enterprises; he served (1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He died near Rockport, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1898.

BUENAVENTURA, a Pacific port of Colombia, in the department of Cauca, about 210 m. W.S.W. of Bogotá. Pop. about 1200. The town is situated on a small island, called Cascajal, at the head of a broad estuary or bay projecting inland from the Bay of Chocó and 10 m. from its mouth. Its geographical position is lat. 3° 48' N., long. 77° 12' W. The estuary is deep enough for vessels of 24 ft. draught and affords an excellent harbour. Buenaventura is a port of call for two lines of steamers (English [v.04 p.0697] and German), and is the Colombian landing-place of the West Coast cable. The town is mean in appearance, and has a very unhealthy climate, oppressively hot and humid. It is the port for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated and fertile region, with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In 1907 a railway was under construction to the latter, and an extension to Bogotá was also projected.

BUENOS AIRES, a maritime province of Argentina, South America, bounded N. by the province of Santa Fé and Entre Rios, E. by the latter, the La Plata estuary, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the territories (_gobernaciones_) of Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fé. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it the largest province of the republic. It is also the most populous, even excluding the federal district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a population of 1,251,000. Although it has a frontage of over 900 m. on the La Plata and the Atlantic, the province has but few good natural ports, the best being Bahia Blanca, where the Argentine government has constructed a naval port, and Ensenada (La Plata), where extensive artificial basins have been constructed for the reception of ocean-going steamers. San Nicolas in the extreme north has a fairly good river port, while at Buenos Aires a costly artificial port has been constructed.

In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great treeless plain extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary westward to the Andes. A fringe of small tangled wood covers the low river banks and delta region of the Paraná between San Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence southward to Bahia Blanca the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of lagoons and partially submerged lands immediately behind. The south-eastern and central parts of the province are low and marshy, and their effective drainage has long been an urgent problem. Two ranges of low mountains extend partly across the southern part of the province--the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast, in a north-east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del Volcan (885 ft.), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the second and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the same general direction, known at different points as the Sierra Pillahuinco and Sierra de la Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is well watered with numerous lakes and small rivers, the largest river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which rises near the north-western boundary and flows entirely across the province in a south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The Rio Colorado crosses the extreme southern extension of the province, a distance of about 80 m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its lower course is subject to occasional disastrous inundations.