Chapter II: Part 2

2. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise, showing the thick axial placenta
bearing numerous small seeds.

3. Ripe capsule split open.]

The foxglove, probably from folks'-glove, that is fairies' glove, is known by a great variety of popular names in Britain. In the south of Scotland it is called bloody fingers; farther north, dead-men's-bells; and on the eastern borders, ladies' thimbles, wild mercury and Scotch mercury. In Ireland it is generally known under the name of fairy thimble. Among its Welsh synonyms are _menyg-ellyllon_ (elves' gloves), _menyg y llwynog_ (fox's gloves), _bysedd cochion_ (redfingers) and _bysedd y cwn_ (dog's fingers). In France its designations are _gants de notre dame_ and _doigts de la Vierge_. The German name _Fingerhut_ (thimble) suggested to Fuchs, in 1542, the employment of the Latin adjective _digitalis_ as a designation for the plant. Other species of foxglove or _Digitalis_ although found in botanical collections are not generally grown. For medicinal uses see DIGITALIS.

FOX INDIANS, the name, from one of their clans, of an Algonquian tribe, whose former range was central Wisconsin. They call themselves Muskwakiuk, "red earth people." Owing to heavy losses in their wars with the Ojibways and the French, they allied themselves with the Sauk tribe about 1780, the two tribes being now practically one.

FOX MORCILLO, SEBASTIAN (1526?-1559?), Spanish scholar and philosopher, was born at Seville between 1526 and 1528. About 1548 he studied at Louvain, and, following the example of the Spanish Jew, Judas Abarbanel, published commentaries on Plato and Aristotle in which he endeavoured to reconcile their teaching. In 1559 he was appointed tutor to Don Carlos, son of Philip II., but did not live to take up the duties of the post, as he was lost at sea on his way to Spain. His most original work is the _De imitatione, seu de informandi styli ratione libri II_. (1554), a dialogue in which the author and his brother take part under the pseudonyms of Gaspar and Francisco Enuesia. Among Fox Morcillo's other publications are: (1) _In Topica Ciceronis paraphrasis et scholia_ (1550); (2) _In Platonis Timaeum commentarii_ (1554); (3) _Compendium ethices philosophiae ex Platone, Aristotele, aliisque philosophis collectum_; (4) _De historiae institutione dialogus_ (1557), and (5) _De naturae philosophia_.

He is the subject of an excellent monograph by Urbano Gonzalez de
Calle, _Sebastián Fox Morcillo: estudio histórico-crítico de sus
doctrinas_ (Madrid, 1903).

FOY, MAXIMILIEN SÉBASTIEN (1775-1825), French general and statesman, was born at Ham in Picardy on the 3rd of February 1775. He was the son of an old soldier who had fought at Fontenoy and had become post-master of the town in which he lived. His father died in 1780, and his early instruction was given by his mother, a woman of English origin and of superior ability. He continued his education at the college of Soissons, and thence passed at the age of fifteen to the artillery school of La Fère. After eighteen months' successful study he entered the army, served his first campaign in Flanders (1791-92), and was present at the battle of Jemmapes. He soon attained the rank of captain, and served successively under Dampierre, Jourdan, Pichegru and Houchard. In 1794, in consequence of having spoken freely against the violence of the extreme party at Paris, he was imprisoned by order of the commissioner of the Convention, Joseph Lebon, at Cambray, but regained his liberty soon after the fall of Robespierre. He served under Moreau in the campaigns of 1796 and 1797, distinguishing himself in many engagements. The leisure which the treaty of Campo Formio gave him he devoted to the study of public law and modern history, attending the lectures of Christoph Wilhelm von Koch (1737-1813), the famous professor of public law at Strassburg. He was recommended by Desaix to the notice of General Bonaparte, but declined to serve on the staff of the Egyptian expedition. In the campaign of Switzerland (1798) he distinguished himself afresh, though he served only with the greatest reluctance against a people which possessed republican institutions. In Masséna's brilliant campaign of 1799 Foy won the rank of _chef de brigade_. In the following year he served under Moncey in the Marengo campaign and afterwards in Tirol.

Foy's republican principles caused him to oppose the gradual rise of Napoleon to the supreme power and at the time of Moreau's trial he escaped arrest only by joining the army in Holland. Foy voted against the establishment of the empire, but the only penalty for his independence was a long delay before attaining the rank of general. In 1806 he married a daughter of General Baraguay d'Hilliers. In the following year he was sent to Constantinople, and there took part in the defence of the Dardanelles against the English fleet. He was next sent to Portugal, and thenceforward he served in the Peninsular War from first to last. Under Junot he won at last his rank of general of brigade, under Soult he held a command in the pursuit of Sir John Moore's army, and under Masséna he fought in the third invasion of Portugal (1810). Masséna reposed the greatest confidence in Foy, and employed him after Busaco in a mission to the emperor. Napoleon now made Foy's acquaintance for the first time, and was so far impressed with his merits as to make him a general of division at once. The part played by General Foy at the battle of Salamanca won him new laurels, but above all he distinguished himself when the disaster of Vittoria had broken the spirit of the army. Foy rose to the occasion; his resistance in the Pyrenees was steady and successful, and only a wound (at first thought mortal) which he received at Orthez prevented him from keeping the field to the last. At the first restoration of the Bourbons he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and a command, and on the return of Napoleon from Elba he declined to join him until the king had fled from the country. He held a divisional command in the Waterloo campaign, and at Waterloo was again severely wounded at the head of his division (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). After the second restoration he returned to civil life, devoting his energies for a time to his projected history of the Peninsular War, and in 1819 was elected to the chamber of deputies. For this position his experience and his studies had especially fitted him, and by his first speech he gained a commanding place in the chamber, which he never lost, his clear, manly eloquence being always employed on the side of the liberal principles of 1789. In 1823 he made a powerful protest against French intervention in Spain, and after the dissolution of 1824 he was re-elected for three constituencies. He died at Paris on the 28th of November 1825, and his funeral was attended, it is said, by 100,000 persons. His early death was regarded by all as a national calamity. His family was provided for by a general subscription.

The _Histoire de la guerre de la Péninsula sous Napoléon_ was
published from his notes in 1827, and a collection of his speeches
(with memoir by Tissot) appeared in 1826 soon after his death. See
Cuisin, _Vie militaire, politique, &c., du général Foy_; Vidal, _Vie
militaire et politique du général Foy_.

FRAAS, KARL NIKOLAS (1810-1875), German botanist and agriculturist, was born at Rattelsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 8th of September 1810. After receiving his preliminary education at the gymnasium of Bamberg, he in 1830 entered the university of Munich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1834. Having devoted great attention to the study of botany, he went to Athens in 1835 as inspector of the court garden; and in April 1836 he became professor of botany at the university. In 1842 he returned to Germany and became teacher at the central agricultural school at Schleissheim. In 1847 he was appointed professor of agriculture at Munich, and in 1851 director of the central veterinary college. For many years he was secretary of the Agricultural Society of Bavaria, but resigned in 1861. He died at his estate of Neufreimann, near Munich, on the 9th of November 1875.

His principal works are: [Greek: Stoicheia tês Botanikês] (Athens,
1835); _Synopsis florae classicae_ (Munich, 1845); _Klima und
Pflanzenwelt in der Zeit_ (Landsh., 1847); _Histor.-encyklopäd.
Grundriss der Landwirthschaftslehre_ (Stuttgart, 1848); _Geschichte
der Landwirthschaft_ (Prague, 1851); _Die Schule des Landbaues_
(Munich, 1852); _Baierns Rinderrassen_ (Munich, 1853); _Die künstliche
Fischerzeugung_ (Munich, 1854); _Die Natur der Landwirthschaft_
(Munich, 1857); _Buch der Natur für Landwirthe_ (Munich, 1860); _Die
Ackerbaukrisen und ihre Heilmittel_ (Munich, 1866); _Das Wurzelleben
der Culturpflanzen_ (Berlin, 1872); and _Geschichte der Landbau und
Forstwissenschaft seit dem 16^ten Jahrh._ (Munich, 1865). He also
founded and edited a weekly agricultural paper, the _Schranne_.

FRACASTORO [FRACASTORIUS], GIROLAMO [HIERONYMUS] (1483-1553), Italian physician and poet, was born at Verona in 1483. It is related of him that at his birth his lips adhered so closely that a surgeon was obliged to divide them with his incision knife, and that during his infancy his mother was killed by lightning, while he, though in her arms at the moment, escaped unhurt. Fracastoro became eminently skilled, not only in medicine and belles-lettres, but in most arts and sciences. He studied at Padua, and became professor of philosophy there in 1502, afterwards practising as a physician in Verona. It was by his advice that Pope Paul III., on account of the prevalence of a contagious distemper, removed the council of Trent to Bologna. He was the author of many works, both poetical and medical, and was intimately acquainted with Cardinal Bembo, Julius Scaliger, Gianbattista Ramusio (q.v.), and most of the great men of his time. In 1517, when the builders of the citadel of San Felice (Verona) found fossil mussels in the rocks, Fracastoro was consulted about the marvel, and he took the same view--following Leonardo da Vinci, but very advanced for those days--that they were the remains of animals once capable of living in the locality. He died of apoplexy at Casi, near Verona, on the 8th of August 1553; and in 1559 the town of Verona erected a statue in his honour.

The principal work of Fracastoro is a kind of medical poem entitled
_Syphilidis, sive Morbi Gallici, libri tres_ (Verona, 1530), which has
been often reprinted and also translated into French and Italian.
Among his other works (all published at Venice) are _De vini
temperatura_ (1534); _Homocentricorum_ (1535); _De sympatha et
antipathia rerum_ (1546); and _De contagionibus_ (1546). His complete
works were published at Venice in 1555, and his poetical productions
were collected and printed at Padua in 1728.

FRAGONARD, JEAN-HONORÉ (1732-1806), French painter, was born at Grasse, the son of a glover. He was articled to a Paris notary when his father's circumstances became straitened through unsuccessful speculations, but he showed such talent and inclination for art that he was taken at the age of eighteen to Boucher, who, recognizing the youth's rare gifts but disinclined to waste his time with one so inexperienced, sent him to Chardin's _atelier_. Fragonard studied for six months under the great luminist, and then returned more fully equipped to Boucher, whose style he soon acquired so completely that the master entrusted him with the execution of replicas of his paintings. Though not a pupil of the Academy, Fragonard gained the Prix de Rome in 1752 with a painting of "Jeroboam sacrificing to the Idols," but before proceeding to Rome he continued to study for three years under Van Loo. In the year preceding his departure he painted the "Christ washing the Feet of the Apostles" now at Grasse cathedral. In 1755 he took up his abode at the French Academy in Rome, then presided over by Natoire. There he benefited from the study of the old masters whom he was set to copy--always remembering Boucher's parting advice not to take Raphael and Michelangelo too seriously. He successively passed through the studios of masters as widely different in their aims and technique as Chardin, Boucher, Van Loo and Natoire, and a summer sojourn at the Villa d'Este in the company of the abbé de Saint-Non, who engraved many of Fragonard's studies of these entrancing gardens, did more towards forming his personal style than all the training at the various schools. It was in these romantic gardens, with their fountains, grottos, temples and terraces, that he conceived the dreams which he was subsequently to embody in his art. Added to this influence was the deep impression made upon his mind by the florid sumptuousness of Tiepolo, whose works he had an opportunity of studying in Venice before he returned to Paris in 1761. In 1765 his "Corésus et Callirhoé" secured his admission to the Academy. It was made the subject of a pompous eulogy by Diderot, and was bought by the king, who had it reproduced at the Gobelins factory. Hitherto Fragonard had hesitated between religious, classic and other subjects; but now the demand of the wealthy art patrons of Louis XV.'s pleasure-loving and licentious court turned him definitely towards those scenes of love and voluptuousness with which his name will ever be associated, and which are only made acceptable by the tender beauty of his colour and the virtuosity of his facile brushwork--such works as the "Serment d'amour" (Love Vow), "Le Verrou" (The Bolt), "La Culbute" (The Tumble), "La Chemise enlevée" (The Shift Withdrawn), and "The Swing" (Wallace collection), and his decorations for the apartments of Mme du Barry and the dancer Marie Guimard.

The Revolution made an end to the _ancien régime_, and Fragonard, who was so closely allied to its representatives, left Paris in 1793 and found shelter in the house of his friend Maubert at Grasse, which he decorated with the series of decorative panels known as the "Roman d'amour de la jeunesse," originally painted for Mme du Barry's pavilion at Louvreciennes. The panels in recent years came into the possession of Mr Pierpont Morgan. Fragonard returned to Paris early in the 19th century, where he died in 1806, neglected and almost forgotten. For half a century or more he was so completely ignored that Lübke, in his history of art (1873), omits the very mention of his name. But within the last thirty years he has regained the position among the masters of painting to which he is entitled by his genius. If the appreciation of his art by the modern collector can be expressed in figures, it is significant that the small and sketchy "Billet Doux," which appeared at the Cronier sale in Paris in 1905 and was subsequently exhibited by Messrs Duveen in London (1906), realized close on £19,000 at the Hôtel Drouot.

Besides the works already mentioned, there are four important pictures by Fragonard in the Wallace collection: "The Fountain of Love," "The Schoolmistress," "A Lady carving her Name on a Tree" (usually known as "Le Chiffre d'amour") and "The Fair-haired Child." The Louvre contains thirteen examples of his art, among them the "Corésus," "The Sleeping Bacchante," "The Shift Withdrawn," "The Bathers," "The Shepherd's Hour" ("L'Heure du berger"), and "Inspiration." Other works are in the museums of Lille, Besançon, Rouen, Tours, Nantes, Avignon, Amiens, Grenoble, Nancy, Orleans, Marseilles, &c., as well as at Chantilly. Some of Fragonard's finest work is in the private collections of the Rothschild family in London and Paris.

See R. Portalis, _Fragonard_ (Paris, 1899), fully illustrated; Felix
Naquet, _Fragonard_ (Paris, 1890); Virgile Josz, _Fragonard--moeurs du
XVIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1901); E. and J. de Goncourt, _L'Art du
dix-huitième siècle--Fragonard_ (Paris, 1883). (P. G. K.)

FRAHN, CHRISTIAN MARTIN (1782-1851), German numismatist and historian, was born at Rostock. He began his Oriental studies under Tychsen at the university of Rostock, and afterwards prosecuted them at Göttingen and Tübingen. He became a Latin master in Pestalozzi's famous institute in 1804, returned home in 1806, and in the following year was chosen to fill the chair of Oriental languages in the Russian university of Kazan. Though in 1815 he was invited to succeed Tychsen at Rostock, he preferred to go to St Petersburg, where he became director of the Asiatic museum and councillor of state. He died at St Petersburg.

Frahn wrote over 150 works. Among the more important are:
_Numophylacium orientale Pototianum_ (1813); _De numorum Bulgharicorum
fonte antiquissimo_ (1816); _Das muhammedanische Münzkabinet des
asiatischen Museum der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St
Petersburg_ (1821); _Numi cufici ex variis museis selecti_ (1823);
_Notice d'une centaine d'ouvrages arabes, &c., qui manquent en grande
partie aux bibliothèques de l'Europe_ (1834); and _Nova supplementa ad
recensionem Num. Muham. Acad. Imp. Sci. Petropolitanae_ (1855). His
description of some medals struck by the Samanid and Bouid princes
(1804) was composed in Arabic because he had no Latin types.

FRAME, a word employed in many different senses, signifying something joined together or shaped. It is derived ultimately from O.E. _fram_, from, in its primary meaning "forward." In constructional work it connotes the union of pieces of wood, metal or other material for purposes of enclosure as in the case of a picture or mirror frame. Frames intended for these uses are of great artistic interest but comparatively modern origin. There is no record of their existence earlier than the 16th century, but the decorative opportunities which they afforded caused speedy popularity in an artistic age, and the Renaissance found in the picture frame a rich and attractive means of expression. The impulses which made frames beautiful have long been extinct or dormant, but fine work was produced in such profusion that great numbers of examples are still extant. Frames for pictures or mirrors are usually square, oblong, round or oval, and, although they have usually been made of wood or composition overlaid upon wood, the richest and most costly materials have often been used. Ebony, ivory and tortoiseshell; crystal, amber and mother-of-pearl; lacquer, gold and silver, and almost every other metal have been employed for this purpose. The domestic frame has in fact varied from the simplest and cheapest form of a plain wooden moulding to the most richly carved examples. The introduction in the 17th century of larger sheets of glass gave the art of frame-making a great _essor_, and in the 18th century the increased demand for frames, caused chiefly by the introduction of cheaper forms of mirrors, led to the invention of a composition which could be readily moulded into stereotyped patterns and gilded. This was eventually the deathblow of the artistic frame, and since the use of composition moulding became normal, no important school of wood-carving has turned its attention to frames. The carvers of the Renaissance, and down to the middle of the 18th century, produced work which was often of the greatest beauty and elegance. In England nothing comparable to that of Grinling Gibbons and his school has since been produced. Chippendale was a great frame maker, but he not only had recourse to composition, but his designs were often extravagantly rococo. Even in France there has been no return of the great days when Oeben enclosed the looking-glasses which mirrored the Pompadour in frames that were among the choicest work of a gorgeous and artificial age. In the decoration of frames as in so many other respects France largely followed the fashions of Italy, which throughout the 16th and 17th centuries produced the most elaborate and grandiose, the richest and most palatial, of the mirror frames that have come down to us. English art in this respect was less exotic and more restrained, and many of the mirrors of the 18th century received frames the grace and simplicity of which have ensured their constant reproduction even to our own day.

FRAMINGHAM, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 27 sq. m. of hilly surface, dotted with lakes and ponds. Pop. (1890) 9239; (1900) 11,302, of whom 2391 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,948. It is served by the Boston & Albany, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. Included within the township are three villages, Framingham Center, Saxonville and South Framingham, the last being much the most important. Framingham Academy was established in 1792, and in 1851 became a part of the public school system. A state normal school (the first normal school in the United States, established at Lexington in 1839, removed to Newton in 1844 and to Framingham in 1853) is situated here; and near South Framingham, in the township of Sherborn, is the state reformatory prison for women. South Framingham has large manufactories of paper tags, shoes, boilers, carriage wheels and leather board; formerly straw braid and bonnets were the principal manufactures. Saxonville manufactures worsted cloth. The value of the township's factory products increased from $3,007,301 in 1900 to $4,173,579 in 1905, or 38.8%. Framingham was first settled about 1640, and was named in honour of the English home (Framlingham) of Governor Thomas Danforth (1622-1699), to whom the land once belonged. In 1700 it was incorporated as a township. The "old Connecticut path," the Boston-to-Worcester turnpike, was important to the early fortunes of Framingham Center, while the Boston & Worcester railway (1834) made the greater fortune of South Framingham.

See J.H. Temple, _History of Framingham ... 1640-1880_ (Framingham,
1887).

FRAMLINGHAM, a market town in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk, 91 m. N.E. from London by a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2526. The church of St Michael is a fine Perpendicular and Decorated building of black flint, surmounted by a tower 96 ft. high. In the interior there are a number of interesting monuments, among which the most noticeable are those of Thomas Howard, 3rd duke of Norfolk, and of Henry Howard, the famous earl of Surrey, who was beheaded by Henry VIII. The castle forms a picturesque ruin, consisting of the outer walls 44 ft. high and 8 ft. thick, 13 towers about 58 ft. high, a gateway and some outworks. About half a mile from the town is the Albert Memorial Middle Class College, opened in 1865, and capable of accommodating 300 boys. A bronze statue of the Prince Consort by Joseph Durham adorns the front terrace.

Framlingham (Frendlingham, Framalingaham) in early Saxon times was probably the site of a fortified earthwork to which St Edmund the Martyr is said to have fled from the Danes in 870. The Danes captured the stronghold after the escape of the king, but it was won back in 921, and remained in the hands of the crown, passing to William I. at the Conquest. Henry I. in 1100 granted it to Roger Bigod, who in all probability raised the first masonry castle. Hugh, son of Roger, created earl of Norfolk in 1141, succeeded his father, and the manor and castle remained in the Bigod family until 1306, when in default of heirs it reverted to the crown, and was granted by Edward II. to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton, created earl of Norfolk in 1312. On an account roll of Framlingham Castle of 1324 there is an entry of "rent received from the borough," also of "rent from those living outside the borough," and in all probability burghal rights had existed at a much earlier date, when the town had grown into some importance under the shelter of the castle. Town and castle followed the vicissitudes of the dukedom of Norfolk, passing to the crown in 1405, and being alternately restored and forfeited by Henry V., Richard III., Henry VII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth and James I., and finally sold in 1635 to Sir Robert Hitcham, who left it in 1636 to the master and fellows of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge.

In the account roll above mentioned reference is made to a fair and a market, but no early grant of either is to be found. In 1792 two annual fairs were held, one on Whit Monday, the other on the 10th of October; and a market was held every Saturday. The market day is still Saturday, but the fairs are discontinued.

See Robert Hawes, _History of Framlingham in the County of Suffolk_,
edited by R. Loder (Woodbridge, 1798).

FRANC, a French coin current at different periods and of varying values. The first coin so called was one struck in gold by John II. of France in 1360. On it was the legend _Johannes Dei gracia Francorum rex_; hence, it is said, the name. It also bore an effigy of King John on horseback, from which it was called a _franc à cheval_, to distinguish it from another coin of the same value, issued by Charles V., on which the king was represented standing upright under a Gothic dais; this coin was termed a _franc à pied_. As a coin it disappeared after the reign of Charles VI., but the name continued to be used as an equivalent for the _livre tournois_, which was worth twenty sols. French writers would speak without distinction of so many livres or so many francs, so long as the sum mentioned was an even sum; otherwise livre was the correct term, thus "_trois livres_" or "_trois francs_," but "_trois livres cinq sols_." In 1795 the livre was legally converted into the franc, at the rate of 81 livres to 80 francs, the silver franc being made to weigh exactly five grammes. The franc is now the unit of the monetary system and also the money of account in France, as well as in Belgium and Switzerland. In Italy the equivalent is the lira, and in Greece the drachma. The franc is divided into 100 centimes, the lira into 100 centesimi and the drachma into 100 lepta. Gold is now the standard, the coins in common use being ten and twenty franc pieces. The twenty franc gold piece weighs 6.4516 grammes, .900 fine. The silver coins are five, two, one, and half franc pieces. The five franc silver piece weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, while the franc piece weighs 5 grammes, .835 fine. See also MONEY.

FRANÇAIS, ANTOINE, COUNT (1756-1836), better known as FRANÇAIS OF NANTES, French politician and author, was born at Beaurepaire, in the department of Isère. In 1791 he was elected to the legislative assembly by the department of Loire Inférieure, and was noted for his violent attacks upon the farmers general, the pope and the priests; but he was not re-elected to the Convention. During the Terror, as he had belonged to the Girondin party, he was obliged to seek safety in the mountains. In 1798 he was elected to the council of Five Hundred by the department of Isère, and became one of its secretaries; and in the following year he voted against the Directory. He took office under the consulate as prefect of Charente Inférieure, rose to be a member of the council of state, and in 1804 obtained the important post of director-general of the indirect taxes (_droits réunis_). The value of his services was recognized by the titles of count of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. On the second restoration he retired into private life; but from 1819 to 1822 he was representative of the department of Isère, and after the July revolution he was made a peer of France. He died at Paris on the 7th of March 1836.

Français wrote a number of works, but his name is more likely to be
preserved by the eulogies of the literary men to whom he afforded
protection and assistance. It is sufficient to mention _Le Manuscrit
de feu M. Jérôme_ (1825); _Recueil de fadaises composé sur la montagne
à l'usage des habitants de la plaine_ (1826); _Voyage dans la vallée
des originaux_ (1828); _Tableau de la vie rurale, ou l'agriculture
enseignée d'une manière dramatique_ (1829).

FRANÇAIS, FRANÇOIS LOUIS (1814-1897), French painter, was born at Plombières (Vosges), and, on attaining the age of fifteen, was placed as office-boy with a bookseller. After a few years of hard struggle, during which he made a precarious living by drawing on stone and designing woodcut vignettes for book illustration, he studied painting under Gigoux, and subsequently under Corot, whose influence remained decisive upon Français's style of landscape painting. He generally found his subjects in the neighbourhood of Paris, and though he never rivalled his master in lightness of touch and in the lyric poetry which is the principal charm of Corot's work, he is still counted among the leading landscape painters of his country and period. He exhibited first at the Salon in 1837 and was elected to the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1890. Comparatively few of his pictures are to be found in public galleries, but his painting of "An Italian Sunset" is at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris. Other works of importance are "Daphnis et Chloé" (1872), "Bas Meudon" (1861), "Orpheus" (1863), "Le Bois sacré" (1864), "Le Lac de Némi" (1868).

FRANCATELLI, CHARLES ELMÉ (1805-1876), Anglo-Italian cook, was born in London, of Italian extraction, in 1805, and was educated in France, where he studied the art of cookery. Coming to England, he was employed successively by various noblemen, subsequently becoming manager of Crockford's club. He left Crockford's to become chief cook to Queen Victoria, and afterwards he was chef at the Reform Club. He was the author of _The Modern Cook_ (1845), which has since been frequently republished; of a _Plain Cookery Book for the Working Classes_ (1861), and of _The Royal English and Foreign Confectionery Book_ (1862). Francatelli died at Eastbourne on the 10th of August 1876.

FRANCAVILLA FONTANA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 22 m. by rail E. by N. of Taranto, 460 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 17,759 (town); 20,510 (commune). It is in a fine situation, and has a massive square castle of the Umperiali family, to whom, with Oria, it was sold by S. Carlo Borromeo in the 16th century for 40,000 ounces of gold, which he distributed in one day to the poor.

FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844- ), French critic, essayist and novelist (whose real name was Jacques Anatole Thibault), was born in Paris on the 16th of April 1844. His father was a bookseller, one of the last of the booksellers, if we are to believe the Goncourts, into whose establishment men came, not merely to order and buy, but to dip, and turn over pages and discuss. As a child he used to listen to the nightly talks on literary subjects which took place in his father's shop. Nurtured in an atmosphere so essentially bookish, he turned naturally to literature. In 1868 his first work appeared, a study of Alfred de Vigny, followed in 1873 by a volume of verse, _Les Poëmes dorés_, dedicated to Leconte de Lisle, and, as such a dedication suggests, an outcome of the "Parnassian" movement; and yet another volume of verse appeared in 1876, _Les Noces corinthiennes_. But the poems in these volumes, though unmistakably the work of a man of great literary skill and cultured taste, are scarcely the poems of a man with whom verse is the highest form of expression.

He was to find his richest vein in prose. He himself, avowing his preference for a simple, or seemingly simple, style as compared with the _artistic_ style, vaunted by the Goncourts--a style compounded of neologisms and "rare" epithets, and startling forms of expression--observes: "A simple style is like white light. It is complex, but not to outward seeming. In language, a beautiful and desirable simplicity is but an appearance, and results only from the good order and sovereign economy of the various parts of speech." And thus one may say of his own style that its beautiful translucency is the result of many qualities--felicity, grace, the harmonious grouping of words, a perfect measure. Anatole France is a sceptic. The essence of his philosophy, if a spirit so light; evanescent, elusive, can be said to have a philosophy, is doubt. He is a doubter in religion, metaphysics, morals, politics, aesthetics, science--a most genial and kindly doubter, and not at all without doubts even as to his own negative conclusions. Sometimes his doubts are expressed in his own person--as in the _Jardin d'épicure_ (1894) from which the above extracts are taken, or _Le Livre de mon ami_ (1885), which may be accepted, perhaps, as partly autobiographical; sometimes, as in _La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque_ (1893) and _Les Opinions de M. Jérôme Coignard_ (1893), or _L'Orme du mail_ (1897), Le Mannequin d'osier (1897), _L'Anneau d'améthyste_ (1899), and _M. Bergeret à Paris_ (1901), he entrusts the expression of his opinions, dramatically, to some fictitious character--the abbé Coignard, for instance, projecting, as it were, from the 18th century some very effective criticisms on the popular political theories of contemporary France--or the M. Bergeret of the four last-named novels, which were published with the collective title of _Histoire contemporaine_. This series deals with some modern problems, and particularly, in _L'Anneau d'améthyste_ and _M. Bergeret à Paris_, with the humours and follies of the anti-Dreyfusards. All this makes a piquant combination. Neither should reference be omitted to his _Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard_ (1881), crowned by the Institute, nor to works more distinctly of fancy, such as _Balthasar_ (1889), the story of one of the Magi or _Thaïs_ (1890), the story of an actress and courtesan of Alexandria, whom a hermit converts, but with the loss of his own soul. His ironic comedy, _Crainquebille_ (Renaissance theatre, 1903), was founded on his novel (1902) of the same year. His more recent work includes his anti-clerical _Vie de Jeanne d'Arc_ (1908); his pungent satire the _Île des penguins_ (1908); and a volume of stories, _Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue_ (1909). Lightly as he bears his erudition, it is very real and extensive, and is notably shown in his utilization of modern archaeological and historical research in his fiction (as in the stories in _Sur une pierre blanche_). As a critic--see the _Vie littéraire_ (1888-1892), reprinted mainly from _Le Temps_--he is graceful and appreciative. Academic in the best sense, he found a place in the French Academy, taking the seat vacated by Lesseps, and was received into that body on the 24th of December 1896. In the _affaire Dreyfus_ he sided with M. Zola.

For studies of M. Anatole France's talent see Maurice Bàrrès, _Anatole
France_ (1885); Jules Lemaître, _Les Contemporains_ (2nd series,
1886); and G. Brandes, _Anatole France_ (1908). In 1908 Frederic
Chapman began an edition of _The works of Anatole France in an English
translation_ (John Lane).

FRANCE, a country of western Europe, situated between 51° 5' and 42° 20' N., and 4° 42' W. and 7° 39' E. It is hexagonal in form, being bounded N.W. by the North Sea, the Strait of Dover (_Pas de Calais_) and the English Channel (_La Manche_), W. by the Atlantic Ocean, S.W. by Spain, S.E. by the Mediterranean Sea, E. by Italy, Switzerland and Germany, N.E. by Germany, Luxemburg and Belgium. From north to south its length is about 600 m., measured from Dunkirk to the Col de Falguères; its breadth from east to west is 528 m., from the Vosges to Cape Saint Mathieu at the extremity of Brittany. The total area is estimated[1] at 207,170 sq. m., including the island of Corsica, which comprises 3367 sq. m. The coast-line of France extends for 384 m. on the Mediterranean, 700 on the North Sea, the Strait of Dover and the Channel, and 865 on the Atlantic. The country has the advantage of being separated from its neighbours over the greater part of its frontier by natural barriers of great strength, the Pyrenees forming a powerful bulwark on the south-west, the Alps on the south-east, and the Jura and the greater portion of the Vosges Mountains on the east. The frontier generally follows the crest line of these ranges. Germany possesses both slopes of the Vosges north of Mont Donon, from which point the north-east boundary is conventional and unprotected by nature.

France is geographically remarkable for its possession of great natural and historical highways between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. The one, following the depression between the central plateau and the eastern mountains by way of the valleys of the Rhône and Saône, traverses the Côte d'Or hills and so gains the valley of the Seine; the other, skirting the southern base of the Cévennes, reaches the ocean by way of the Garonne valley. Another natural highway, traversing the lowlands to the west of the central plateau, unites the Seine basin with that of the Garonne.

_Physiography._--A line drawn from Bayonne through Agen, Poitiers,
Troyes, Reims and Valenciennes divides the country roughly into two
dissimilar physical regions--to the west and north-west a country of
plains and low plateaus; in the centre, east and south-east a country
of mountains and high plateaus with a minimum elevation of 650 ft. To
the west of this line the only highlands of importance are the
granitic plateaus of Brittany and the hills of Normandy and Perche,
which, uniting with the plateau of Beauce, separate the basins of the
Seine and Loire. The highest elevations of these ranges do not exceed
1400 ft. The configuration of the region east of the dividing line is
widely different. Its most striking feature is the mountainous and
eruptive area known as the Massif Central, which covers south-central
France. The central point of this huge tract is formed by the
mountains of Auvergne comprising the group of Cantal, where the Plomb
du Cantal attains 6096 ft., and that of Mont Dore, containing the Puy
de Sancy (6188 ft.), the culminating point of the Massif, and to the
north the lesser elevations of the Monts Dôme. On the west the
downward slope is gradual by way of lofty plateaus to the heights of
Limousin and Marche and the table-land of Quercy, thence to the plains
of Poitou, Angoumois and Guienne. On the east only river valleys
divide the Auvergne mountains from those of Forez and Margeride,
western spurs of the Cévennes. On the south the Aubrac mountains and
the barren plateaus known as the Causses intervene between them and
the Cévennes. The main range of the Cévennes (highest point Mont
Lozère, 5584 ft.) sweeps in a wide curve from the granitic table-land
of Morvan in the north along the right banks of the Saône and Rhône to
the Montagne Noire in the south, where it is separated from the
Pyrenean system by the river Aude. On the south-western border of
France the Pyrenees include several peaks over 10,000 ft. within
French territory; the highest elevation therein, the Vignemale, in the
centre of the range, reaches 10,820 ft. On the north their most
noteworthy offshoots are, in the centre, the plateau of Lannemezan
from which rivers radiate fanwise to join the Adour and Garonne; and
in the east the Corbière. On the south-eastern frontier the French
Alps, which include Mont Blanc (15,800 ft.), and, more to the south,
other summits over 11,000 ft. in height, cover Savoy and most of
Dauphiné and Provence, that is to say, nearly the whole of France to
the south and east of the Rhône. North of that river the parallel
chains of the Jura form an arc of a circle with its convexity towards
the north-west. In the southern and most elevated portion of the range
there are several summits exceeding 5500 ft. Separated from the Jura
by the defile of Belfort (Trouée de Belfort) the Vosges extend
northward parallel to the course of the Rhine. Their culminating
points in French territory, the Ballon d'Alsace and the Höhneck in the
southern portion of the chain, reach 4100 ft. and 4480 ft. The Vosges
are buttressed on the west by the Faucilles, which curve southwards to
meet the plateau of Langres, and by the plateaus of Haute-Marne,
united to the Ardennes on the north-eastern frontier by the wooded
highlands of Argonne.

_Seaboard._--The shore of the Mediterranean encircling the Gulf of the
Lion (Golfe du Lion)[2] from Cape Cerbera to Martigues is low-lying
and unbroken, and characterized chiefly by lagoons separated from the
sea by sand-dunes. The coast, constantly encroaching on the sea by
reason of the alluvium washed down by the rivers of the Pyrenees and
Cévennes, is without important harbours saving that of Cette, itself
continually invaded by the sand. East of Martigues the coast is rocky
and of greater altitude, and is broken by projecting capes (Couronne,
Croisette, Sicié, the peninsula of Giens and Cape Antibes), and by
deep gulfs forming secure roadsteads such as those of Marseilles,
which has the chief port in France, Toulon, with its great naval
harbour, and Hyères, to which may be added the Gulf of St Tropez.

Along the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Adour to the estuary
of the Gironde there stretches a monotonous line of sand-dunes
bordered by lagoons on the land side, but towards the sea harbourless
and unbroken save for the Bay of Arcachon. To the north as far as the
rocky point of St Gildas, sheltering the mouth of the Loire, the
shore, often occupied by salt marshes (marshes of Poitou and
Brittany), is low-lying and hollowed by deep bays sheltered by large
islands, those of Oléron and Ré lying opposite the ports of Rochefort
and La Rochelle, while Noirmoutier closes the Bay of Bourgneuf.

Beyond the Loire estuary, on the north shore of which is the port of
St Nazaire, the peninsula of Brittany projects into the ocean and here
begins the most rugged, wild and broken portion of the French
seaboard; the chief of innumerable indentations are, on the south the
Gulf of Morbihan, which opens into a bay protected to the west by the
narrow peninsula of Quiberon, the Bay of Lorient with the port of
Lorient, and the Bay of Concarneau; on the west the dangerous Bay of
Audierne and the Bay of Douarnenez separated from the spacious
roadstead of Brest, with its important naval port, by the peninsula of
Crozon, and forming with it a great indentation sheltered by Cape St
Mathieu on the north and by Cape Raz on the south; on the north,
opening into the English Channel, the Morlaix roads, the Bay of St
Brieuc, the estuary of the Rance, with the port of St Malo and the Bay
of St Michel. Numerous small archipelagoes and islands, of which the
chief are Belle Île, Groix and Ushant, fringe the Breton coast. North
of the Bay of St Michel the peninsula of Cotentin, terminating in the
promontories of Hague and Barfleur, juts north into the English
Channel and closes the bay of the Seine on the west. Cherbourg, its
chief harbour, lies on the northern shore between the two
promontories. The great port of Le Havre stands at the mouth of the
Seine estuary, which opens into the bay of the Seine on the east.
North of that point a line of high cliffs, in which occur the ports of
Fécamp and Dieppe, stretches nearly to the sandy estuary of the Somme.
North of that river the coast is low-lying and bordered by sand-dunes,
to which succeed on the Strait of Dover the cliffs in the
neighbourhood of the port of Boulogne and the marshes and sand-dunes
of Flanders, with the ports of Calais and Dunkirk, the latter the
principal French port on the North Sea.

To the maritime ports mentioned above must be added the river ports of
Bayonne (on the Adour), Bordeaux (on the Garonne), Nantes (on the
Loire), Rouen (on the Seine). On the whole, however, France is
inadequately provided with natural harbours; her long tract of coast
washed by the Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay has scarcely three or
four good seaports, and those on the southern shore of the Channel
form a striking contrast to the spacious maritime inlets on the
English side.

_Rivers._--The greater part of the surface of France is divided
between four principal and several secondary basins.

The basin of the Rhône, with an area (in France) of about 35,000 sq.
m., covers eastern France from the Mediterranean to the Vosges, from
the Cévennes and the Plateau de Langres to the crests of the Jura and
the Alps. Alone among French rivers, the Rhône, itself Alpine in
character in its upper course, is partly fed by Alpine rivers (the
Arve, the Isère and the Durance) which have their floods in spring at
the melting of the snow, and are maintained by glacier-water in
summer. The Rhône, the source of which is in Mont St Gothard, in
Switzerland, enters France by the narrow defile of L'Écluse, and has a
somewhat meandering course, first flowing south, then north-west, and
then west as far as Lyons, whence it runs straight south till it
reaches the Mediterranean, into which it discharges itself by two
principal branches, which form the delta or island of the Camargue.
The Ain, the Saône (which rises in the Faucilles and in the lower part
of its course skirting the regions of Bresse and Dombes, receives the
Doubs and joins the Rhône at Lyons), the Ardèche and the Gard are the
affluents on the right; on the left it is joined by the Arve, the
Isère, the Drôme and the Durance. The small independent river, the
Var, drains that portion of the Alps which fringes the Mediterranean.

The basin of the Garonne occupies south-western France with the
exception of the tracts covered by the secondary basins of the Adour,
the Aude, the Hérault, the Orb and other smaller rivers, and the
low-lying plain of the Landes, which is watered by numerous coast
rivers, notably by the Leyre. Its area is nearly 33,000 sq. m., and
extends from the Pyrenees to the uplands of Saintonge, Périgord and
Limousin. The Garonne rises in the valley of Aran (Spanish Pyrenees),
enters France near Bagnères-de-Luchon, has first a north-west course,
then bends to the north-east, and soon resumes its first direction.
Joining the Atlantic between Royan and the Pointe de Grave, opposite
the tower of Cordouan. In the lower part of its course, from the
Bec-d'Ambez, where it receives the Dordogne, it becomes considerably
wider, and takes the name of Gironde. The principal affluents are the
Ariège, the Tarn with the Aveyron and the Agout, the Lot and the
Dordogne, which descends from Mont Dore-les-Bains, and joins the
Garonne at Bec-d'Ambez, to form the Gironde. All these affluents are
on the right, and with the exception of the Ariège, which descends
from the eastern Pyrenees, rise in the mountains of Auvergne and the
southern Cévennes, their sources often lying close to those of the
rivers of the Loire and Rhône basins. The Neste, a Pyrenean torrent,
and the Save, the Gers and the Baïse, rising on the plateau of
Lannemezan, are the principal left-hand tributaries of the Garonne.
North of the basin of the Garonne an area of over 3800 sq. m. is
watered by the secondary system of the Charente, which descends from
Chéronnac (Haute-Vienne), traverses Angoulême and falls into the
Atlantic near Rochefort. Farther to the north a number of small
rivers, the chief of which is the Sèvre Niortaise, drain the coast
region to the south of the plateau of Gâtine.

The basin of the Loire, with an area of about 47,000 sq. m., includes
a great part of central and western France or nearly a quarter of the
whole country. The Loire rises in Mont Gerbier de Jonc, in the range
of the Vivarais mountains, flows due north to Nevers, then turns to
the north-west as far as Orléans, in the neighbourhood of which it
separates the marshy region of the Sologne (q.v.) on the south from
the wheat-growing region of Beauce and the Gâtinais on the north.
Below Orléans it takes its course towards the south-west, and lastly
from Saumur runs west, till it reaches the Atlantic between Paimboeuf
and St Nazaire. On the right the Loire receives the waters of the
Furens, the Arroux, the Nièvre, the Maine (formed by the Mayenne and
the Sarthe with its affluent the Loir), and the Erdre, which joins the
Loire at Nantes; on the left, the Allier (which receives the Dore and
the Sioule), the Loiret, the Cher, the Indre, the Vienne with its
affluent the Creuse, the Thouet, and the Sèvre-Nantaise. The peninsula
of Brittany and the coasts of Normandy on both sides of the Seine
estuary are watered by numerous independent streams. Amongst these the
Vilaine, which passes Rennes and Redon, waters, with its tributaries,
an area of 4200 sq. m. The Orne, which rises in the hills of Normandy
and falls into the Channel below Caen, is of considerably less
importance.

The basin of the Seine, though its area of a little over 30,000 sq. m.
is smaller than that of any of the other main systems, comprises the
finest network of navigable rivers in the country. It is by far the
most important basin of northern France, those of the Somme and
Scheldt in the north-west together covering less than 5000 sq. m.,
those of the Meuse and the Rhine in the north-east less than 7000 sq.
m. The Seine descends from the Langres plateau, flows north-west down
to Méry, turns to the west, resumes its north-westerly direction at
Montereau, passes through Paris and Rouen and discharges itself into
the Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur. Its affluents are, on the
right, the Aube; the Marne, which joins the Seine at Charenton near
Paris; the Oise, which has its source in Belgium and is enlarged by
the Aisne; and the Epte; on the left the Yonne, the Loing, the
Essonne, the Eure and the Rille.

_Lakes._--France has very few lakes. The Lake of Geneva, which forms
32 m. of the frontier, belongs to Switzerland. The most important
French lake is that of Grand-Lieu, between Nantes and Paimboeuf
(Loire-Inférieure), which presents a surface of 17,300 acres. There
may also be mentioned the lakes of Bourget and Annecy (both in Savoy),
St Point (Jura), Paladru (Isère) and Nantua (Ain). The marshy
districts of Sologne, Brenne, Landes and Dombes still contain large
undrained tracts. The coasts present a number of maritime inlets,
forming inland bays, which communicate with the sea by channels of
greater or less width. Some of these are on the south-west coast, in
the Landes, as Carcans, Lacanau, Biscarosse, Cazau, Sanguinet; but
more are to be found in the south and south-east, in Languedoc and
Provence, as Leucate, Sigean, Thau, Vaccarès, Berre, &c. Their want of
depth prevents them from serving as roadsteads for shipping, and they
are useful chiefly for fishing or for the manufacture of bay-salt.

_Climate._--The north and north-west of France bear a great
resemblance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England,
rain occurring frequently, and the country being consequently suited
for pasture. In the interior the rains are less frequent, but when
they occur are far more heavy, so that there is much less difference
in the annual rainfall there as compared with the rest of the country
than in the number of rainy days. The annual rainfall for the whole of
France averages about 32 in. The precipitation is greatest on the
Atlantic seaboard and in the elevated regions of the interior. It
attains over 60 in. in the basin of the Adour (71 in. at the western
extremity of the Pyrenees), and nearly as much in the Vosges, Morvan,
Cévennes and parts of the central plateau. The zone of level country
extending from Reims and Troyes to Angers and Poitiers, with the
exception of the Loire valley and the Brie, receives less than 24 in.
of rain annually (Paris about 23 in.), as also does the Mediterranean
coast west of Marseilles. The prevailing winds, mild and humid, are
west winds from the Atlantic; continental climatic influence makes
itself felt in the east wind, which is frequent in winter and in the
east of France, while the _mistral_, a violent wind from the
north-west, is characteristic of the Mediterranean region. The local
climates of France may be grouped under the following seven
designations: (1) Sequan climate, characterizing the Seine basin and
northern France, with a mean temperature of 50° F., the winters being
cold, the summers mild; (2) Breton climate, with a mean temperature of
51.8° F., the winters being mild, the summers temperate, it is
characterized by west and south-west winds and frequent fine rains;
(3) Girondin climate (characterizing Bordeaux, Agen, Pau, &c.), having
a mean of 53.6° F., with mild winters and hot summers, the prevailing
wind is from the north-west, the average rainfall about 28 in.; (4)
Auvergne climate, comprising the Cévennes, central plateau, Clermont,
Limoges and Rodez, mean temperature 51.8° F., with cold winters and
hot summers; (5) Vosges climate (comprehending Epinal, Mézières and
Nancy), having a mean of 48.2° F., with long and severe winters and
hot and rainy summers; (6) Rhône climate (experienced by Lyons,
Chalon, Mâcon, Grenoble) mean temperature 51.8° F., with cold and wet
winters and hot summers, the prevailing winds are north and south; (7)
Mediterranean climate, ruling at Valence, Nîmes, Nice and Marseilles,
mean temperature, 57.5° F., with mild winters and hot and almost
rainless summers.