Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Fox, George" to "France"

Chapter III: Part 3

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_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of southern France and the Mediterranean
is distinct from that of the rest of the country, which does not
differ in vegetation from western Europe generally. Evergreens
predominate in the south, where grow subtropical plants such as the
myrtle, arbutus, laurel, holm-oak, olive and fig; varieties of the
same kind are also found on the Atlantic coast (as far north as the
Cotentin), where the humidity and mildness of the climate favour their
growth. The orange, date-palm and eucalyptus have been acclimatized on
the coast of Provence and the Riviera. Other trees of southern France
are the cork-oak and the Aleppo and maritime pines. In north and
central France the chief trees are the oak, the beech, rare south of
the Loire, and the hornbeam; less important varieties are the birch,
poplar, ash, elm and walnut. The chestnut covers considerable areas in
Périgord, Limousin and Béarn; resinous trees (firs, pines, larches,
&c.) form fine forests in the Vosges and Jura.

The indigenous fauna include the bear, now very rare but still found
in the Alps and Pyrenees, the wolf, harbouring chiefly in the Cévennes
and Vosges, but in continually decreasing areas; the fox, marten,
badger, weasel, otter, the beaver in the extreme south of the Rhône
valley, and in the Alps the marmot; the red deer and roe deer are
preserved in many of the forests, and the wild boar is found in
several districts; the chamois and wild goat survive in the Pyrenees
and Alps. Hares, rabbits and squirrels are common. Among birds of prey
may be mentioned the eagle and various species of hawk, and among
game-birds the partridge and pheasant. The reptiles include the
ringed-snake, slow-worm, viper and lizard. (R. Tr.)

_Geology._--Many years ago it was pointed out by Élíe de Beaumont and
Dufrénoy that the Jurassic rocks of France form upon the map an
incomplete figure of 8. Within the northern circle of the 8 lie the
Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the Paris basin, dipping inwards; within
the southern circle lie the ancient rocks of the Central Plateau, from
which the later beds dip outwards. Outside the northern circle lie on
the west the folded Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany, and on the north the
Palaeozoic _massif_ of the Ardennes. Outside the southern circle lie
on the west the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the basin of the
Garonne, with the Pyrenees beyond, and on the east the Mesozoic and
Tertiary beds of the valley of the Rhône, with the Alps beyond.

In the geological history of France there have been two great periods
of folding since Archean times. The first of these occurred towards
the close of the Palaeozoic era, when a great mountain system was
raised in the north running approximately from E. to W., and another
chain arose in the south, running from S.W. to N.E. Of the former the
remnants are now seen in Brittany and the Ardennes; of the latter the
Cévennes and the Montagne Noire are the last traces visible on the
surface. The second great folding took place in Tertiary times, and to
it was due the final elevation of the Jura and the Western Alps and of
the Pyrenees. No great mountain chain was ever raised by a single
effort, and folding went on to some extent in other periods besides
those mentioned. There were, moreover, other and broader oscillations
which raised or lowered extensive areas without much crumpling of the
strata, and to these are due some of the most important breaks in the
geological series.

The oldest rocks, the gneisses and schists of the Archean period, form
nearly the whole of the Central Plateau, and are also exposed in the
axes of the folds in Brittany. The Central Plateau has probably been a
land mass ever since this period, but the rest of the country was
flooded by the Palaeozoic sea. The earlier deposits of that sea now
rise to the surface in Brittany, the Ardennes, the Montagne Noire and
the Cévennes, and in all these regions they are intensely folded.
Towards the close of the Palaeozoic era France had become a part of a
great continent; in the north the Coal Measures of the Boulonnais and
the Nord were laid down in direct connexion with those of Belgium and
England, while in the Central Plateau the Coal Measures were deposited
in isolated and scattered basins. The Permian and Triassic deposits
were also, for the most part, of continental origin; but with the
formation of the Rhaetic beds the sea again began to spread, and
throughout the greater part of the Jurassic period it covered nearly
the whole of the country except the Central Plateau, Brittany and the
Ardennes. Towards the end of the period, however, during the
deposition of the Portlandian beds, the sea again retreated, and in
the early part of the Cretaceous period was limited (in France) to the
catchment basins of the Saône and Rhône--in the Paris basin the
contemporaneous deposits were chiefly estuarine and were confined to
the northern and eastern rim. Beginning with the Aptian and Albian the
sea again gradually spread over the country and attained its maximum
in the early part of the Senonian epoch, when once more the ancient
massifs of the Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes, alone rose
above the waves. There was still, however, a well-marked difference
between the deposits of the northern and the southern parts of France,
the former consisting of chalk, as in England, and the latter of
sandstones and limestones with Hippurites. During the later part of
the Cretaceous period the sea gradually retreated and left the whole
country dry.

During the Tertiary period arms of the sea spread into France--in the
Paris basin from the north, in the basins of the Loire and the Garonne
from the west, and in the Rhône area from the south. The changes,
however, were too numerous and complex to be dealt with here.

In France, as in Great Britain, volcanic eruptions occurred during
several of the Palaeozoic periods, but during the Mesozoic era the
country was free from outbursts, except in the regions of the Alps and
Pyrenees. In Tertiary times the Central Plateau was the theatre of
great volcanic activity from the Miocene to the Pleistocene periods,
and many of the volcanoes remain as nearly perfect cones to the
present day. The rocks are mainly basalts and andesites, together with
trachytes and phonolites, and some of the basaltic flows are of
enormous extent.

On the geology of France see the classic _Explication de la carte
géologique de la France_ (Paris, vol. i. 1841, vol. ii. 1848), by
Dufrénoy and Élie de Beaumont; a more modern account, with full
references, is given by A. de Lapparent, _Traité de géologie_ (Paris,
1906). (J. A. H.)

_Population._

The French nation is formed of many different elements. Iberian influence in the south-west, Ligurian on the shores of the Mediterranean, Germanic immigrations from east of the Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in the north-west have tended to produce ethnographical diversities which ease of intercommunication and other modern conditions have failed to obliterate. The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by individuals of rather less than average height, brown-haired and brachycephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peoples the region between the Seine and the Garonne; in southern France a different type, dolichocephalic, short and with black hair and eyes, predominates. The tall, fair and blue-eyed individuals who are found to the north-east of the Seine and in Normandy appear to be nearer in race to the Scandinavian and Germanic invaders; a tall and darker type with long faces and aquiline noses occurs in some parts of Franche-Comté and Champagne, the Vosges and the Perche. From the Celts has been derived the gay, brilliant and adventurous temperament easily moved to extremes of enthusiasm and depression, which combined with logical and organizing faculties of a high order, the heritage from the Latin domination, and with the industry, frugality and love of the soil natural in an agricultural people go to make up the national character. The Bretons, who most nearly represent the Celts, and the Basques, who inhabit parts of the western versant of the Pyrenees, have preserved their distinctive languages and customs, and are ethnically the most interesting sections of the nation; the Flemings of French Flanders where Flemish is still spoken are also racially distinct. The immigration of Belgians into the northern departments and of Italians into those of the south-east exercise a constant modifying influence on the local populations.

During the 19th century the population of France increased to a less extent than that of any other country (except Ireland) for which definite data exist, and during the last twenty years of that period it was little more than stationary. The following table exhibits the rate of increase as indicated by the censuses from 1876 to 1906.

Population.

1876 36,905,788
1881 37,672,048
1886 38,218,903
1891 38,342,948
1896 38,517,975
1901 38,961,945
1906 39,252,245

Thus the rate of increase during the decade 1891-1901 was .16%, whereas during the same period the population of England increased 1.08%. The birth-rate markedly decreased during the 19th century; despite an increase of population between 1801 and 1901 amounting to 40%, the number of births in the former was 904,000, as against 857,000 in the latter year, the diminution being accompanied by a decrease in the annual number of deaths.[3] In the following table the decrease in births and deaths for the decennial periods during the thirty years ending 1900 are compared.

_Births._

1871-1880 935,000 or 25.4 per 1000
1881-1890 909,000 " 23.9 "
1891-1900 853,000 " 22.2 "

_Deaths._

1871-1880 870,900 or 23.7 per 1000
1881-1890 841,700 " 22.1 "
1891-1900 829,000 " 21.5 "

About two-thirds of the French departments, comprising a large proportion of those situated in mountainous districts and in the basin of the Garonne, where the birth-rate is especially feeble, show a decrease in population. Those which show an increase usually possess large centres of industry and are already thickly populated, e.g. Seine and Pas-de-Calais. In most departments the principal cause of decrease of population is the attraction of great centres. The average density of population in France is about 190 to the square mile, the tendency being for the large towns to increase at the expense of the small towns as well as the rural communities. In 1901 37% of the population lived in centres containing more than 2000 inhabitants, whereas in 1861 the proportion was 28%. Besides the industrial districts the most thickly populated regions include the coast of the department of Seine-Inférieure and Brittany, the wine-growing region of the Bordelais and the Riviera.[4]

In the quinquennial period 1901-1905, out of the total number of births the number of illegitimate births to every 1000 inhabitants was 2.0, as compared with 2.1 in the four preceding periods of like duration.

In 1906 the number of foreigners in France was 1,009,415 as compared with 1,027,491 in 1896 and 1,115,214 in 1886. The departments with the largest population of foreigners were Nord (191,678), in which there is a large proportion of Belgians; Bouches-du-Rhône (123,497), Alpes-Maritimes (93,554), Var (47,475), Italians being numerous in these three departments; Seine (153,647), Meurthe-et-Moselle (44,595), Pas-de-Calais (21,436) and Ardennes (21,401).

The following table gives the area in square miles of each of the eighty-seven departments with its population according to the census returns of 1886, 1896 and 1906:

+-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------------------+
| | Area | | Population. |
| Departments. | sq. m. +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | | 1886. | 1896. | 1906. |
+-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Ain | 2,249 | 364,408 | 351,569 | 345,856 |
| Aisne | 2,867 | 555,925 | 541,613 | 534,495 |
| Allier | 2,849 | 424,582 | 424,378 | 417,961 |
| Alpes-Maritimes | 1,442 | 238,057 | 265,155 | 334,007 |
| Ardèche | 2,145 | 375,472 | 363,501 | 347,140 |
| Ardennes | 2,028 | 332,759 | 318,865 | 317,505 |
| Ariège | 1,893 | 237,619 | 219,641 | 205,684 |
| Aube | 2,326 | 257,374 | 251,435 | 243,670 |
| Aude | 2,448 | 332,080 | 310,513 | 308,327 |
| Aveyron | 3,386 | 415,826 | 389,464 | 377,299 |
| Basses-Alpes | 2,698 | 129,494 | 118,142 | 113,126 |
| Basses-Pyrénées | 2,977 | 432,999 | 423,572 | 426,817 |
| Belfort, Territoire de| 235 | 79,758 | 88,047 | 95,421 |
| Bouches-du-Rhône | 2,026 | 604,857 | 673,820 | 765,918 |
| Calvados | 2,197 | 437,267 | 417,176 | 403,431 |
| Cantal | 2,231 | 241,742 | 234,382 | 228,690 |
| Charente | 2,305 | 366,408 | 356,236 | 351,733 |
| Charente-Inférieure | 2,791 | 462,803 | 453,455 | 453,793 |
| Cher | 2,819 | 355,349 | 347,725 | 343,484 |
| Corrèze | 2,273 | 326,494 | 322,393 | 317,430 |
| Corse (Corsica) | 3,367 | 278,501 | 290,168 | 291,160 |
| Côte-d'Or | 3,392 | 381,574 | 368,168 | 357,959 |
| Côtes-du-Nord | 2,786 | 628,256 | 616,074 | 611,506 |
| Creuse | 2,164 | 284,942 | 279,366 | 274,094 |
| Deux-Sèvres | 2,337 | 353,766 | 346,694 | 339,466 |
| Dordogne | 3,561 | 492,205 | 464,822 | 447,052 |
| Doubs | 2,030 | 310,963 | 302,046 | 298,438 |
| Drôme | 2,533 | 314,615 | 303,491 | 297,270 |
| Eure | 2,330 | 358,829 | 340,652 | 330,140 |
| Eure-et-Loir | 2,293 | 283,719 | 280,469 | 273,823 |
| Finistère | 2,713 | 707,820 | 739,648 | 795,103 |
| Gard | 2,270 | 417,099 | 416,036 | 421,166 |
| Gers | 2,428 | 274,391 | 250,472 | 231,088 |
| Gironde | 4,140 | 775,845 | 809,902 | 823,925 |
| Haute-Garonne | 2,458 | 481,169 | 459,377 | 442,065 |
| Haute-Loire | 1,931 | 320,063 | 316,699 | 314,770 |
| Haute-Marne | 2,415 | 247,781 | 232,057 | 221,724 |
| Hautes-Alpes | 2,178 | 122,924 | 113,229 | 107,498 |
| Haute-Saône | 2,075 | 290,954 | 272,891 | 263,890 |
| Haute-Savoie | 1,775 | 275,018 | 265,872 | 260,617 |
| Hautes-Pyrénées | 1,750 | 234,825 | 218,973 | 209,397 |
| Haute-Vienne | 2,144 | 363,182 | 375,724 | 385,732 |
| Hérault | 2,403 | 439,044 | 469,684 | 482,799 |
| Ille-et-Vilaine | 2,699 | 621,384 | 622,039 | 611,805 |
| Indre | 2,666 | 296,147 | 289,206 | 290,216 |
| Indre-et-Loire | 2,377 | 340,921 | 337,064 | 337,916 |
| Isère | 3,179 | 581,680 | 568,933 | 562,315 |
| Jura | 1,951 | 281,292 | 266,143 | 257,725 |
| Landes | 3,615 | 302,266 | 292,884 | 293,397 |
| Loir-et-Cher | 2,479 | 279,214 | 278,153 | 276,019 |
| Loire | 1,853 | 603,384 | 625,336 | 643,943 |
| Loire-Inférieure | 2,694 | 643,884 | 646,172 | 666,748 |
| Loiret | 2,629 | 374,875 | 371,019 | 364,999 |
| Lot | 2,017 | 271,514 | 240,403 | 216,611 |
| Lot-et-Garonne | 2,079 | 307,437 | 286,377 | 274,610 |
| Lozère | 1,999 | 141,264 | 132,151 | 128,016 |
| Maine-et-Loire | 2,706 | 527,680 | 514,870 | 513,490 |
| Manche | 2,475 | 520,865 | 500,052 | 487,443 |
| Marne | 3,167 | 429,494 | 439,577 | 434,157 |
| Mayenne | 2,012 | 340,063 | 321,187 | 305,457 |
| Meurthe-et-Moselle | 2,038 | 431,693 | 466,417 | 517,508 |
| Meuse | 2,409 | 291,971 | 290,384 | 280,220 |
| Morbihan | 2,738 | 535,256 | 552,028 | 573,152 |
| Nièvre | 2,659 | 347,645 | 333,899 | 313,972 |
| Nord | 2,229 | 1,670,184 | 1,811,868 | 1,895,861 |
| Oise | 2,272 | 403,146 | 404,511 | 410,049 |
| Orne | 2,372 | 367,248 | 339,162 | 315,993 |
| Pas-de-Calais | 2,606 | 853,526 | 906,249 | 1,012,466 |
| Puy-de-Dôme | 3,094 | 570,964 | 555,078 | 535,419 |
| Pyrénées-Orientales | 1,599 | 211,187 | 208,387 | 213,171 |
| Rhône | 1,104 | 772,912 | 839,329 | 858,907 |
| Saône-et-Loire | 3,330 | 625,885 | 621,237 | 613,377 |
| Sarthe | 2,410 | 436,111 | 425,077 | 421,470 |
| Savoie | 2,389 | 267,428 | 259,790 | 253,297 |
| Seine | 185 | 2,961,089 | 3,340,514 | 3,848,618 |
| Seine-Inférieure | 2,448 | 833,386 | 837,824 | 863,879 |
| Seine-et-Marne | 2,289 | 355,136 | 359,044 | 361,939 |
| Seine-et-Oise | 2,184 | 618,089 | 669,098 | 749,753 |
| Somme | 2,423 | 548,982 | 543,279 | 532,567 |
| Tarn | 2,231 | 358,757 | 339,827 | 330,533 |
| Tarn-et-Garonne | 1,440 | 214,046 | 200,390 | 188,553 |
| Var | 2,325 | 283,689 | 309,191 | 324,638 |
| Vaucluse | 1,381 | 241,787 | 236,313 | 239,178 |
| Vendée | 2,708 | 434,808 | 441,735 | 442,777 |
| Vienne | 2,719 | 342,785 | 338,114 | 333,621 |
| Vosges | 2,279 | 413,707 | 421,412 | 429,812 |
| Yonne | 2,880 | 355,364 | 332,656 | 315,199 |
+-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total |207,076 |38,218,903 |38,517,975 |39,252,245 |
+-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The French census uses the commune as the basis of its returns, and employs the following classifications in respect to communal population: (1) Total communal population. (2) _Population comptée à part_, which includes soldiers and sailors, inmates of prisons, asylums, schools, members of religious communities, and workmen temporarily engaged in public works. (3) Total _municipal_ population, i.e. communal population minus the _population comptée à part_. (4) _Population municipale agglomérée au chef-lieu de la commune_, which embraces the urban population as opposed to the rural population. The following tables, showing the growth of the largest towns in France, are drawn up on the basis of the fourth classification, which is used throughout this work in the articles on French towns, except where otherwise stated.

In 1906 there were in France twelve towns with a population of over
100,000 inhabitants. Their growth or decrease from 1886 to 1906 is
shown in the following table:

+------------+----------+----------+----------+
| | 1886. | 1896. | 1906. |
+------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Paris |2,294,108 |2,481,223 |2,711,931 |
| Lyons | 344,124 | 398,867 | 430,186 |
| Marseilles | 249,938 | 332,515 | 421,116 |
| Bordeaux | 225,281 | 239,806 | 237,707 |
| Lille | 143,135 | 160,723 | 196,624 |
| St Etienne | 103,229 | 120,300 | 130,940 |
| Le Havre | 109,199 | 117,009 | 129,403 |
| Toulouse | 123,040 | 124,187 | 125,856 |
| Roubaix | 89,781 | 113,899 | 119,955 |
| Nantes | 110,638 | 107,137 | 118,244 |
| Rouen | 100,043 | 106,825 | 111,402 |
| Reims | 91,130 | 99,001 | 102,800 |
+------------+----------+----------+----------+

In the same years the following eighteen towns, now numbering from
50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, each had:

+------------+--------+--------+--------+
| | 1886. | 1896. | 1906. |
+------------+--------+--------+--------+
| Nice | 61,464 | 69,140 | 99,556 |
| Nancy | 69,463 | 83,668 | 98,302 |
| Toulon | 53,941 | 70,843 | 87,997 |
| Amiens | 68,177 | 74,808 | 78,407 |
| Limoges | 56,699 | 64,718 | 75,906 |
| Angers | 65,152 | 69,484 | 73,585 |
| Brest | 59,352 | 64,144 | 71,163 |
| Nîmes | 62,198 | 66,905 | 70,708 |
| Montpellier| 45,930 | 62,717 | 65,983 |
| Dijon | 50,684 | 58,355 | 65,516 |
| Tourcoing | 41,183 | 55,705 | 62,694 |
| Rennes | 52,614 | 57,249 | 62,024 |
| Tours | 51,467 | 56,706 | 61,507 |
| Calais | 52,839 | 50,818 | 59,623 |
| Grenoble | 43,260 | 50,084 | 58,641 |
| Orléans | 51,208 | 56,915 | 57,544 |
| Le Mans | 46,991 | 49,665 | 54,907 |
| Troyes | 44,864 | 50,676 | 51,228 |
+------------+--------+--------+--------+

Of the population in 1901, 18,916,889 were males and 19,533,899
females, an excess of females over males of 617,010, i.e. 1.6% or
about 508 females to every 492 males. In 1881 the proportion was 501
females to every 499 males, since when the disparity has been slightly
more marked at every census. Below is a list of the departments in
which the number of women to every thousand men was (1) greatest and
(2) least.

Departments from which the adult males emigrate regularly either to
sea or to seek employment in towns tend to fall under the first head,
those in which large bodies of troops are stationed under the second.

The annual number of emigrants from France is small. The Basques of
Basses-Pyrénées go in considerable numbers to the Argentine Republic,
the inhabitants of Basses Alpes to Mexico and the United States, and
there are important French colonies in Algeria and Tunisia.

The following table shows the distribution of the active population of
France according to their occupations in 1901.

+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Occupation | Males. | Females. | Total. |
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Forestry and agriculture | 5,517,617 | 2,658,952 | 8,176,569 |
| Manufacturing industries | 3,695,213 | 2,124,642 | 5,819,855 |
| Trade | 1,132,621 | 689,999 | 1,822,620 |
| Domestic service | 223,861 | 791,176 | 1,015,037 |
| Transport | 617,849 | 212,794 | 830,643 |
| Public service | 1,157,835 | 139,734 | 1,297,569 |
| Liberal professions | 226,561 | 173,278 | 399,839 |
| Mining, quarries | 261,320 | 5,031 | 266,351 |
| Fishing | 63,372 | 4,400 | 67,772 |
| Unclassed | 14,316 | 4,504 | 18,820 |
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Grand Total |12,910,565 | 6,804,510 |19,715,075 |
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Religion._

Great alterations were made with regard to religious matters in France by a law of December 1905, supplemented by a law of January 1907 (see below, _Law and Institutions_). Before that time three religions (_cultes_) were recognized and supported by the state--the Roman Catholic, the Protestant (subdivided into the Reformed and Lutheran) and the Hebrew. In Algeria the Mahommedan religion received similar recognition. By the law of 1905 all the churches ceased to be recognized or supported by the state and became entirely separated therefrom, while the adherents of all creeds were permitted to form associations for public worship (_associations cultuelles_), upon which the expenses of maintenance were from that time to devolve. The state, the departments, and the communes were thus relieved from the payment of salaries and grants to religious bodies, an item of expenditure which amounted in the last year of the old system to £1,101,000 paid by the state and £302,200 contributed by the departments and communes. Before these alterations the relations between the state and the Roman Catholic communion, by far the largest and most important in France, were chiefly regulated by the provisions of the Concordat of 1801, concluded between the first consul, Bonaparte, and Pope Pius VII. and by other measures passed in 1802.

France is divided into provinces and dioceses as follows:

Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.

PARIS Chartres, Meaux, Orléans, Blois, Versailles.
AIX Marseilles, Fréjus, Digne, Gap, Nice, Ajaccio.
ALBI Rodez, Cahors, Mende, Perpignan.
AUCH Aire, Tarbes, Bayonne.
AVIGNON Nîmes, Valence, Viviers, Montpellier.
BESANÇON Verdun, Bellay, St Dié, Nancy.
BORDEAUX Agen, Angoulême, Poitiers, Périgueux, La Rochelle, Luçon.
BOURGES Clermont, Limoges, Le Puy, Tulle, St Flour.
CAMBRAI Arras.
CHAMBÉRY Annecy, Tarentaise, St Jean-de-Maurienne.
LYONS Autun, Langres, Dijon, St Claude, Grenoble.
REIMS Soissons, Châlons-sur-Marne, Beauvais, Amiens.
RENNES Quimper, Vannes, St Brieuc.
ROUEN Bayeux, Evreux, Sées, Coutances.
SENS Troyes, Nevers, Moulins.
TOULOUSE Montauban, Pamiers, Carcassonne.
TOURS Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval.

The dioceses are divided into parishes each under a parish priest
known as a _curé_ or _desservant_ (incumbent). The bishops and
archbishops, formerly nominated by the government and canonically
confirmed by the pope, are now chosen by the latter. The appointment
of curés rested with the bishops and had to be confirmed by the
government, but this confirmation is now dispensed with. The
archbishops used to receive an annual salary of £600 each and the
bishops £400.

The archbishops and bishops are assisted by vicars-general (at
salaries previously ranging from £100 to £180), and to each cathedral
is attached a chapter of canons. A cure, in addition to his regular
salary, received fees for baptisms, marriages, funerals and special
masses, and had the benefit of a free house called a _presbytère_. The
total personnel of state-paid Roman Catholic clergy amounted in 1903
to 36,169. The Roman priests are drawn from the seminaries,
established by the church for the education of young men intending to
join its ranks, and divided into lower and higher seminaries (_grands
et petits séminaires_), the latter giving the same class of
instruction as the _lycées_.

The number of Protestants may be estimated at about 600,000 and the
Jews at about 70,000. The greatest number of Jews is to be found at
Paris, Lyons and Bordeaux, while the departments of the centre and of
the south along the range of the Cévennes, where Calvinism flourishes,
are the principal Protestant localities, Nîmes being the most
important centre. Considerable sprinklings of Protestants are also to
be found in the two Charentes, in Dauphiné, in Paris and in
Franche-Comté. The two Protestant bodies used to cost the state about
£60,000 a year and the Jewish Church about £6000.

Both Protestant churches have a parochial organization and a
presbyterian form of church government. In the Reformed Church (far
the more numerous of the two bodies) each parish has a council of
presbyters, consisting of the pastor and lay-members elected by the
congregation. Several parishes form a consistorial circumscription,
which has a consistorial council consisting of the council of
presbyters of the chief town of the circumscription, the pastor and
one delegate of the council of presbyters from each parish and other
elected members. There are 103 circumscriptions (including Algeria),
which are grouped into 21 provincial synods composed of a pastor and
lay delegate from each consistory. All the more important questions of
church discipline and all decisions regulating the doctrine and
practice of the church are dealt with by the synods. At the head of
the whole organization is a General Synod, sitting at Paris. The
organization of the Lutheran Church (_Église de la confession
d'Augsburg_) is broadly similar. Its consistories are grouped into two
special synods, one at Paris and one at Montbéliard (for the
department of Doubs and Haute-Saône and the territory of Belfort,
where the churches of this denomination are principally situated). It
also has a general synod--composed of 2 inspectors,[5] 5 pastors
elected by the synod of Paris, and 6 by that of Montbéliard, 22 laymen
and a delegate of the theological faculty at Paris--which holds
periodical meetings and is represented in its relations with the
government by a permanent executive commission.

The Jewish parishes, called synagogues, are grouped into departmental
consistories (Paris, Bordeaux, Nancy, Marseilles, Bayonne, Lille,
Vesoul, Besançon and three in Algeria). Each synagogue is served by a
rabbi assisted by an officiating minister, and in each consistory is a
grand rabbi. At Paris is the central consistory, controlled by the
government and presided over by the supreme grand rabbi.

_Agriculture._

Of the population of France some 17,000,000 depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, though only about 6,500,000 are engaged in work on the land. The cultivable land of the country occupies some 195,000 sq. m. or about 94% of the total area; of this 171,000 sq. m. are cultivated. There are besides 12,300 sq. m. of uncultivable area covered by lakes, rivers, towns, &c. Only the roughest estimate is possible as to the sizes of holdings, but in general terms it may be said that about 3 million persons are proprietors of holdings under 25 acres in extent amounting to between 15 and 20% of the cultivated area, the rest being owned by some 750,000 proprietors, of whom 150,000 possess half the area in holdings averaging 400 acres in extent. About 80% of holdings (amounting to about 60% of the cultivated area) are cultivated by the proprietor; of the rest approximately 13% are let on lease and 7% are worked on the system known as _métayage_ (q.v.).

The capital value of land, which greatly decreased during the last twenty years of the 19th century, is estimated at £3,120,000,000, and that of stock, buildings, implements, &c., at £340,000,000. The value per acre of land, which exceeds £48 in the departments of Seine, Rhône and those fringing the north-west coast from Nord to Manche inclusive, is on the average about £29, though it drops to £16 and less in Morbihan, Landes, Basses-Pyrénées, and parts of the Alps and the central plateau.

While wheat and wine constitute the staples of French agriculture, its
distinguishing characteristic is the variety of its products.
_Cereals_ occupy about one-third of the cultivated area. For the
production of _wheat_, in respect of which France is self-supporting,
French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably the Beauce and the Brie, and
the regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the upper
course of the Garonne, are the chief areas. Rye, on the other hand,
one of the least valuable of the cereals, is grown chiefly in the poor
agricultural territories of the central plateau and western Brittany.
Buckwheat is cultivated mainly in Brittany. Oats and barley are
generally cultivated, the former more especially in the Parisian
region, the latter in Mayenne and one or two of the neighbouring
departments. Meslin, a mixture of wheat and rye, is produced in the
great majority of French departments, but to a marked extent in the
basin of the Sarthe. Maize covers considerable areas in Landes,
Basses-Pyrénées and other south-western departments.

+----------+---------------------+-----------------------+---------------------+
| | Average Acreage | Average Production | Average Yield |
| |(Thousands of Acres).|(Thousands of Bushels).| per Acre (Bushels). |
| +----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+
| |1886-1895.|1896-1905.| 1886-1895.| 1896-1905.|1886-1895.|1896-1905.|
+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+
| Wheat | 17,004 | 16,580 | 294,564 | 317,707 | 17.3 | 19.1 |
| Meslin | 720 | 491 | 12,193 | 8,826 | 16.9 | 17.0 |
| Rye | 3,888 | 3,439 | 64,651 | 56,612 | 16.6 | 16.4 |
| Barley | 2,303 | 1,887 | 47,197 | 41,066 | 20.4 | 21.0 |
| Oats | 9,507 | 9,601 | 240,082 | 253,799 | 25.2 | 26.4 |
| Buckwheat| 1,484 | 1,392 | 26,345 | 23,136 | 17.7 | 16.6 |
| Maize | 1,391 | 1,330 | 25,723 | 24,459 | 18.4 | 18.4 |
+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+

_Forage Crops._--The mangold-wurzel, occupying four times the acreage
of swedes and turnips, is by far the chief root-crop in France. It is
grown largely in the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and in
those of the Seine basin, the southern limit of its cultivation being
roughly a line drawn from Bordeaux to Lyons. The average area occupied
by it in the years from 1896 to 1905 was 1,043,000 acres, the total
average production being 262,364,000 cwt. and the average production
per acre 10½ tons. Clover, lucerne and sainfoin make up the bulk of
artificial pasturage, while vetches, crimson clover and cabbage are
the other chief forage crops.

_Vegetables.--Potatoes_ are not a special product of any region,
though grown in great quantities in the Bresse and the Vosges. Early
potatoes and other vegetables (_primeurs_) are largely cultivated in
the districts bordering the English Channel. Market-gardening is an
important industry in the regions round Paris, Amiens and Angers, as
it is round Toulouse, Montauban, Avignon and in southern France
generally. The market-gardeners of Paris and its vicinity have a high
reputation for skill in the forcing of early vegetables under glass.

_Potatoes: Decennial Averages._

+-----------+-----------+------------+-------------+
| | | |Average Yield|
| | Acreage. | Total Yield| per Acre |
| | | (Tons). | (Tons). |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-------------+
| 1886-1895 | 3,690,000 | 11,150,000 | 3.02 |
| 1896-1905 | 3,735,000 | 11,594,000 | 3.1 |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-------------+

_Industrial Plants._[6]--The manufacture of sugar from beetroot, owing
to the increased use of sugar, became highly important during the
latter half of the 19th century, the industry both of cultivation and
manufacture being concentrated in the northern departments of Aisne,
Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Somme and Oise, the first named supplying nearly
a quarter of the whole amount produced in France.

_Flax and hemp_ showed a decreasing acreage from 1881 onwards. Flax is
cultivated chiefly in the northern departments of Nord,
Seine-Inférieure, Pas-de-Calais, Côtes-du-Nord, hemp in Sarthe,
Morbihan and Maine-et-Loire.

_Colza_, grown chiefly in the lower basin of the Seine
(Seine-Inférieure and Eure), is the most important of the
oil-producing plants, all of which show a diminishing acreage. The
three principal regions for the production of tobacco are the basin of
the Garonne (Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot and Gironde), the basin of
the Isère (Isère and Savoie) and the department of Pas-de-Calais. The
state controls its cultivation, which is allowed only in a limited
number of departments. Hops cover only about 7000 acres, being almost
confined to the departments of Nord, Côte d'Or and Meurthe-et-Moselle.

_Decennial Averages 1896-1905._

+------------+----------+--------------+---------------+
| | | | Average Yield |
| | Acreage. | Production | per Acre |
| | | (Tons). | (Tons). |
+------------+----------+--------------+---------------+
| Sugar beet | 672,000 | 6,868,000 | 10.2 |
| Hemp | 64,856 | 18,451[7] | .28[7] |
| Flax | 57,893 | 17,857[7] | .30[7] |
| Colza | 102,454 | 47,697 | .46 |
| Tobacco | 41,564 | 22,453 | .54 |
+------------+----------+--------------+---------------+

_Vineyards_ (see WINE).--The vine grows generally in France, except in
the extreme north and in Normandy and Brittany. The great
wine-producing regions are:

1. The country fringing the Mediterranean coast and including Hérault
(240,822,000 gals. in 1905), and Aude (117,483,000 gals. in 1905), the
most productive departments in France in this respect.

2. The department of Gironde (95,559,000 gals. in 1905), whence come
Médoc and the other wines for which Bordeaux is the market.

3. The lower valley of the Loire, including Touraine and Anjou, and
the district of Saumur.

4. The valley of the Rhône.

5. The Burgundian region, including Côte d'Or and the valley of the
Saône (Beaujolais, Mâconnais).

6. The Champagne.

7. The Charente region, the grapes of which furnish brandy, as do
those of Armagnac (department of Gers).

The decennial averages for the years 1896-1905 were as follows:

Acreage of productive vines 4,056,725
Total production in gallons 1,072,622,000
Average production in gallons per acre 260

_Fruit._--Fruit-growing is general all over France, which, apart from
bananas and pine-apples, produces in the open air all the ordinary
species of fruit which its inhabitants consume. Some of these may be
specially mentioned. The cider apple, which ranks first in importance,
is produced in those districts where cider is the habitual drink, that
is to say, chiefly in the region north-west of a line drawn from Paris
to the mouth of the Loire. The average annual production of cider
during the years 1896 to 1905 was 304,884,000 gallons. Dessert apples
and pears are grown there and in the country on both banks of the
lower Loire, the valley of which abounds in orchards wherein many
varieties of fruit flourish and in nursery-gardens. The hilly regions
of Limousin, Périgord and the Cévennes are the home of the chestnut,
which in some places is still a staple food; walnuts grow on the lower
levels of the central plateau and in lower Dauphiné and Provence, figs
and almonds in Provence, oranges and citrons on the Mediterranean
coast, apricots in central France, the olive in Provence and the lower
valleys of the Rhône and Durance. Truffles are found under the oaks of
Périgord, Comtat-Venaissin and lower Dauphiné. The mulberry grows in
the valleys of the Rhône and its tributaries, the Isère, the Drôme,
the Ardèche, the Gard and the Durance, and also along the coast of
the Mediterranean. Silk-worm rearing, which is encouraged by state
grants, is carried on in the valleys mentioned and on the
Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles. The numbers of growers
decreased from 139,000 in 1891 to 124,000 in 1905. The decrease in the
annual average production of cocoons is shown in the preceding table.

+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Silk Cocoons. | 1891-1895. | 1896-1900. | 1901-1905. |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------- ----+
| Annual average production | | | |
| over quinquennial periods | 19,587,000 | 17,696,000 | 16,566,000 |
| in lb. | | | |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------------+

Snails are reared in some parts of the country as an article of food,
those of Burgundy being specially esteemed.

_Stock-raising._--From this point of view the soil of France may be
divided into four categories:

1. The rich pastoral regions where dairy-farming and the fattening of
cattle are carried on with most success, viz. (a) Normandy, Perche,
Cotentin and maritime Flanders, where horses are bred in great
numbers; (b) the strip of coast between the Gironde and the mouth of
the Loire; (c) the Morvan including the Nivernais and the Charolais,
from which the famous Charolais breed of oxen takes its name; (d) the
central region of the central plateau including the districts of
Cantal and Aubrac, the home of the famous beef-breeds of Salers and
Aubrac.[8] The famous _pré-salé_ sheep are also reared in the Vendée
and Cotentin.

2. The poorer grazing lands on the upper levels of the Alps, Pyrenees,
Jura and Vosges, the Landes, the more outlying regions of the central
plateau, southern Brittany, Sologne, Berry, Champagne-Pouilleuse, the
Crau and the Camargue, these districts being given over for the most
part to sheep-raising.

3. The plain of Toulouse, which with the rest of south-western France
produces good draught oxen, the Parisian basin, the plains of the
north to the east of the maritime region, the lower valley of the
Rhône and the Bresse, where there is little or no natural pasturage,
and forage is grown from seed.

4. West, west-central and eastern France outside these areas, where
meadows are predominant and both dairying and fattening are general.
Included therein are the dairying and horse-raising district of
northern Brittany and the dairying regions of Jura and Savoy.

In the industrial regions of northern France cattle are stall-fed with
the waste products of the beet-sugar factories, oil-works and
distilleries. _Swine_, bred all over France, are more numerous in
Brittany, Anjou (whence comes the well-known breed of Craon), Poitou,
Burgundy, the west and north of the central plateau and Béarn. Upper
Poitou and the zone of south-western France to the north of the
Pyrenees are the chief regions for the breeding of mules. Asses are
reared in Béarn, Corsica, Upper Poitou, the Limousin, Berry and other
central regions. Goats are kept in the mountainous regions (Auvergne,
Provence, Corsica). The best poultry come from the Bresse, the
district of Houdan (Seine-et-Oise), the district of Le Mans and
Crèvecoeur (Calvados).

The _prés naturels_ (meadows) and _herbages_ (unmown pastures) of
France, i.e. the grass-land of superior quality as distinguished from
_paturages et pacages_, which signifies pasture of poorer quality,
increased in area between 1895 and 1905 as is shown below:

1895 (Acres). 1905 (Acres).
Prés naturels 10,852,000 11,715,000
Herbages 2,822,000 3,022,000

The following table shows the number of live stock in the country at
intervals of ten years since 1885.

+-------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| Cattle. | | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+ Sheep and | Pigs. | Horses. | Mules. | Asses. |
| | Cows. | Other | Total. | Lambs. | | | | |
| | | Kinds. | | | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| 1885 | 6,414,487 | 6,690,483 | 13,104,970 | 22,616,547 | 5,881,088 | 2,911,392 | 238,620 | 387,227 |
| 1895 | 6,359,795 | 6,874,033 | 13,233,828 | 21,163,767 | 6,306,019 | 2,812,447 | 211,479 | 357,778 |
| 1905 | 7,515,564 | 6,799,988 | 14,315,552 | 17,783,209 | 7,558,779 | 3,169,224 | 198,865 | 365,181 |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+

_Agricultural Organization._--In France the interests of agriculture
are entrusted to a special ministry, comprising the following
divisions: (1) forests, (2) breeding-studs (_haras_); (3) agriculture,
a department which supervises agricultural instruction and the
distribution of grants and premiums; (4) agricultural improvements,
draining, irrigation, &c.; (5) an intelligence department which
prepares statistics, issues information as to prices and markets, &c.
The minister is assisted by a superior council of agriculture, the
members of which, numbering a hundred, include senators, deputies and
prominent agriculturists. The ministry employs inspectors, whose duty
it is to visit the different parts of the country and to report on
their respective position and wants. The reports which they furnish
help to determine the distribution of the moneys dispensed by the
state in the form of subventions to agricultural societies and in
many other ways. The chief type of agricultural society is the _comice
agricole_, an association for the discussion of agricultural problems
and the organization of provincial shows. There are besides several
thousands of local syndicates, engaged in the purchase of materials
and sale of produce on the most advantageous terms for their members,
credit banks and mutual insurance societies (see CO-OPERATION). Three
societies demand special mention: the _Union centrale des agriculteurs
de France_, to which the above syndicates are affiliated; the _Société
nationale d'agriculture_, whose mission is to further agricultural
progress and to supply the government with information on everything
appertaining thereto and the _Société des agriculteurs de France_.

Among a variety of premiums awarded by the state are those for the
best cultivated estates and for irrigation works, and to the owners of
the best stallions and brood-mares. _Haras_ or stallion stables
containing in all over 3000 horses are established in twenty-two
central towns, and annually send stallions, which are at the disposal
of private individuals in return for a small fee, to various stations
throughout the country. Other institutions belonging to the state are
the national sheep-fold of Rambouillet (Seine-et-Oise) and the
cow-house of Vieux-Pin (Orne) for the breeding of Durham cows. Four
different grades of institution for agricultural instruction are under
state direction: (1) farm-schools and schools of apprenticeship in
dairying, &c., to which the age of admission is from 14 to 16 years;
(2) practical schools, to which boys of from 13 to 18 years of age are
admitted. These number forty-eight, and are intended for sons of
farmers of good position; (3) national schools, which are established
at Grignon (Seine-et-Oise), Rennes and Montpellier, candidates for
which must be 17 years of age; (4) the National Agronomic Institute at
Paris, which is intended for the training of estate agents,
professors, &c. There are also departmental chairs of agriculture, the
holders of which give instruction in training-colleges and elsewhere
and advise farmers.

_Forests._--In relation to its total extent, France presents but a
very limited area of forest land, amounting to only 36,700 sq. m. or
about 18% of the entire surface of the country. Included under the
denomination of "forest" are lands--_surfaces boisées_--which are
_bush_ rather than _forest_. The most wooded parts of France are the
mountains and plateaus of the east and of the north-east, comprising
the pine-forests of the Vosges and Jura (including the beautiful
Forest of Chaux), the Forest of Haye, the Forest of Ardennes, the
Forest of Argonne, &c.; the Landes, where replanting with maritime
pines has transformed large areas of marsh into forest; and the
departments of Var and Ariège. The Central Mountains and the Morvan
also have considerable belts of wood. In the Parisian region there are
the Forests of Fontainebleau (66 sq. m.), of Compiègne (56 sq. m.), of
Rambouillet, of Villers-Cotterets, &c. The Forest of Orléans, the
largest in France, covers about 145 sq. m. The Alps and Pyrenees are
in large part deforested, but reafforestation with a view to
minimizing the effects of avalanches and sudden floods is continually
in progress.

Of the forests of the country approximately one-third belongs to the
state, communes and public institutions. The rest belongs to private
owners who are, however, subject to certain restrictions. The
Department of Waters[9] and Forests (Administration des Eaux et
Forêts) forms a branch of the ministry of agriculture. It is
administered by a director-general, who has his headquarters at Paris,
assisted by three administrators who are charged with the working of
the forests, questions of rights and law, finance and plantation
works. The establishment consists of 32 conservators, each at the head
of a district comprising one or more departments, 200 inspectors, 215
sub-inspectors and about 300 _gardes généraux_. These officials form
the higher grade of the service (_agents_). There are besides several
thousand forest-rangers and other employés (_préposés_). The
department is supplied with officials of the higher class from the
National School of Waters and Forests at Nancy, founded in 1824.

_Industries._

In France, as in other countries, the development of machinery, whether run by steam, water-power or other motive forces, has played a great part in the promotion of industry; the increase in the amount of steam horse-power employed in industrial establishments is, to a certain degree, an index to the activity of the country as regards manufactures.

The appended table shows the progress made since 1850 with regard to steam power. Railway and marine locomotives are not included.

+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+
|Years.| No. of | No. of | Total |
| | Establishments.| Steam-Engines.| Horse-Power. |
+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+
| 1852 | 6,543 | 6,080 | 76,000 |
| 1861 | 14,153 | 15,805 | 191,000 |
| 1871 | 22,192 | 26,146 | 316,000 |
| 1881 | 35,712 | 44,010 | 576,000 |
| 1891 | 46,828 | 58,967 | 916,000 |
| 1901 | 58,151 | 75,866 | 1,907,730 |
| 1905 | 61,112 | 79,203 | 2,232,263 |
+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+

With the exception of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhône and Rhône, the chief industrial departments of France are to be found in the north and north-east of the country. In 1901 and 1896 those in which the working inhabitants of both sexes were engaged in industry as opposed to agriculture to the extent of 50% (approximately) or over, numbered eleven, viz.:--

+-----------------------+--------------+------------+--------------------+
| | | | Percentage engaged |
| | Total Working| Industrial | in Industry. |
| Departments. | Population | Population +---------+----------+
| | (1901). | (1901). | 1901. | 1896. |
+-----------------------+--------------+------------+---------+----------+
| Nord | 848,306 | 544,177 | 64.15 | 63.45 |
| Territoire de Belfort | 40,703 | 24,470 | 60.10 | 58.77 |
| Loire | 292,808 | 167,693 | 57.27 | 54.73 |
| Seine | 2,071,344 | 1,143,809 | 55.22 | 53.54 |
| Bouches-du-Rhône | 341,823 | 187,801 | 54.94 | 51.00 |
| Rhône | 449,121 | 243,571 | 54.23 | 54.78 |
| Meurthe-et-Moselle | 215,501 | 115,214 | 53.46 | 50.19 |
| Ardennes | 139,270 | 73,250 | 52.60 | 52.42 |
| Vosges | 208,142 | 107,547 | 51.67 | 51.05 |
| Pas-de-Calais | 404,153 | 200,402 | 49.58 | 46.55 |
| Seine-Inférieure | 428,591 | 206,612 | 48.21 | 49.85 |
+-----------------------+--------------+------------+---------+----------+

The department of Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has the largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the manufacture of dress, millinery and articles of luxury (perfumery, &c.), but it plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry with the exception of spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of France is the department of Nord, the seat of the woollen industry, but also prominently concerned in other textile industries, in metal working, and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is supplied by its coal-fields. The following sketch of the manufacturing industry of France takes account chiefly of those of its branches which are capable in some degree of localization. Many of the great industries of the country, e.g. tanning, brick-making, the manufacture of garments, &c., are evenly distributed throughout it, and are to be found in or near all larger centres of population.

_Coal._--The principal mines of France are coal and iron mines. The
production of coal and lignite averaging 33,465,000 metric tons[10] in
the years 1901-1905 represents about 73% of the total consumption of
the country; the surplus is supplied from Great Britain, Belgium and
Germany. The preceding table shows the average output of the chief
coal-groups for the years 1901-1905 inclusive. The Flemish coal-basin,
employing over 100,000 hands, produces 60% of the coal mined in
France.

French lignite comes for the most part from the department of
Bouches-du-Rhône (near Fuveau).

The development of French coal and lignite mining in the 19th century,
together with records of prices, which rose considerably at the end of
the period, is set forth in the table below:

+-----------+----------------+---------------+
| | Average Yearly | Average Price |
| Years. | Production | per Ton at |
| | (Thousands of | Pit Mouth |
| | Metric Tons). | (Francs). |
+-----------+----------------+---------------+
| 1821-1830 | 1,495 | 10.23 |
| 1831-1840 | 2,571 | 9.83 |
| 1841-1850 | 4,078.5 | 9.69 |
| 1851-1860 | 6,857 | 11.45 |
| 1861-1870 | 11,831 | 11.61 |
| 1871-1880 | 16,774 | 14.34 |
| 1881-1890 | 21,542 | 11.55 |
| 1891-1900 | 29,190 | 11.96 |
| 1901-1905 | 33,465 | 14.18 |
+-----------+----------------+---------------+

_Iron._--The iron-mines of France are more numerous than its
coal-mines, but they do not yield a sufficient quantity of ore for the
needs of the metallurgical industries of the country; as will be seen
in the table below the production of iron in France gradually
increased during the 19th century; on the other hand, a decline in
prices operated against a correspondingly marked increase in its
annual value.

+-----------+----------------+--------------+
| | Average Annual | |
| Years. | Production | Price per |
| | (Thousands of | Metric Ton |
| | Metric Tons). | (Francs). |
+-----------+----------------+--------------+
| 1841-1850 | 1247 | 6.76 |
| 1851-1860 | 2414.5 | 5.51 |
| 1861-1870 | 3035 | 4.87 |
| 1871-1880 | 2514 | 5.39 |
| 1881-1890 | 2934 | 3.99 |
| 1891-1900 | 4206 | 3.37 |
| 1901-1905 | 6072 | 3.72 |
+-----------+----------------+--------------+

The department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (basins of Nancy and
Longwy-Briey) furnished 84% of the total output during the
quinquennial period 1901-1905, may be reckoned as one of the principal
iron-producing regions of the world. The other chief producers were
Pyrénées-Orientales, Calvados, Haute-Marne (Vassy) and Saône-et-Loire
(Mazenay and Change).

_Other Ores._--The mining of zinc, the chief deposits of which are at
Malines (Gard), Les Bormettes (Var) and Planioles (Lot), and of lead,
produced especially at Chaliac (Ardèche), ranks next in importance to
that of iron. Iron-pyrites come almost entirely from Sain-Bel
(Rhône), manganese chiefly from Ariège and Saône-et-Loire, antimony
from the departments of Mayenne, Haute-Loire and Cantal. Copper and
mispickel are mined only in small quantities. The table below gives
the average production of zinc, argentiferous lead, iron-pyrites and
other ores during the quinquennial period 1901-1905.

+--------------+--------------+---------+
| | Production | |
| |(Thousands of | Value £.|
| | Metric Tons).| |
+--------------+--------------+---------+
| Zinc | 60.3 | 206,912 |
| Lead | 18.5 | 100,424 |
| Iron-pyrites | 297.2 | 170,312 |
| Other ores | 36.0 | 68,376 |
+--------------+--------------+---------+

_Salt, &c._--Rock-salt is worked chiefly in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, which produces more than half the average annual
product of salt. For the years 1896-1905, this was 1,010,000 tons,
including both rock- and sea-salt. The salt-marshes of the
Mediterranean coast, especially the Étang de Berre and those of
Loire-Inférieure, are the principal sources of sea-salt. Sulphur is
obtained near Apt (Vaucluse) and in a few other localities of
south-eastern France; bituminous schist near Autun (Saône-et-Loire)
and Buxières (Allier). The most extensive peat-workings are in the
valleys of the Somme; asphalt comes from Seyssel (Ain) and
Puy-de-Dôme.

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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Fox, George" to "France"Chapter III: Part 3

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