Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Fox, George" to "France"

Chapter IV: Part 4

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The mineral springs of France are numerous, of varied character and
much frequented. Leading resorts are: in the Pyrenean region,
Amélie-les-Bains, Bagnères-de-Luchon, Bagnères-de-Bigorre, Barèges,
Cauterets, Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudes and Dax; in the Central Plateau,
Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon l'Archambault, Vichy, Royat,
Chaudes-Aigues, Vais, Lamalon; in the Alps, Aix-les-Bains and Evian;
in the Vosges and Faucilles, Plombières, Luxeuil, Contrexéville,
Vittel, Martigny and Bourbonne-les-Bains. Outside these main groups St
Amand-les-Eaux and Foyes-les-Eaux may be mentioned.

_Quarry-Products._--Quarries of various descriptions are numerous all
over France. Slate is obtained in large quantities from the
departments of Maine-et-Loire (Angers), Ardennes (Fumay) and Mayenne
(Renazé). Stone-quarrying is specially active in the departments round
Paris, Seine-et-Oise employing more persons in this occupation than
any other department. The environs of Creil (Oise) and Château-Landon
(Seine-et-Marne) are noted for their freestone (_pierre de taille_),
which is also abundant at Euville and Lérouville in Meuse; the
production of plaster is particularly important in the environs of
Paris, of kaolin of fine quality at Yrieix (Haute-Vienne), of
hydraulic lime in Ardèche (Le Teil), of lime phosphates in the
department of Somme, of marble in the departments of Haute-Garonne (St
Béat), Hautes-Pyrénées (Campan, Sarrancolin), Isère and Pas-de-Calais,
and of cement in Pas-de-Calais (vicinity of Boulogne) and Isère
(Grenoble). Paving-stone is supplied in large quantities by
Seine-et-Oise, and brick-clay is worked chiefly in Nord, Seine and
Pas-de-Calais. The products of the quarries of France for the five
years 1901-1905 averaged £9,311,000 per annum in value, of which
building material brought in over two-thirds.

_Metallurgy._--The average production and value of iron and steel
manufactured in France in the last four decades of the 19th century is
shown below:

+----------+----------------------+------------------------+
| | Cast Iron. | Wrought Iron and Steel.|
| +-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
| | Product | | Product | |
| Years. |(Thousands | Value |(Thousands | Value |
| | of Metric |(Thousands| of Metric | (Thousands |
| | Tons). | of £). | Tons). | of £). |
+----------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
|1861-1870 | 1191.5 | 5012 | 844 | 8,654 |
|1871-1880 | 1391 | 5783 | 1058.5 | 11,776 |
|1881-1890 | 1796 | 5119 | 1376 | 11,488 |
|1891-1900 | 2267 | 5762 | 1686 | 14,540 |
| 1903 | 2841 | 7334 | 1896 | 15,389 |
+----------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+

Taking the number of hands engaged in the industry as a basis of
comparison, the most important departments as regards iron and steel
working in 1901 were:

+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+
| | | | Hands engaged |
| | | | in Production |
| | | Hands engaged in | of Engineering|
| Department. | Chief Centres. | Production of | Material and |
| | |Pig-Iron and Steel.| Manufactured |
| | | | Goods. |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+
|Seine | . . . . . . . . . . | 600 | 102,500 |
|Nord |Lille, Anzin, Denain, Douai, Hautmont, Maubeuge| 14,000 | 45,000 |
|Loire |Rive-de-Gier, Firminy, St Étienne, St Chamond | 9,500 | 17,500 |
|Meurthe-et-Moselle|Pont-à-Mousson, Frouard, Longwy, Nancy | 16,500 | 6,500 |
|Ardennes |Charleville, Nouzon | 800 | 23,000 |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+

Rhône (Lyons), Saône-et-Loire (Le Creusot, Chalon-sur-Saône) and
Loire-Inférieure (Basse-Indre, Indret, Couëron, Trignac) also play a
considerable part in this industry.

The chief centres for the manufacture of cutlery are Châttelerault
(Vienne), Langres (Haute-Marne) and Thiers (Puy-de-Dôme); for that of
arms St Etienne, Tulle and Châttelerault; for that of watches and
clocks, Besançon (Doubs) and Montbéliard (Doubs); for that of optical
and mathematical instruments Paris, Morez (Jura) and St Claude (Jura);
for that of locksmiths' ware the region of Vimeu (Pas-de-Calais).

There are important zinc works at Auby and St Amand (Nord) and Viviez
(Aveyron) and Noyelles-Godault (Pas-de-Calais); there are lead works
at the latter place, and others of greater importance at Couëron
(Loire-Inférieure). Copper is smelted in Ardennes and Pas-de-Calais.
The production of these metals, which are by far the most important
after iron and steel, increased steadily during the period 1890-1905,
and reached its highest point in 1905, details for which year are
given below:

+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+
| | Zinc. | Lead. | Copper. |
+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+
| Production (in metric tons)| 43,200 | 24,100 | 7,600 |
| Value | £1,083,000 | £386,000 | £526,000 |
+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+

_Wool._--In 1901, 161,000 persons were engaged in the spinning and
other preparatory processes and in the weaving of wool. The woollen
industry is carried on most extensively in the department of Nord
(Roubaix, Tourcoing, Fourmies). Of second rank are Reims and Sedan in
the Champagne group; Elbeuf, Louviers and Rouen in Normandy; and
Mazamet (Tarn).

_Cotton._--In 1901, 166,000 persons were employed in the spinning and
weaving of cotton, French cotton goods being distinguished chiefly for
the originality of their design. The cotton industry is distributed in
three principal groups. The longest established is that of Normandy,
having its centres at Rouen, Havre, Evreux, Falaise and Flers. Another
group in the north of France has its centres at Lille, Tourcoing,
Roubaix, St Quentin and Amiens. That of the Vosges, which has
experienced a great extension since the loss of Alsace-Lorraine,
comprises Epinal, St Dié, Remiremont and Belfort. Other groups of less
importance are situated in the Lyonnais (Roanne and Tarare) and
Mayenne (Laval and Mayenne).

_Silk._--The silk industry occupied 134,000 hands in 1901. The silk
fabrics of France hold the first place, particularly the more
expensive kinds. The industry is concentrated in the departments
bordering the river Rhône, the chief centres being Lyons (Rhône),
Voiron (Isère), St Étienne and St Chamond (Loire) (the two latter
being especially noted for their ribbons and trimmings) and Annonay
(Ardèche) and other places in the departments of Ain, Gard and Drôme.

_Flax, Hemp, Jute, &c._--The preparation and spinning of these
materials and the manufacture of nets and rope, together with the
weaving of linen and other fabrics, give occupation to 112,000 persons
chiefly in the departments of Nord (Lille, Armentières, Dunkirk),
Somme (Amiens) and Maine-et-Loire (Angers, Cholet).

_Hosiery_, the manufacture of which employs 55,000 hands, has its
chief centre in Aube (Troyes). The production of lace and guipure,
occupying 112,000 persons, is carried on mainly in the towns and
villages of Haute-Loire and in Vosges (Mirecourt), Rhône (Lyons),
Pas-de-Calais (Calais) and Paris.

_Leather._--Tanning and leather-dressing are widely spread industries,
and the same may be said of the manufacture of boots and shoes, though
these trades employ more hands in the department of Seine than
elsewhere; in the manufacture of gloves Isère (Grenoble) and Aveyron
(Millau) hold the first place amongst French departments.

_Sugar._--The manufacture of sugar is carried on in the departments of
the north, in which the cultivation of beetroot is general--Aisne,
Nord, Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Oise and Seine-et-Marne, the three first
being by far the largest producers. The increase in production in the
last twenty years of the 19th century is indicated in the following
table:--

+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+
| | | Average Annual |
| Years. | Annual Average of | Production in |
| | Men employed | Metric Tons. |
+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1881-1891 | 43,108 | 415,786 |
| 1891-1901 | 42,841 | 696,038 |
| 1901-1906 | 43,061 | 820,553 |
+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+

_Alcohol._--The distillation of alcohol is in the hands of three
classes of persons. (1) Professional distillers (_bouilleurs et
distillateurs de profession_); (2) private distillers (_bouilleurs de
cru_) under state control; (3) small private distillers, not under
state control, but giving notice to the state that they distil. The
two last classes number over 400,000 (1903), but the quantity of
alcohol distilled by them is small. Beetroot, molasses and grain are
the chief sources of spirit. The department of Nord produces by far
the greatest quantity, its average annual output in the decade
1895-1904 being 13,117,000 gallons, or about 26% of the average
annual production of France during the same period (49,945,000
gallons). Aisne, Pas-de-Calais and Somme rank next to Nord.

_Glass_ is manufactured in the departments of Nord (Aniche, &c.),
Seine, Loire (Rive-de-Gier) and Meurthe-et-Moselle, Baccarat in the
latter department being famous for its table-glass. Limoges is the
chief centre for the manufacture of porcelain, and the artistic
products of the national porcelain factory of Sèvres have a world-wide
reputation.

The manufacture of paper and cardboard is largely carried on in Isère
(Voiron), Seine-et-Oise (Essonnes), Vosges (Epinal) and of the finer
sorts of paper in Charente (Angoulême). That of oil, candles and soap
has its chief centre at Marseilles. Brewing and malting are localized
chiefly in Nord. There are well-known chemical works at Dombasle
(close to Nancy) and Chauny (Aisne) and in Rhône.

_Occupations._--The following table, which shows the approximate
numbers of persons engaged in the various manufacturing industries of
France, who number in all about 5,820,000, indicates their relative
importance from the point of view of employment:

+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Occupation. | 1901. | 1866. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Baking | 163,500 | .. |
| Milling | 99,400 | .. |
| _Charcuterie_ | 39,600 | .. |
| Other alimentary industries | 161,500 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Alimentary industries: total | 464,000 | 308,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Gas-works | 26,000 | .. |
| Tobacco factories | 16,000 | .. |
| Oil-works | 10,000 | .. |
| Other "chemical"[11] industries | 58,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Chemical industries: total | 110,000 | 49,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Rubber factories | 9,000 |\ |
| Paper factories | 61,000 |/ 25,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Typographic and lithographic printing| 76,000 | .. |
| Other branches of book production | 23,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Book production: total | 99,000 | 38,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Spinning and weaving | 892,000 | 1,072,000|
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Clothing, millinery and making up of |1,484,000 |\ |
| fabrics generally. | | >761,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+ | |
| Basket work, straw goods, feathers | 39,000 |/ |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Leather and skin | 338,000 | 286,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Joinery | 153,000 | .. |
| Builder's carpentering | 94,900 | .. |
| Wheelwright's work | 82,700 | .. |
| Cooperage | 46,600 | .. |
| Wooden shoes | 52,400 | .. |
| Other wood industries | 280,400 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Wood industries: total | 710,000 | 671,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Metallurgy and metal working | 783,000 | 345,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Goldsmiths' and jewellers' work | 35,000 | 55,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Stone-working | 56,000 | 12,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Construction, building, decorating | 572,000 | 443,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Glass manufacture | 43,000 | .. |
| Tiles | 29,000 | .. |
| Porcelain and faïence | 27,000 | .. |
| Bricks | 17,000 | .. |
| Other kiln industries | 45,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Kiln industries: total | 161,000 | 110,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Some 9000 individuals were engaged in unclassified |
| industries. |
+------------------------------------------------------------+

_Fisheries._--The fishing population of France is most numerous in the
Breton departments of Finistère, Côtes-du-Nord and Morbihan and in
Pas-de-Calais. Dunkirk, Gravelines, Boulogne and Paimpol send
considerable fleets to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and St Malo,
Fécamp, Granville and Cancale to those of Newfoundland. The Dogger
Bank is frequented by numbers of French fishing-boats. Besides the
above, Boulogne, the most important fishing port in the country,
Calais, Dieppe, Concarneau, Douarnenez, Les Sables d'Olonne, La
Rochelle, Marennes and Arcachon are leading ports for the herring,
sardine, mackerel and other coast-fisheries of the ocean, while Cette,
Agde and other Mediterranean ports are engaged in the tunny and
anchovy fisheries. Sardine preserving is an important industry at
Nantes and other places on the west coast. Oysters are reared chiefly
at Marennes, which is the chief French market for them, and at
Arcachon, Vannes, Oléron, Auray, Cancale and Courseulles. The total
value of the produce of fisheries increased from £4,537,000 in 1892 to
£5,259,000 in 1902. In 1902 the number of men employed in the home
fisheries was 144,000 and the number of vessels 25,481 (tonnage
127,000); in the deep-sea fisheries 10,500 men and 450 vessels
(tonnage 51,000) were employed.

_Communications._

_Roads._--Admirable highways known as _routes nationales_ and kept up at the expense of the state radiate from Paris to the great towns of France. Averaging 52½ ft. in breadth, they covered in 1905 a distance of nearly 24,000 m. The École des Ponts et Chaussées at Paris is maintained by the government for the training of the engineers for the construction and upkeep of roads and bridges. Each department controls and maintains the _routes départementales_, usually good macadamized roads connecting the chief places within its limits and extending in 1903 over 9700 m. The routes nationales and the routes départementales come under the category of _la grande voirie_ and are under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works. The urban and rural district roads, covering a much greater mileage and classed as _la petite voirie_, are maintained chiefly by the communes under the supervision of the Minister of the Interior.

_Waterways._[12]--The waterways of France, 7543 m. in length, of which canals cover 3031 m., are also classed under _la grande voirie_; they are the property of the state, and for the most part are free of tolls. They are divided into two classes. Those of the first class, which comprise rather less than half the entire system, have a minimum depth of 6½ ft., with locks 126 ft. long and 17 ft. wide; those of the second class are of smaller dimensions. Water traffic, which is chiefly in heavy merchandise, as coal, building materials, and agriculture and food produce, more than doubled in volume between 1881 and 1905. The canal and river system attains its greatest utility in the north, north-east and north-centre of the country; traffic is thickest along the Seine below Paris; along the rivers and small canals of the rich departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and along the Oise and the canal of St Quentin whereby they communicate with Paris; along the canal from the Marne to the Rhine and the succession of waterways which unite it with the Oise; along the Canal de l'Est (departments of Meuse and Ardennes); and along the waterways uniting Paris with the Saône at Chalon (Seine, Canal du Loing, Canal de Briare, Lateral canal of the Loire and Canal du Centre) and along the Saône between Chalon and Lyons.

In point of length the following are the principal canals:

Miles.

Est (uniting Meuse with Moselle and Saône) 270
From Nates to Brest 225
Berry (uniting Montluçon with the canalized Cher
and the Loire canal) 163
Midi (Toulouse to Mediterranean via Béziers); see
CANAL 175
Burgundy (uniting the Yonne and Saône) 151
Lateral canal of Loire 137
From Marne to Rhine (on French territory) 131
Lateral canal of Garonne 133
Rhône to Rhine (on French territory) 119
Nivernais (uniting Loire and Yonne) 111
Canal de la Somme 97
Centre (uniting Saône and Loire) 81
Canal de l'Ourcq 67
Ardennes (uniting Aisne and Canal de l'Est) 62
From Rhône to Cette 77
Canal de la Haute Marne 60
St Quentin (uniting Scheldt with Somme and Oise) 58

The chief navigable rivers are:

+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Total | |
| | navigated | First Class |
| | Length. |Navigability.|
+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Miles. | Miles. |
| | | |
| Seine | 339 | 293 |
| Aisne | 37 | 37 |
| Marne | 114 | 114 |
| Oise | 99 | 65 |
| Yonne | 67 | 53 |
| Rhône | 309 | 30 |
| Saône | 234 | 234 |
| Adour | 72 | 21 |
| Garonne | 289 | 96 |
| Dordogne | 167 | 26 |
| Loire | 452 | 35 |
| Charente | 106 | 16 |
| Vilaine | 91 | 31 |
| Escaut (in France)| 39 | 39 |
| Scarpe | 41 | 41 |
| Lys | 45 | 45 |
| Aa | 18 | 18 |
+-------------------+-----------+-------------+

_Railways._--The first important line in France, from Paris to Rouen, was constructed through the instrumentality of Sir Edward Blount (1809-1905), an English banker in Paris, who was afterwards for thirty years chairman of the Ouest railway. After the rejection in 1838 of the government's proposals for the construction of seven trunk lines to be worked by the state, he obtained a concession for that piece of line on the terms that the French treasury would advance one-third of the capital at 3% if he would raise the remaining two-thirds, half in France and half in England. The contract for building the railway was put in the hands of Thomas Brassey; English navvies were largely employed on the work, and a number of English engine-drivers were employed when traffic was begun in 1843. A law passed in 1842 laid the foundation of the plan under which the railways have since been developed, and mapped out nine main lines, running from Paris to the frontiers and from the Mediterranean to the Rhine and to the Atlantic coast. Under it the cost of the necessary land was to be found as to one-third by the state and as to the residue locally, but this arrangement proved unworkable and was abandoned in 1845, when it was settled that the state should provide the land and construct the earthworks and stations, the various companies which obtained concessions being left to make the permanent way, provide rolling stock and work the lines for certain periods. Construction proceeded under this law, but not with very satisfactory results, and new arrangements had to be made between 1852 and 1857, when the railways were concentrated in the hands of six great companies, the Nord, the Est, the Ouest, the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée, the Orléans and the Midi. Each of these companies was allotted a definite sphere of influence, and was granted a concession for ninety-nine years from its date of formation, the concessions thus terminating at various dates between 1950 and 1960. In return for the privileges granted them the companies undertook the construction out of their own unaided resources of 1500 m. of subsidiary lines, but the railway expenditure of the country at this period was so large that in a few years they found it impossible to raise the capital they required. In these circumstances the state agreed to guarantee the interest on the capital, the sums it paid in this way being regarded as advances to be reimbursed in the future with interest at 4%. This measure proved successful and the projected lines were completed. But demands for more lines were constantly arising, and the existing companies, in view of their financial position, were disinclined to undertake their construction. The government therefore found itself obliged to inaugurate a system of direct subventions, not only to the old large companies, but also to new small ones, to encourage the development of branch and local lines, and local authorities were also empowered to contribute a portion of the required capital. The result came to be that many small lines were begun by companies that had not the means to complete them, and again the state had to come to the rescue. In 1878 it agreed to spend £20,000,000 in purchasing and completing a number of these lines, some of which were handed over to the great companies, while others were retained in the hands of the government, forming the system known as the Chemins de Fer de l'État. Next year a large programme of railway expansion was adopted, at an estimated cost to the state of £140,000,000, and from 1880 to 1882 nearly £40,000,000 was expended and some 1800 m. of line constructed. Then there was a change in the financial situation, and it became difficult to find the money required. In these circumstances the conventions of 1883 were concluded, and the great companies partially relieved the government of its obligations by agreeing to contribute a certain proportion of the cost of the new lines and to provide the rolling stock for working them. In former cases when the railways had had recourse to state aid, it was the state whose contributions were fixed, while the railways were left to find the residue; but on this occasion the position was reversed. The state further guaranteed a minimum rate of interest on the capital invested, and this guarantee, which by the convention of 1859 had applied to "new" lines only, was now extended to cover both "old" and "new" lines, the receipts and expenditure from both kinds being lumped together. As before, the sums paid out in respect of guaranteed dividend were to be regarded as advances which were to be paid back to the state out of the profits made, when these permitted, and when the advances were wiped out, the profits, after payment of a certain dividend, were to be divided between the state and the railway, two-thirds going to the former and one-third to the latter. All the companies, except the Nord, have at one time or another had to take advantage of the guarantee, and the fact that the Ouest had been one of the most persistent and heavy borrowers in this respect was one of the reasons that induced the government to take it over as from the 1st of January 1909. By the 1859 conventions the state railway system obtained an entry into Paris by means of running powers over the Ouest from Chartres, and its position was further improved by the exchange of certain lines with the Orléans company.

The great railway systems of France are as follows:

1. The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming
districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with the
Belgian railways at several points. Its main lines run from Paris to
Calais, via Creil, Amiens and Boulogne, from Paris to Lille, via Creil
and Arras, and from Paris to Maubeuge via Creil, Tergnier and St
Quentin.

2. The Ouest-État, a combination of the West and state systems. The
former traversed Normandy in every direction and connected Paris with
the towns of Brittany. Its chief lines ran from Paris to Le Havre via
Mantes and Rouen, to Dieppe via Rouen, to Cherbourg, to Granville and
to Brest. The state railways served a large portion of western France,
their chief lines being from Nantes via La Rochelle to Bordeaux, and
from Bordeaux via Saintes, Niort and Saumur to Chartres.

3. The Est, running from Paris via Châlons and Nancy to Avricourt (for
Strassburg), via Troyes and Langres to Belfort and on via Basel to the
Saint Gotthard, and via Reims and Mezières to Longwy.

4. The Orléans, running from Paris to Orléans, and thence serving
Bordeaux via Tours, Poitiers and Angoulême, Nantes via Tours and
Angers, and Montauban and Toulouse via Vierzon and Limoges.

5. The Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée, connecting Paris with Marseilles via
Moret, Laroche, Dijon, Mâcon and Lyons, and with Nîmes via Moret,
Nevers and Clermont-Ferrand. It establishes communication between
France and Switzerland and Italy via Mâcon and Culoz (for the Mt.
Cenis Tunnel) and via Dijon and Pontarlier (for the Simplon), and also
has a direct line along the Mediterranean coast from Marseilles to
Genoa via Toulon and Nice.

6. The Midi (Southern) has lines radiating from Toulouse to Bordeaux
via Agen, to Bayonne via Tarbes and Pau, and to Cette via Carcassonne,
Narbonne and Béziers. From Bordeaux there is also a direct line to
Bayonne and Irun (for Madrid), and at the other end of the Pyrenees a
line leads from Narbonne to Perpignan and Barcelona.

The following table, referring to lines "of general interest,"
indicates the development of railways after 1885:

+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
| | | Receipts in| Expenses | Passengers| Goods carried|
| Year.|Mileage.| Thousands | Thousands| carried | (1000 Metric |
| | | of £. | of £. | (1000's). | Tons). |
+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
| 1885 | 18,650 | 42,324 | 23,508 | 214,451 | 75,192 |
| 1890 | 20,800 | 46,145 | 24,239 | 41,119 | 92,506 |
| 1895 | 22,650 | 50,542 | 27,363 | 348,852 | 100,834 |
| 1900 | 23,818 | 60,674 | 32,966 | 453,193 | 126,830 |
| 1904 | 24,755 | 60,589 | 31,477 | 433,913 | 130,144 |
+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+

Narrow gauge and normal gauge railways "of local interest" covered
3905 m. in 1904.

_Commerce._

After entering on a régime of free trade in 1860 France gradually reverted towards protection; this system triumphed in the Customs Law of 1892, which imposed more or less considerable duties on imports--a law associated with the name of M. Méline. While raising the taxes both on agricultural products and manufactured goods, this law introduced, between France and all the powers trading with her, relations different from those in the past. It left the government free either to apply to foreign countries the general tariff or to enter into negotiations with them for the application, under certain conditions, of a minimum tariff. The policy of protection was further accentuated by raising the impost on corn from 5 to 7 francs per hectolitre (2¾ bushels). This system, however, which is opposed by a powerful party, has at various times undergone modifications. On the one hand it became necessary, in face of an inadequate harvest, to suspend in 1898 the application of the law on the import of corn. On the other hand, in order to check the decline of exports and neutralize the harmful effects of a prolonged customs war, a commercial treaty was in 1896 concluded with Switzerland, carrying with it a reduction, in respect of certain articles, of the imposts which had been fixed by the law of 1892. An accord was likewise in 1898 effected with Italy, which since 1886 had been in a state of economic rupture with France, and in July 1899 an accord was concluded with the United States of America. Almost all other countries, moreover, share in the benefit of the minimum tariff, and profit by the modifications it may successively undergo.

_Commerce, in Millions of Pounds Sterling._

+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
| | General | Special |
| +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| |Imports.|Exports.| Total. |Imports.|Exports.| Total. |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 1876-1880 | 210.1 | 175.3 | 385.4 | 171.7 | 135.1 | 306.8 |
| 1881-1885 | 224.1 | 177.8 | 401.9 | 183.4 | 135.3 | 318.7 |
| 1886-1890 | 208.2 | 179.4 | 387.6 | 168.8 | 137.6 | 306.4 |
| 1891-1895 | 205.9 | 178.6 | 384.5 | 163.0 | 133.8 | 296.8 |
| 1896-1900 | 237.8 | 201.0 | 438.8 | 171.9 | 150.8 | 322.7 |
| 1901-1905 | 233.3 | 227.5 | 460.8 | 182.8 | 174.7 | 357.5 |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

+------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
| | Imports. | Exports. |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
| | Value | Per cent | Value | Per cent |
| |(Thousands | of Total |(Thousands | of Total |
| | of £). | Value. | of £). | Value. |
+------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Articles of Food--| | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 58,856 | 34.9 | 30,830 | 22.4 |
| 1891-1895 | 50,774 | 30.9 | 28,287 | 21.1 |
| 1896-1900 | 42,488 | 24.9 | 27,838 | 18.6 |
| 1901-1905 | 33,631 | 18.4 | 28,716 | 16.5 |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Raw Materials[13] | | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 85,778 | 50.8 | 33,848 | 24.6 |
| 1891-1895 | 88,211 | 54.3 | 32,557 | 24.4 |
| 1896-1900 | 101,727 | 59.2 | 40,060 | 26.6 |
| 1901-1905 | 116,580 | 63.8 | 47,385 | 27.1 |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Manufactured | | | | |
| Articles[14] | | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 24,125 | 14.3 | 72,917 | 53.0 |
| 1891-1895 | 24,054 | 14.8 | 72,906 | 54.5 |
| 1896-1900 | 27,330 | 15.9 | 82,270 | 54.8 |
| 1901-1905 | 32,554 | 17.8 | 98,582 | 56.4 |
+------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+

Being in the main a self-supporting country France carries on most of her trade within her own borders, and ranks below Great Britain, Germany and the United States in volume of exterior trade. The latter is subdivided into _general_ commerce, which includes all goods entering or leaving the country, and _special_ commerce which includes imports for home use and exports of home produce. The above table shows the developments of French trade during the years from 1876 to 1905 by means of quinquennial averages. A permanent body (the _commission permanente des valeurs_) fixes the average prices of the articles in the customs list; this value is estimated at the end of the year in accordance with the variations that have taken place and is applied provisionally to the following year.

Amongst imports raw materials (wool, cotton and silk, coal, oil-seeds,
timber, &c.) hold the first place, articles of food (cereals, wine,
coffee, &c.) and manufactured goods (especially machinery) ranking
next. Amongst exports manufactured goods (silk, cotton and woollen
goods, fancy wares, apparel, &c.) come before raw materials and
articles of food (wine and dairy products bought chiefly by England).

Divided into these classes the imports and exports (special trade) for
quinquennial periods from 1886 to 1905 averaged as shown in the
preceding table.

The decline both in imports and in exports of articles of food, which
is the most noteworthy fact exhibited in the preceding table, was due
to the almost prohibitive tax in the Customs Law of 1892, upon
agricultural products.

The average value of the principal articles of import and export
(special trade) over quinquennial periods following 1890 is shown in
the two tables below.

_Principal Imports (Thousands of £)._

+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Coal, coke, &c | 7,018 | 9,883 | 10,539 |
| Coffee | 6,106 | 4,553 | 3,717 |
| Cotton, raw | 7,446 | 7,722 | 11,987 |
| Flax | 2,346 | 2,435 | 3,173 |
| Fruit and seeds (oleaginous)| 7,175 | 6,207 | 8,464 |
| Hides and skins, raw | 6,141 | 5,261 | 6,369 |
| Machinery | 2,181 | 3,632 | 4,614 |
| Silk, raw | 9,488 | 10,391 | 11,765 |
| Timber | 6,054 | 6,284 | 6,760 |
| Wheat | 10,352 | 5,276 | 1,995 |
| Wine | 9,972 | 10,454 | 5,167 |
| Wool, raw | 13,372 | 16,750 | 16,395 |
+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+

_Principal Exports (Thousands of £)._

+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Apparel | 4,726 | 4,513 | 5,079 |
| Brandy and other spirits | 2,402 | 1,931 | 1,678 |
| Butter | 2,789 | 2,783 | 2,618 |
| Cotton manufactures | 4,233 | 5,874 | 7,965 |
| Haberdashery[15] | 5,830 | 6,039 | 6,599 |
| Hides, raw | 2,839 | 3,494 | 4,813 |
| Hides, tanned or curried | 4,037 | 4,321 | 4,753 |
| Iron and steel, manufactures of| .. | 2,849 | 4,201 |
| Millinery | 1,957 | 3,308 | 4,951 |
| Motor cars and vehicles | .. | 160 | 2,147 |
| Paper and manufactures of | 2,095 | 2,145 | 2,551 |
| Silk, raw, thrown, waste and | | | |
| cocoons | 4,738 | 4,807 | 6,090 |
| Silk and waste silk, | | | |
| manufactured of | 9,769 | 10,443 | 11,463 |
| Wine | 8,824 | 9,050 | 9,139 |
| Wool, raw | 5,003 | 7,813 | 9,159 |
| Wool, manufactures of | 11,998 | 10,190 | 8,459 |
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+

The following were the countries sending the largest quantities of
goods (special trade) to France (during the same periods as in
previous table).

Trade with Principal Countries. Imports (Thousands of £).

+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Germany | 13,178 | 13,904 | 17,363 |
| Belgium | 15,438 | 13,113 | 13,057 |
| United Kingdom | 20,697 | 22,132 | 22,725 |
| Spain | 10,294 | 10,560 | 6,525[16]|
| United States | 15,577 | 18,491 | 19,334 |
| Argentine Republic | 7,119 | 10,009 | 10,094 |
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+

Other countries importing largely into France are Russia, Algeria and
British India, whose imports in each case averaged over £9,000,000 in
value in the period 1901-1905; China (average value £7,000,000); and
Italy (average value £6,000,000).

The following are the principal countries receiving the exports of
France (special trade), with values for the same periods.

_Trade with Principal Countries. Exports (Thousands of £)._

+----------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Germany | 13,712 | 16,285 | 21,021 |
| Belgium| | 19,857 | 22,135 | 24,542 |
| United Kingdom | 39,310 | 45,203 | 49,156 |
| United States | 9,337 | 9,497 | 10,411 |
| Algeria | 7,872 | 9,434 | 11,652 |
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+

The other chief customers of France were Switzerland and Italy, whose
imports from France averaged in 1901-1905 nearly £10,000,000 and over
£7,200,000 respectively in value. In the same period Spain received
exports from France averaging £4,700,000.

The trade of France was divided between foreign countries and her
colonies in the following proportions (imports and exports combined).

+-----------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| | General Trade. | Special Trade. |
| +------------+----------+-----------+----------+
| | Foreign | Colonies.| Foreign | Colonies.|
| | Countries. | | Countries.| |
+-----------+------------+----------+-----------+----------+
| 1891-1895 | 92.00 | 8.00 | 90.89 | 9.11 |
| 1896-1900 | 91.18 | 8.82 | 89.86 | 10.14 |
| 1901-1905 | 90.41 | 9.59 | 88.78 | 11.22 |
+-----------+------------+----------+-----------+----------+

The respective shares of the leading customs in the trade of the
country is approximately shown in the following table, which gives the
value of their exports and imports (general trade) in 1905 in millions
sterling.

In the same year the other chief customs in order of importance were
Tourcoing, Jeumont, Cette, St Nazaire and Avricourt.

The chief local bodies concerned with commerce and industry are the
_chambres de commerce_ and the _chambres consultatives d'arts et
manufactures_, the members of which are elected from their own number
by the traders and industrialists of a certain standing. They are
established in the chief towns, and their principal function is to
advise the government on measures for improving and facilitating
commerce and industry within their circumscription. See also BANKS AND
BANKING; SAVINGS BANKS; POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.

_Shipping._--The following table shows the increase in tonnage of
sailing and steam shipping engaged in foreign trade entered and
cleared at the ports of France over quinquennial periods from 1890.

+-----------+------------------------+------------------------+
| | Entered. | Cleared. |
| +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+
| | French. | Foreign. | French. | Foreign. |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------+
| 1891-1895 | 4,277,967 | 9,947,893 | 4,521,928 | 10,091,000 |
| 1896-1900 | 4,665,268 | 12,037,571 | 5,005,563 | 12,103,358 |
| 1901-1905 | 4,782,101 | 14,744,626 | 5,503,463 | 14,823,217 |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------+

The increase of the French mercantile marine (which is fifth in
importance in the world) over the same period is traced in the
following table. Vessels of 2 net tons and upwards are enumerated.

+-----------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
| | Sailing. | Steam. | Total. |
| +------------------+------------------+--------+----------+
| | Number | | Number | | Number | |
| | of | Tonnage.| of | Tonnage.| of | Tonnage. |
| |Vessels.| |Vessels.| |Vessels.| |
+-----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+----------+
| 1891-1895 | 14,183 | 402,982 | 1182 | 502,363 | 15,365 | 905,345 |
| 1896-1900 | 14,327 | 437,468 | 1231 | 504,674 | 15,558 | 942,142 |
| 1901-1905 | 14,867 | 642,562 | 1388 | 617,536 | 16,255 |1,260,098 |
+-----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+----------+

At the beginning of 1908 the total was 17,193 (tonnage, 1,402,647); of
these 13,601 (tonnage, 81,833) were vessels of less than 20 tons,
while 502 (tonnage, 1,014,506) were over 800 tons.

The increase in the tonnage of sailing vessels, which in other
countries tends to decline, was due to the bounties voted by
parliament to its merchant sailing fleet with the view of increasing
the number of skilled seamen. The prosperity of the French shipping
trade is hampered by the costliness of shipbuilding and by the
scarcity of outward-bound cargo. Shipping has been fostered by paying
bounties for vessels constructed in France and sailing under the
French flag, and by reserving the coasting trade, traffic between
France and Algeria, &c., to French vessels. Despite these monopolies,
three-fourths of the shipping in French ports is foreign, and France
is without shipping companies comparable in importance to those of
other great maritime nations. The three chief companies are the
_Messageries Maritimes_ (Marseilles and Bordeaux), the _Compagnie
Générale Transatlantique_ (Le Havre, St Nazaire and Marseilles) and
the _Chargeurs Réunis_ (Le Havre).

_Government and Administration._

_Central Government._--The principles upon which the French constitution is based are representative government (by two chambers), manhood suffrage, responsibility of ministers and irresponsibility of the head of the state. Alterations or modifications of the constitution can only be effected by the National Assembly, consisting of both chambers sitting together _ad hoc_. The legislative power resides in these two chambers--the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the executive is vested in the president of the republic and the ministers. The members of both chambers owe their election to universal suffrage; but the Senate is not elected directly by the people and the Chamber of Deputies is.

The Chamber of Deputies, consisting of 584 members, is elected by the _scrutin d'arrondissement_ (each elector voting for one deputy) for a term of four years, the conditions of election being as follows: Each arrondissement sends one deputy if its population does not exceed 100,000, and an additional deputy for every additional 100,000 inhabitants or fraction of that number. Every citizen of twenty-one years of age, unless subject to some legal disability, such as actual engagement in military service, bankruptcy or condemnation to certain punishments, has a vote, provided that he can prove a residence of six months' duration in any one town or commune. A deputy must be a French citizen, not under twenty-five years old. Each candidate must make, at least five days before the elections, a declaration setting forth in what constituency he intends to stand. He may only stand for one, and all votes given for him in any other than that specified in the declaration are void. To secure election a candidate must at the first voting poll an absolute majority and a number of votes equal to one-fourth of the number of electors. If a second poll is necessary a relative majority is sufficient.

The Senate (see below, _Law and Institutions_) is composed of 300 members who must be French citizens at least forty years of age. They are elected by the "_scrutin de liste_" for a period of nine years, and one-third of the body retires every three years. The department which is to elect a senator when a vacancy occurs is settled by lot.

Both senators and deputies receive a salary of £600 per annum. No member of a family that has reigned in France is eligible for either chamber.

Bills may be proposed either by ministers (in the name of the president of the republic), or by private members, and may be initiated in either chamber, but money-bills must be submitted in the first place to the Chamber of Deputies. Every bill is first examined by a committee, a member of which is chosen to "report" on it to the chamber, after which it must go through two readings (_délibérations_), before it is presented to the other chamber. Either house may pass a vote of no confidence in the government, and in practice the government resigns in face of the passing of such a vote by the deputies, but not if it is passed by the Senate only. The chambers usually assemble in January each year, and the ordinary session lasts not less than five months; usually it continues till July. There is an extraordinary session from October till Christmas.

The president (see below, _Law and Institutions_) is elected for seven years, by a majority of votes, by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies sitting together as the National Assembly. Any French citizen may be chosen president, no fixed age being required. The only exception to this rule is that no member of a royal family which has once reigned in France can be elected. The president receives 1,200,000 francs (£48,000) a year, half as salary, half for travelling expenses and the charges incumbent upon the official representative of the country. Both the chambers are summoned by the president, who has the power of dissolving the Chamber of Deputies with the assent of the Senate. When a change of Government occurs the president chooses a prominent parliamentarian as premier and president of the council. This personage, who himself holds a portfolio, nominates the other ministers, his choice being subject to the ratification of the chief of the state. The ministerial council (_conseil des ministres_) is presided over by the president of the republic; less formal meetings (_conseils de cabinet_) under the presidency of the premier, or even of some other minister, are also held.

The ministers, whether members of parliament or not, have the right to sit in both chambers and can address the house whenever they choose, though a minister may only vote in the chamber of which he happens to be a member. There are twelve ministries[17] comprising those of justice; finance; war; the interior; marine; colonies; public instruction and fine arts; foreign affairs; commerce and industry; agriculture; public works; and labour and public thrift. Individual ministers are responsible for all acts done in connexion with their own departments, and the body of ministers collectively is responsible for the general policy of the government.

The council of state (_conseil d'état_) is the principal council of the head of the state and his ministers, who consult it on various legislative problems, more particularly on questions of administration. It is divided for despatch of business into four sections, each of which corresponds to a group of two or three ministerial departments, and is composed of (1) 32 councillors "_en service ordinaire_" (comprising a vice-president and sectional presidents), and 19 councillors "_en service extraordinaire_," i.e. government officials who are deputed to watch the interests of the ministerial departments to which they belong, and in matters not concerned with those departments have a merely consultative position; (2) 32 _maîtres des requêtes_; (3) 40 auditors.

The presidency of the council of state belongs _ex officio_ to the minister of justice.

The theory of "_droit administratif_" lays down the principle that an agent of the government cannot be prosecuted or sued for acts relating to his administrative functions before the ordinary tribunals. Consequently there is a special system of administrative jurisdiction for the trial of "_le contentieux administratif_" or disputes in which the administration is concerned. The council of state is the highest administrative tribunal, and includes a special "_Section du contentieux_" to deal with judicial work of this nature.

_Local Government._--France is divided into 86 administrative departments (including Corsica) or 87 if the Territory of Belfort, a remnant of the Haut Rhin department, be included. These departments are subdivided into 362 arrondissements, 2911 cantons and 36,222 communes.

Before 1790 France was divided into thirty-three great and seven small
military governments, often called provinces, which are, however, to
be distinguished from the provinces formed under the feudal system.
The great governments were: Alsace, Saintonge and Angournois, Anjou,
Artois, Aunis, Auvergne, Béarn and Navarre, Berry, Bourbonnais;
Bourgogne (Burgundy), Bretagne (Brittany), Champagne, Dauphiné,
Flandre, Foix, Franche-Comté, Guienne and Gascogne (Gascony),
Île-de-France, Languedoc, Limousin, Lorraine, Lyonnais, Maine, Marche,
Nivernais, Normandie, Orléanais, Picardie, Poitou, Provence,
Roussillon, Touraine and Corse. The eight small governments were:
Paris, Boulogne and Boulonnais, Le Havre, Sedan, Toulois, Pays Messin
and Verdunois and Saumurois.

At the head of each department is a prefect, a political official nominated by the minister of the interior and appointed by the president, who acts as general agent of the government and representative of the central authority. To aid him the prefect has a general secretary and an advisory body (_conseil de préfecture_), the members of which are appointed by the president, which has jurisdiction in certain classes of disputes arising out of administration and must, in certain cases, be consulted, though the prefect is not compelled to follow its advice. The prefect supervises the execution of the laws; has wide authority in regard to policing, public hygiene and relief of pauper children; has the nomination of various subordinate officials; and is in correspondence with the subordinate functionaries in his department, to whom he transmits the orders and instructions of the government. Although the management of local affairs is in the hands of the prefect his power with regard to these is checked by a deliberative body known as the general council (_conseil général_). This council, which consists for the most part of business and professional men, is elected by universal suffrage, each canton in the department contributing one member. The general council controls the departmental administration of the prefect, and its decisions on points of local government are usually final. It assigns its quota of taxes (_contingent_) to each arrondissement, authorizes the sale, purchase or exchange of departmental property, superintends the management thereof, authorizes the construction of new roads, railways or canals, and advises on matters of local interest. Political questions are rigorously excluded from its deliberations. The general council, when not sitting, is represented by a permanent delegation (_commission départementale_).

As the prefect in the department, so the sub-prefect in the arrondissement, though with a more limited power, is the representative of the central authority. He is assisted, and in some degree controlled, in his work by the district council (_conseil d'arrondissement_), to which each canton sends a member, chosen by universal suffrage. As the arrondissement has neither property nor budget, the principal business of the council is to allot to each commune its share of the direct taxes imposed on the arrondissement by the general council.

The canton is purely an administrative division, containing, on an average, about twelve communes, though some exceptional communes are big enough to contain more than one canton. It is the seat of a justice of the peace, and is the electoral unit for the general council and the district council.

The communes, varying greatly in area and population, are the administrative units in France. The chief magistrate of the commune is the mayor (_maire_), who is (1) the agent of the central government and charged as such with the local promulgation and execution of the general laws and decrees of the country; (2) the executive head of the municipality, in which capacity he supervises the police, the revenue and public works of the commune, and acts as the representative of the corporation in general. He also acts as registrar of births, deaths and marriages, and officiates at civil marriages. Mayors are usually assisted by deputies (_adjoints_). In a commune of 2500 inhabitants or less there is one deputy; in more populous communes there may be more, but in no case must the number exceed twelve, except at Lyons, where as many as seventeen are allowed. Both mayors and deputy mayors are elected by and from among members of the municipal council for four years. This body consists, according to the population of the commune, of from 10 to 36 members, elected for four years on the principle of the _scrutin de liste_ by Frenchmen who have reached the age of twenty-one years and have a six months' residence qualification.

The local affairs of the commune are decided by the municipal council, and its decisions become operative after the expiration of a month, save in matters which involve interests transcending those of the commune. In such cases the prefect must approve them, and in some cases the sanction of the general council or even ratification by the president is necessary. The council also chooses communal delegates to elect senators; and draws up the list of _répartiteurs_, whose function is to settle how the commune's share of direct taxes shall be allotted among the taxpayers. The sub-prefect then selects from this list ten of whom he approves for the post. The meetings of the council are open to the public.

_Justice._

The ordinary judicial system of France comprises two classes of courts: (1) civil and criminal, (2) special, including courts dealing only with purely commercial cases; in addition there are the administrative courts, including bodies, the Conseil d'État and the Conseils de Préfecture, which deal, in their judicial capacity, with cases coming under the _droit administratif_. Mention may also be made of the Tribunal des Conflits, a special court whose function it is to decide which is the competent tribunal when an administration and a judicial court both claim or refuse to deal with a given case.

Taking the first class of courts, which have both civil and criminal jurisdiction, the lowest tribunal in the system is that of the _juge de paix_.

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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Fox, George" to "France"Chapter IV: Part 4

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