Chapter V: Part 5

In each canton is a _juge de paix_, who in his capacity as a civil judge takes cognizance, without appeal, of disputes where the amount sought to be recovered does not exceed £12 in value. Where the amount exceeds £12 but not £24 an appeal lies from his decision to the court of first instance. In some particular cases where special promptitude or local knowledge is necessary, as disputes between hotelkeepers and travellers, and the like, he has jurisdiction (subject to appeal to the court of first instance) up to £60. He has also a criminal jurisdiction in _contraventions_, i.e. breaches of law punishable by a fine not exceeding 12s. or by imprisonment not exceeding five days. If the sentence be one of imprisonment or the fine exceeds 4s., appeal lies to the court of first instance. It is an important function of the _juge de paix_ to endeavour to reconcile disputants who come before him, and no suit can be brought before the court of first instance until he has endeavoured without success to bring the parties to an agreement.

_Tribunaux de première instance_, also called _tribunaux d'arrondissement_, of which there is one in every arrondissement (with few exceptions), besides serving as courts of appeal from the _juges de paix_ have an original jurisdiction in matters civil and criminal. The court consists of a president, one or more vice-presidents and a variable number of judges. A _procureur_, or public prosecutor, is also attached to each court. In civil matters the tribunal takes cognizance of actions relating to personal property to the value of £60, and actions relating to land to the value of 60 fr. (£2: 8s.) per annum. When it deals with matters involving larger sums an appeal lies to the courts of appeal. In penal cases its jurisdiction extends to all offences of the class known as _délits_--offences punishable by a more serious penalty than the "contraventions" dealt with by the _juge de paix_, but not entailing such heavy penalties as the code applies to _crimes_, with which the assize courts (see below) deal. When sitting in its capacity as a criminal court it is known as the _tribunal correctionnel_. Its judgments are invariably subject in these matters to appeal before the court of appeal.

There are twenty-six courts of appeal (_cours d'appel_), to each of which are attached from one to five departments.

Cours d'Appel. Departments depending on them.

PARIS Seine, Aube, Eure-et-Loir, Marne, Seine-et-Marne,
Seine-et-Oise, Yonne.
AGEN . . . . Gers, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne.
AIX . . . . Basses-Alpes, Alpes-Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var.
AMIENS . . . Aisne, Oise, Somme.
ANGERS . . . Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Sarthe.
BASTIA . . . Corse.
BESANÇON . . Doubs, Jura, Haute-Saône, Territoire de Belfort.
BORDEAUX . . Charente, Dordogne, Gironde.
BOURGES . . Cher, Indre, Nièvre.
CAEN . . . Calvados, Manche, Orne.
CHAMBÉRY . . Savoie, Haute-Savoie.
DIJON . . . Côte-d'Or, Haute-Marne, Saône-et-Loire.
DOUAI . . . Nord, Pas-de-Calais.
GRENOBLE . . Hautes-Alpes, Drôme, Isère.
LIMOGES . . Corrèze, Creuse, Haute-Vienne.
LYONS . . . Ain, Loire, Rhône.
MONTPELLIER Aude, Aveyron, Hérault, Pyrénées-Orientales.
NANCY . . . Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Vosges, Ardennes.
NÎMES . . . Ardèche, Gard, Lozère, Vaucluse.
ORLÉANS . . Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Loiret.
PAU . . . . Landes, Basses-Pyrénées, Hautes-Pyrénées.
POITIERS . . Charente-Inférieure, Deux-Sèvres, Vendée, Vienne.
RENNES . . . Côtes-du-Nord, Finistère, Ille-et-Vilaine,
Loire-Inférieure, Morbihan.
RIOM . . . . Allier, Cantal, Haute-Loire, Puy-de-Dôme.
ROUEN . . . Eure, Seine-Inférieure.
TOULOUSE . . Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne.

At the head of each court, which is divided into sections (_chambres_), is a _premier président_. Each section (_chambre_) consists of a _président de chambre_ and four judges (_conseillers_). _Procureurs-généraux_ and _avocats-généraux_ are also attached to the _parquet_, or permanent official staff, of the courts of appeal. The principal function of these courts is the hearing of appeals both civil and criminal from the courts of first instance; only in some few cases (e.g. discharge of bankrupts) do they exercise an original jurisdiction. One of the sections is termed the _chambre des mises en accusation_. Its function is to examine criminal cases and to decide whether they shall be referred for trial to the lower courts or the _cours d'assises_. It may also dismiss a case on grounds of insufficient evidence.

The _cours d'assises_ are not separate and permanent tribunals. Every three months an assize is held in each department, usually at the chief town, by a _conseiller_, appointed _ad hoc_, of the court of appeal upon which the department depends. The _cour d'assises_ occupies itself entirely with offences of the most serious type, classified under the penal code as _crimes_, in accordance with the severity of the penalties attached. The president is assisted in his duties by two other magistrates, who may be chosen either from among the _conseillers_ of the court of appeal or the presidents or judges of the local court of first instance. In this court and in this court alone there is always a jury of twelve. They decide, as in England, on facts only, leaving the application of the law to the judges. The verdict is given by a simple majority.

In all criminal prosecutions, other than those coming before the _juge de paix_, a secret preliminary investigation is made by an official called a _juge d'instruction_. He may either dismiss the case at once by an order of "non-lieu," or order it to be tried, when the prosecution is undertaken by the _procureur_ or _procureur-général_. This process in some degree corresponds to the manner in which English magistrates dismiss a case or commit the prisoner to quarter sessions or assizes, but the powers of the _juge d'instruction_ are more arbitrary and absolute.

The highest tribunal in France is the _cour de cassation_, sitting at Paris, and consisting of a first president, three sectional presidents and forty-five _conseillers_, with a ministerial staff (_parquet_) consisting of a _procureur-général_ and six advocates-general. It is divided into three sections: the Chambre des Requêtes, or court of petitions, the civil court and the criminal court. The _cour de cassation_ can review the decision of any other tribunal, except administrative courts. Criminal appeals usually go straight to the criminal section, while civil appeals are generally taken before the Chambre des Requêtes, where they undergo a preliminary examination. If the demand for rehearing is refused such refusal is final; but if it is granted the case is then heard by the civil chamber, and after argument _cassation_ (annulment) is granted or refused. The Court of Cassation does not give the ultimate decision on a case; it pronounces, not on the question of fact, but on the legal principle at issue, or the competence of the court giving the original decision. Any decision, even one of a _cour d'assises_, may be brought before it in the last resort, and may be _cassé_--annulled. If it pronounces _cassation_ it remits the case to the hearing of a court of the same order.

Commercial courts (_tribunaux de commerce_) are established in all the more important commercial towns to decide as expeditiously as possible disputed points arising out of business transactions. They consist of judges, chosen, from among the leading merchants, and elected by _commerçants patentés depuis cinq ans_, i.e. persons who have held the licence to trade (see FINANCE) for five years and upwards. In the absence of a _tribunal de commerce_ commercial cases come before the ordinary _tribunal d'arrondissement_.

In important industrial towns tribunals called _conseils de prud'hommes_ are instituted to deal with disputes between employers and employees, actions arising out of contracts of apprenticeship and the like. They are composed of employers and workmen in equal numbers and are established by decree of the council of state, advised by the minister of justice. The minister of justice is notified of the necessity for a _conseil de prud'hommes_ by the prefect, acting on the advice of the municipal council and the Chamber of Commerce or the Chamber of Arts and Manufactures. The judges are elected by employers and workmen of a certain standing. When the amount claimed exceeds £12 appeal lies to the _tribunaux d'arrondissement_.

_Police._--Broadly, the police of France may be divided into two great branches--administrative police (_la police administrative_) and judicial police (_la police judiciaire_), the former having for its object the maintenance of order, and the latter charged with tracing out offenders, collecting the proofs, and delivering the presumed offenders to the tribunals charged by law with their trial and punishment. Subdivisions may be, and often are, named according to the particular duties to which they are assigned, as _la police politique_, _police des moeurs_, _police sanitaire_, &c. The officers of the judicial police comprise the _juge de paix_ (equivalent to the English police magistrate), the _maire_, the _commissaire de police_, the _gendarmerie_ and, in rural districts, the _gardes champêtres_ and the _gardes forestiers_. _Gardiens de la paix_ (sometimes called _sergents de ville_, _gardes de ville_ or _agents de police_) are not to be confounded with the gendarmerie, being a branch of the administrative police and corresponding more or less nearly with the English equivalent "police constables," which the gendarmerie do not, although both perform police duty. The gendarmerie, however, differ from the agents or gardes both in uniform and in the fact that they are for the most part country patrols. The organization of the Paris police, which is typical of that in other large towns, may be outlined briefly. The central administration (_administration centrale_) comprises three classes of functions which together constitute _la police_. First there is the office or _cabinet_ of the prefect for the general police (_la police générale_), with bureaus for various objects, such as the safety of the president of the republic, the regulation and order of public ceremonies, theatres, amusements and entertainments, &c.; secondly, the judicial police (_la police judiciaire_), with numerous bureaus also, in constant communication with the courts of judicature; thirdly, the administrative police (_la police administrative_) including bureaus, which superintend navigation, public carriages, animals, public health, &c. Concurrently with these divisions there is the municipal police, which comprises all the agents in enforcing police regulations in the streets or public thoroughfares, acting under the orders of a chief (_chef de la police municipale_) with a central bureau. The municipal police is divided into two principal branches--the service in uniform of the _agents de police_ and the service out of uniform of _inspecteurs de police_. In Paris the municipal police are divided among the twenty arrondissements, which the uniform police patrol (see further PARIS and POLICE).

_Prisons._--The prisons of France, some of them attached to the ministry of the interior, are complex in their classification. It is only from the middle of the 19th century that close attention has been given to the principle of individual separation. Cellular imprisonment was, however, partially adopted for persons awaiting trial. Central prisons, in which prisoners lived and worked in association, had been in existence from the commencement of the 19th century. These prisons received all sentenced to short terms of imprisonment, the long-term convicts going to the _bagnes_ (the great convict prisons at the arsenals of Rochefort, Brest and Toulon), while in 1851 transportation to penal colonies was adopted. In 1869 and 1871 commissions were appointed to inquire into prison discipline, and as a consequence of the report of the last commission, issued in 1874, the principle of cellular confinement was put in operation the following year. There were, however, but few prisons in France adapted for the cellular system, and the process of reconstruction has been slow. In 1898 the old Paris prisons of Grande-Roquette, Saint-Pélagie and Mazas were demolished, and to replace them a large prison with 1500 cells was erected at Fresnes-lès-Rungis. There are (1) the _maison d'arrêt_, temporary places of durance in every arrondissement for persons charged with offences, and those sentenced to more than a year's imprisonment who are awaiting transfer to a _maison centrale_; (2) the _maison de justice_, often part and parcel of the former, but only existing in the assize court towns for the safe custody of those tried or condemned at the assizes; (3) departmental prisons, or _maisons de correction_, for summary convictions, or those sentenced to less than a year, or, if provided with sufficient cells, those amenable to separate confinement; (4) _maisons centrales_ and _pénitenciers agricoles_, for all sentenced to imprisonment for more than a year, or to hard labour, or to those condemned to _travaux forcés_ for offences committed in prison. There are eleven _maisons centrales_, nine for men (Loos, Clairvaux, Beaulieu, Poissy, Melun, Fontevrault, Thouars, Riom and Nîmes); two for women (Rennes and Montpellier). The _pénitenciers agricoles_ only differ from the _maisons centrales_ in the matter of régime; there are two--at Castelluccio and at Chiavari (Corsica). There are also reformatory establishments for juvenile offenders, and _dépôts de sûreté_ for prisoners who are travelling, at places where there are no other prisons. For the penal settlements at a distance from France see DEPORTATION.

_Finance._

At the head of the financial organization of France, and exercising a general jurisdiction, is the minister of finance, who co-ordinates in one general budget the separate budgets prepared by his colleagues and assigns to each ministerial department the sums necessary for its expenses.

Budget.

The financial year in France begins on the 1st of January, and the budget of each financial year must be laid on the table of the Chamber of Deputies in the course of the ordinary session of the preceding year in time for the discussion upon it to begin in October and be concluded before the 31st of December. It is then submitted to a special commission of the Chamber of Deputies, elected for one year, who appoint a general reporter and one or more special reporters for each of the ministries. When the Chamber of Deputies has voted the budget it is submitted to a similar course of procedure in the Senate. When the budget has passed both chambers it is promulgated by the president under the title of _Loi des finances_. In the event of its not being voted before the 31st of December, recourse is had to the system of "provisional twelfths" (_douzièmes provisoires_), whereby the government is authorized by parliament to incur expenses for one, two or three months on the scale of the previous year. The expenditure of the government has several times been regulated for as long as six months upon this system.

Taxation.

In each department an official collector (_Trésorier payeur général_)
receives the taxes and public revenue collected therein and accounts
for them to the central authority in Paris. In view of his
responsibilities he has, before appointment, to pay a large deposit to
the treasury. Besides receiving taxes, they pay the creditors of the
state in their departments, conduct all operations affecting
departmental loans, buy and sell government stock (_rentes_) on behalf
of individuals, and conduct certain banking operations. The
_trésorier_ nearly always lives at the chief town of the department,
and is assisted by a _receveur particulier des finances_ in each
arrondissement (except that in which the _trésorier_ himself resides).
From the _receveur_ is demanded a security equal to five times his
total income. The direct taxes are actually collected by
_percepteurs_. In the commune an official known as the _receveur
municipal_ receives all moneys due to it, and, subject to the
authorization of the mayor, makes all payments due from it. In
communes with a revenue of less than £2400 the _percepteur_ fulfils
the functions of _receveur municipal_, but a special official may be
appointed in communes with large incomes.

The direct taxes fall into two classes. (1) _Impôts de répartition_
(apportionment), the amount to be raised being fixed in advance
annually and then apportioned among the departments. They include the
land tax,[19] the personal and habitation tax (_contribution
personnelle-mobilière_), and door and window tax. (2) _Impôts de
quotité_, which are levied directly on the individual, who pays his
quota according to a fixed tariff. These comprise the tax on
buildings[19] and the trade-licence tax (_impôt des patentes_).
Besides these, certain other taxes (_taxes assimilées aux
contributions directes_) are included under the heading of direct
taxation, e.g. the tax on property in mortmain, dues for the
verification of weights and measures, the tax on royalties from mines,
on horses, mules and carriages, on cycles, &c.

_The land tax_ falls upon land not built upon in proportion to its net
yearly revenue. It is collected in accordance with a register of
property (_cadastre_) drawn up for the most part in the first half of
the 19th century, dealing with every piece of property in France, and
giving its extent and value and the name of the owner. The
responsibility of keeping this register accurate and up to date is
divided between the state, the departments and the communes, and
involves a special service and staff of experts. _The building tax_
consists of a levy of 3.20% of the rental value of the property, and
is charged upon the owner.

_The personal and habitation tax_ consists in fact of two different
taxes, one imposing a fixed capitation charge on all citizens alike of
every department, the charge, however, varying according to the
department from 1 fc. 50 c. (1s. 3d.) to 4 fcs. 50 c. (3s. 9d.), the
other levied on every occupier of a furnished house or of apartments
in proportion to its rental value.

_The tax on doors and windows_ is levied in each case according to the
number of apertures, and is fixed with reference to population, the
inhabitants of the more populous paying more than those of the less
populous communes.

_The trade-licence tax_ (_impôt des patentes_) is imposed on every
person carrying on any business whatever; it affects professional men,
bankers and manufacturers, as well as wholesale and retail traders,
and consists of (1) a fixed duty levied not on actual profits but with
reference to the extent of a business or calling as indicated by
number of employés, population of the locality and other
considerations. (2) An assessment on the letting value of the premises
in which a business or profession is carried on.

The administrative staff includes, for the purpose of computing the
individual quotas of the direct taxes, a director assisted by
_contrôleurs_ in each department and subordinate to a central
authority in Paris, the _direction générale des contributions
directes_.

The indirect taxes comprise the charges on registration; stamps;
customs; and a group of taxes specially described as "indirect taxes."

_Registration_ (_enregistrement_) _duties_ are charged on the transfer
of property in the way of business (_à titre onéreux_); on changes in
ownership effected in the way of donation or succession (_à titre
gratuit_), and on a variety of other transactions which must be
registered according to law. The revenue from _stamps_ includes as its
chief items the returns from stamped paper, stamps on goods traffic,
securities and share certificates and receipts and cheques.

The _Direction générale de l'enregistrement, des domaines et du
timbre_, comprising a central department and a director and staff of
agents in each department, combines the administration of state
property (not including forests) with the exaction of registration and
stamp duties.

The Customs (_douane_), at one time only a branch of the
administration of the _contributions indirectes_, were organized in
1869 as a special service. The central office at Paris consists of a
_directeur général_ and two _administrateurs_, nominated by the
president of the republic. These officials form a council of
administration presided over by the minister of finance. The service
in the departments comprises _brigades_, which are actually engaged in
guarding the frontiers, and a clerical staff (_service de bureau_)
entrusted with the collection of the duties. There are twenty-four
districts, each under the control of a _directeur_, assisted by
inspectors, sub-inspectors and other officials. The chief towns of
these districts are Algiers, Bayonne, Besançon, Bordeaux, Boulogne,
Brest, Chambéry, Charleville, Dunkirk, Épinal, La Rochelle, Le Havre,
Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Nancy, Nantes, Nice, Paris,
Perpignan, Rouen, St-Malo, Valenciennes. There is also an official
performing the functions of a director at Bastia, in Corsica.

The group specially described as indirect taxes includes those on
alcohol, wine, beer, cider and other alcoholic drinks, on passenger
and goods traffic by railway, on licences to distillers,
spirit-sellers, &c., on salt and on sugar of home manufacture. The
collection of these excise duties as well as the sale of matches,
tobacco and gunpowder to retailers, is assigned to a special service
in each department subordinated to a central administration. To the
above taxes must be added the _tax on Stock Exchange transactions_ and
the _tax of 4% on dividends from stocks and shares_ (_other than state
loans_).

Other main sources of revenue are: the _domains and forests_ managed
by the state; _government monopolies_, comprising tobacco, matches,
gunpowder; _posts_, _telegraphs_, _telephones_; and _state_
_railways_. An administrative tribunal called the _cour des comptes_
subjects the accounts of the state's financial agents
(_trésoriers-payeurs_, _receveurs_ of registration fees, of customs,
of indirect taxes, &c.) and of the communes[20] to a close
investigation, and a vote of definitive settlement is finally passed
by parliament. The Cour des Comptes, an ancient tribunal, was
abolished in 1791, and reorganized by Napoleon I. in 1807. It consists
of a president and 110 other officials, assisted by 25 auditors. All
these are nominated for life by the president of the republic. Besides
the accounts of the state and of the communes, those of charitable
institutions[20] and training colleges[20] and a great variety of
other public establishments are scrutinized by the Cour des Comptes.

The following table shows the rapid growth of the state revenue of
France during the period 1875-1905, the figures for the specified
years representing millions of pounds.

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+
| 1875. | 1880. | 1885. | 1890. | 1895. | Average | Average |
| | | | | | 1896-1900.| 1901-1905.|
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+
| 108 | 118 | 122 | 129 | 137 | 144 | 147 |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+

Of the revenue in 1905 (150½ million pounds) the four direct taxes
produced approximately 20 millions. Other principal items of revenue
were: Registration 25 millions, stamps 7½ millions, customs 18
millions, inland revenue on liquors 16½ millions, receipts from the
tobacco monopoly 18 millions, receipts from post office 10½ millions.

Expenditure.

Since 1875 the expenditure of the state has passed through
considerable fluctuations. It reached its maximum in 1883, descended
in 1888 and 1889, and since then has continuously increased. It was
formerly the custom to divide the credits voted for the discharge of
the public services into two heads--the ordinary and extraordinary
budget. The ordinary budget of expenditure was that met entirely by
the produce of the taxes, while the extraordinary budget of
expenditure was that which had to be incurred either in the way of an
immediate loan or in aid of the funds of the floating debt. The policy
adopted after 1890 of incorporating in the ordinary budget the
expenditure on war, marine and public works, each under its own head,
rendered the "extraordinary budget" obsolete, but there are still,
besides the ordinary budget, _budgets annexes_, comprising the credits
voted to certain establishments under state supervision, e.g. the
National Savings Bank, state railways, &c. The growth of the
expenditure of France is shown in the following summary figures, which
represent millions of pounds.

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+
| 1875. | 1880. | 1885. | 1890. | 1895. | Average | Average |
| | | | | | 1896-1900.| 1901-1905.|
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+
| 117 | 135 | 139 | 132 | 137 | 143 | 147 |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+-----------+

The chief item of expenditure (which totalled 148 million pounds in
1905) is the service of the public debt, which in 1905 cost 48¼
million pounds sterling. Of the rest of the sum assigned to the
ministry of finance (59¾ millions in all) 8½ millions went in the
expense of collection of revenue. The other ministries with the
largest outgoings were the ministry of war (the expenditure of which
rose from 25½ millions in 1895 to over 30 millions in 1905), the
ministry of marine (10¾ millions in 1895, over 12½ millions in 1905),
the ministry of public works (with an expenditure in 1905 of over 20
millions, 10 millions of which was assigned to posts, telegraphs and
telephones) and the ministry of public instruction, fine arts and
public worship, the expenditure on education having risen from 7½
millions in 1895 to 9½ millions in 1905.

_Public Debt._--The national debt of France is the heaviest of any
country in the world. Its foundation was laid early in the 15th
century, and the continuous wars of succeeding centuries, combined
with the extravagance of the monarchs, as well as deliberate disregard
of financial and economic conditions, increased it at an alarming
rate. The duke of Sully carried out a revision in 1604, and other
attempts were made by Mazarin and Colbert, but the extravagances of
Louis XV. swelled it again heavily. In 1764 the national debt amounted
to 2,360,000,000 livres, and the annual change to 93,000,000 livres. A
consolidation was effected in 1793, but the lavish issue of assignats
(q.v.) destroyed whatever advantage might have accrued, and the debt
was again dealt with by a law of the 9th of Vendémiaire year VI. (27th
of September 1797), the annual interest paid yearly to creditors then
amounting to 40,216,000 francs (£1,600,000). During the Directory a
sum of £250,000 was added to the interest charge, and by 1814 this
annual charge had risen to £2,530,000. This large increase is to be
accounted for by the fact that during the Napoleonic régime the
government steadily refused to issue inconvertible paper currency or
to meet war expenditure by borrowing. The following table shows the
increase of the funded debt since 1814.[21]

+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| Date. | Nominal Capital | Interest |
| | (Millions of £). | (Millions of £).|
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| April 1, 1814 | 50¾ | 2½ |
| April 1, 1830 | 177 | 8 |
| March 1, 1848 | 238¼ | 9¾ |
| January 1, 1852 | 220¾ | 9½ |
| " 1871 | 498¼ | 15½ |
| " 1876 | 796¼ | 30 |
| " 1887 | 986½ | 34¼ |
| " 1895 | 1038¾[22] | 32½ |
| " 1905 | 1037¼ | 31 |
+------------------+------------------+-----------------+

The French debt as constituted in 1905 was made up of funded debt and
floating debt as follows:

_Funded Debt._

Perpetual 3% _rentes_ £888,870,400
Terminable 3% _rentes_ 148,490,400
--------------
Total of funded debt £1,037,360,800
==============
Guarantees to railway companies, &c. (in
capital) £89,724,080
Other debt in capital 46,800,840
-----------
_Floating Debt._

Exchequer bills £9,923,480
Liabilities on behalf of communes and public
establishments, including departmental
services 17,366,520
Deposit and current accounts of Caisse des
dépôts, &c., including savings banks 15,328,840
Caution money of Trésoriers payeurs-généraux 1,431,680
Other liabilities 6,456,200
-----------
Total of floating debt £50,506,720

_Departmental Finances._--Every department has a budget of its own,
which is prepared and presented by the prefect, voted by the
departmental council and approved by decree of the president of the
republic. The ordinary receipts include the revenues from the property
of the department, the produce of _additional centimes_, which are
levied in conjunction with the direct taxes for the maintenance of
both departmental and communal finances, state subventions and
contributions of the communes towards certain branches of poor relief
and to maintenance of roads. The chief expenses of the departments are
the care of pauper children and lunatics, the maintenance of
high-roads and the service of the departmental debt.

_Communal Finances._--The budget of the commune is prepared by the
mayor, voted by the municipal council and approved by the prefect. But
in communes the revenues of which exceed £120,000, the budget is
always submitted to the president of the republic. The ordinary
revenues include the produce of "additional centimes" allocated to
communal purposes, the rents and profits of communal property, sums
produced by municipal taxes and dues, concessions to gas, water and
other companies, and by the _octroi_ (q.v.) or duty on a variety of
articles imported into the commune for local consumption. The
repairing of highways, the upkeep of public buildings, the support of
public education, the remuneration of numerous officials connected
with the collection of state taxes, the keeping of the _cadastre_,
&c., constitute the principal objects of communal expenditure.

Both the departments and the communes have considerable public debts.
The departmental debt in 1904 stood at 24 million pounds, and the
communal debt at 153 million pounds. (R. Tr.)

_Army._

_Recruiting and Strength._--Universal compulsory service was adopted after the disasters of 1870-1871, though in principle it had been established by Marshal Niel's reforms a few years before that date. The most important of the recruiting laws passed since 1870 are those of 1872, 1889 and 1905, the last the "loi de deux ans" which embodies the last efforts of the French war department to keep pace with the ever-growing numbers of the German empire. Compulsory service with the colours is in Germany no longer universal, as there are twice as many able-bodied men presented by the recruiting commissions as the active army can absorb. France, with a greatly inferior population, now trains every man who is physically capable. This law naturally made a deep impression on military Europe, not merely because the period of colour service was reduced--Germany had taken this step years before--but because of the almost entire absence of the usual exemptions. Even bread-winners are required to serve, the state pensioning their dependants (75 centimes per diem, up to 10% of the strength) during their period of service. Dispensations, and also the one-year voluntariat, which had become a short cut for the so-called "intellectual class" to employment in the civil service rather than a means of training reserve officers, were abolished. Every Frenchman therefore is a member of the army practically or potentially from the age of twenty to the age of forty-five. Each year there is drawn up in every commune a list of the young men who attained the age of twenty during the previous year. These young men are then examined by a revising body (_Conseil de révision cantonal_) composed of civil and military officials. Men physically unfit are wholly exempted, and men who have not, at the time of the examination, attained the required physical standard are put back for re-examination after an interval. Men who, otherwise suitable, have some slight infirmity are drafted into the non-combatant branches. The minimum height for the infantry soldier is 1.54 m., or 5 ft. ½ in., but men of special physique are taken below this height. In 1904, under the old system of three-years' service with numerous total and partial exemptions, 324,253 men became liable to incorporation, of whom 25,432 were rejected as unfit, 55,265 were admitted as one-year volunteers, 62,160 were put back, 27,825 had already enlisted with a view to making the army a career, 5257 were taken for the navy, and thus, with a few extra details and casualties, the contingent for full service dwindled to 147,549 recruits. In 1906, 326,793 men had to present themselves, 25,348 had already enlisted, 4923 went to the navy, 68,526 were put back, 33,777 found unfit, which, deducting 3128 details, gives an actual incorporated contingent of 191,091 young men of twenty-one to serve for two full years (in each case, for the sake of comparison, men put back from former years who were enrolled are omitted). In theory a two-years' contingent of course should be half as large again as a three-years' one, but in practice, France has not men enough for so great an increase. Still the law of 1905 provides a system whereby there is room with the colours for every available man, and moreover ensures his services. The net gain in the 1906 class is not far short of 50,000, and the proportion of the new contingent to the old is practically 5:4. The _loi des cadres_ of 1907 introduced many important changes of detail supplementary to the _loi de deux ans_. Important changes were also made in the provisions and administration of military law. The active army, then, at a given moment, say November 1, 1908, is composed of all the young men, not legally exempted, who have reached the age of twenty in the years 1906 and 1907. It is at the disposal of the minister of war, who can decree the recall of all men discharged to the reserve the previous year and all those whose time of service has for any reason been shortened. The reserves of the active army are composed of those who have served the legal period in the active army. These are recalled twice, in the eleven years during which they are members of the reserve, for refresher courses. The active army and its reserve are not localized, but drawn from and distributed over the whole of France. The advantages of a purely territorial system have tempted various War Ministers to apply it, but the results were not good, owing to the want of uniformity in the military qualities and the political subordination of the different districts. One result of this is that mobilization and concentration are much slower processes than they are in Germany.

The Territorial Army and its reserve (members of which undergo two short periods of training) are, however, allocated to local service. The soldier spends six years in the Territorial Army, and six in the reserve of the Territorial Army. The reserves of the active army and the Territorial Army and its reserve can only be recalled to active service in case of emergency and by decree of the head of the state.

The total service rendered by the individual soldier is thus twenty-five years. He is registered at the age of twenty, is called to the colours on the 1st of October of the next year, discharged to the active army reserve on the 30th of September of the second year thereafter, to the Territorial Army at the same date thirteen complete years after his incorporation, and finally discharged from the reserve of the Territorial Army on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his entry into the active army. On November 1, 1908, then the active army was composed of the classes registered 1906 and 1907, the reserve of the classes 1895-1905, the Territorial Army of those of 1889-1894 and the Territorial Army reserve of those of 1883-1888.

In 1906 the peace strength of the army in France was estimated at 532,593 officers and men; in Algeria 54,580; in Tunis 20,320; total 607,493. Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the effective strength of the active army in 1906 was 540,563; of the gendarmerie and Garde Républicaine 24,512; of colonial troops in the colonies 58,568. The full number of persons liable to be called upon for military service and engaged in such service is calculated (1908) as 4,800,000, of whom 1,350,000 of the active army and the younger classes of army reserve would constitute the field armies set on foot at the outbreak of war. 150,000 horses and mules are maintained on a peace footing and 600,000 on a war footing.

_Organization._--The general organization of the French army at home is based on the system of permanent army corps, the headquarters of which are as follows: I. Lille, II. Amiens, III. Rouen, IV. Le Mans, V. Orléans, VI. Châlons-sur-Marne, VII. Besançon, VIII. Bourges, IX. Tours, X. Rennes, XI. Nantes, XII. Limoges, XIII. Clermont-Ferrand, XIV. Lyons, XV. Marseilles, XVI. Montpellier, XVII. Toulouse, XVIII. Bordeaux, XIX. Algiers and XX. Nancy. Each army corps consists in principle of two infantry divisions, one cavalry brigade, one brigade of horse and field artillery, one engineer battalion and one squadron of train. But certain army corps have a special organization. The VI. corps (Châlons) and the VII. (Besançon) consist of three divisions each, and the XIX. (Algiers) has three divisions of its own as well as the division occupying Tunis. In addition to these corps there are eight permanent cavalry divisions with headquarters at Paris, Lunéville, Meaux, Sedan, Reims, Lyons, Melun and Dôle. The military government of Paris is independent of the army corps system and comprises, besides a division of the colonial army corps (see below), 3½ others detached from the II., III., IV. and V. corps, as well as the 1st and 3rd cavalry divisions and many smaller bodies of troops. The military government of Lyons is another independent and special command; it comprises practically the XIV. army corps and the 6th cavalry division. The infantry division consists of 2 brigades, each of 2 regiments of 3 or 4 battalions (the 4 battalion regiments have recently been reduced for the most part to 3), with 1 squadron cavalry and 12 batteries, attached from the corps troops, in war a proportion of the artillery would, however, be taken back to form the corps artillery (see ARTILLERY and TACTICS). The cavalry division consists of 2 or 3 brigades, each of 2 regiments or 8 squadrons, with 2 horse artillery batteries attached. The army corps consists of headquarters, 2 (or 3) infantry divisions, 1 cavalry brigade, 1 artillery brigade (2 regiments, comprising 21 field and 2 horse batteries), 1 engineer battalion, &c. In war a group of "Rimailho" heavy howitzers (see ORDNANCE: _Heavy Field and Light Siege Units_) would be attached. It is proposed, and accepted in principle, to increase the number of guns in the army corps by converting the horse batteries in 18 army corps to field batteries, which, with other measures, enables the number of the latter to be increased to 36 (144 guns).

The organization of the "metropolitan troops" by regiments is (a) 163 regiments of line infantry, some of which are affected to "regional" duties and do not enter into the composition of their army corps for war, 31 battalions of _chasseurs à pied_, mostly stationed in the Alps and the Vosges, 4 regiments of Zouaves, 4 regiments of Algerian tirailleurs (natives, often called Turcos[23]), 2 foreign legion regiments, 5 battalions of African light infantry (disciplinary regiments), &c; (b) 12 regiments of cuirassiers, 32 of dragoons, 21 of _chasseurs à cheval_, 14 of hussars, 6 of _chasseurs d'Afrique_ and 4 of Spahis (Algerian natives); (c) 40 regiments of artillery, comprising 445 field batteries, 14 mountain batteries and 52 horse batteries (see, however, above), 18 battalions of garrison artillery, with in addition 13 companies of artificers, &c.; (d) 6 regiments of engineers forming 22 battalions, and 1 railway regiment; (e) 20 squadrons of train, 27 legions of gendarmerie and the Paris Garde Républicaine, administrative and medical units.

_Colonial Troops._--These form an expeditionary army corps in France to which are attached the actual corps of occupation to the various colonies, part white, part natives. The colonial army corps, headquarters at Paris, has three divisions, at Paris, Toulon and Brest.

The French colonial (formerly marine) infantry, recruited by voluntary enlistment, comprises 18 regiments and 5 independent battalions (of which 12 regiments are at home), 74 batteries of field, fortress and mountain artillery (of which 32 are at home), with a few cavalry and engineers, &c., and other services in proportion. The native troops include 13 regiments and 8 independent battalions. The strength of this army corps is 28,700 in France and 61,300 in the colonies.

_Command._--The commander-in-chief of all the armed forces is the president of the Republic, but the practical direction of affairs lies in the hand of the minister of war, who is assisted by the _Conseil supérieur de la guerre_, a body of senior generals who have been selected to be appointed to the higher commands in war. The vice-president is the destined commander-in-chief of the field armies and is styled the generalissimo. The chief of staff of the army is also a member of the council. In war the latter would probably remain at the ministry of war in Paris, and the generalissimo would have his own chief of staff. The ministry of war is divided into branches for infantry, cavalry, &c.--and services for special subjects such as military law, explosives, health, &c. The general staff (_état major de l'armée_) has its functions classed as follows: personnel; material and finance; 1st bureau (organization and mobilization), 2nd (intelligence), 3rd (military operations and training) and 4th (communications and transport); and the famous historical section. The president of the Republic has a military household, and the minister a cabinet, both of which are occupied chiefly with questions of promotion, patronage and decorations.

The general staff and also the staff of the corps and divisions are composed of certificated (_brevetés_) officers who have passed all through the École de Guerre. In time of peace an officer is attached to the staff for not more than four years. He must then return to regimental duty for at least two years.

The officers of the army are obtained partly from the old-established military schools, partly from the ranks of the non-commissioned officers, the proportion of the latter being about one-third of the total number of officers. Artillery and engineer officers come from the École Polytechnique, infantry and cavalry from the École spéciale militaire de St-Cyr. Other important training institutions are the staff college (École supérieure de Guerre) which trains annually 70 to 90 selected captains and lieutenants; the musketry school of Châlons, the gymnastic school at Joinville-le-Pont and the schools of St Maixent, Saumur and Versailles for the preparation of non-commissioned officers for commissions in the infantry, cavalry, artillery and engineers respectively. The non-commissioned officers are, as usual in universal service armies, drawn partly from men who voluntarily enlist at a relatively early age, and partly from men who at the end of their compulsory period of service are re-engaged. Voluntary enlistments in the French army are permissible, within certain limits, at the age of eighteen, and the _engagés_ serve for at least three years. The law further provides for the re-engagement of men of all ranks, under conditions varying according to their rank. Such re-engagements are for one to three years' effective service but may be extended to fifteen. They date from the time of the legal expiry of each man's compulsory active service. _Rengagés_ receive a bounty, a higher rate of pay and a pension at the conclusion of their service. The total number of men who had re-enlisted stood in 1903 at 8594.

_Armament._--The field artillery is armed with the 75 mm. gun, a shielded quick-firer (see ORDNANCE: _Field Equipments_, for illustration and details); this weapon was the forerunner of all modern models of field gun, and is handled on tactical principles specially adapted for it, which gives the French field artillery a unique position amongst the military nations. The infantry, which was the first in Europe to be armed with the magazine rifle, still carries this, the Lebel, rifle which dates from 1886. It is believed, however, that a satisfactory type of automatic rifle (see RIFLE) has been evolved and is now (1908) in process of manufacture. Details are kept strictly secret. The cavalry weapons are a straight sword (that of the heavy cavalry is illustrated in the article SWORD), a bamboo lance and the Lebel carbine.

It is convenient to mention in this place certain institutions attached to the war department and completing the French military organization. The Hôtel des Invalides founded by Louis XIV. and Louvois is a house of refuge for old and infirm soldiers of all grades. The number of the inmates is decreasing; but the institution is an expensive one. In 1875 the "Invalides" numbered 642, and the hôtel cost the state 1,123,053 francs. The order of the Legion of Honour is treated under KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY. The _médaille militaire_ is awarded to private soldiers and non-commissioned officers who have distinguished themselves or rendered long and meritorious services. This was introduced in 1852, carries a yearly pension of 100 frs. and has been granted occasionally to officers.

_Fortifications._--After 1870 France embarked upon a policy of elaborate frontier and inner defences, with the object of ensuring, as against an unexpected German invasion, the time necessary for the effective development of her military forces, which were then in process of reorganization. Some information as to the types of fortification adopted in 1870-1875 will be found in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. The general lines of the scheme adopted were as follows: On the Meuse, which forms the principal natural barrier on the side of Lorraine, Verdun (q.v.) was fortified as a large entrenched camp, and along the river above this were constructed a series of _forts d'arrêt_ (see MEUSE LINE) ending in another entrenched camp at Toul (q.v.). From this point a gap (the _trouée d'Épinal_) was left, so as "in some sort to canalize the flow of invasion" (General Bonnal), until the upper Moselle was reached at Épinal (q.v.). Here another entrenched camp was made and from it the "Moselle line" (q.v.) of _forts d'arrêt_ continues the barrier to Belfort (q.v.), another large entrenched camp, beyond which a series of fortifications at Montbéliard and the Lomont range carries the line of defence to the Swiss border, which in turn is protected by works at Pontarlier and elsewhere. In rear of these lines Verdun-Toul and Épinal-Belfort, respectively, lie two large defended areas in which under certain circumstances the main armies would assemble preparatory to offensive movements. One of these areas is defined by the three fortresses, La Fère, Laon and Reims, the other by the triangle, Langres--Dijon--Besançon. On the side of Belgium the danger of irruption through neutral territory, which has for many years been foreseen, is provided against by the fortresses of Lille, Valenciennes and Maubeuge, but (with a view to tempting the Germans to attack through Luxemburg, as is stated by German authorities) the frontier between Maubeuge and Verdun is left practically undefended. The real defence of this region lies in the field army which would, if the case arose, assemble in the area La Fère-Reims-Laon. On the Italian frontier the numerous _forts d'arrêt_ in the mountains are strongly supported by the entrenched camps of Besançon, Grenoble and Nice. Behind all this huge development of fixed defences lie the central fortresses of Paris and Lyons. The defences, of the Spanish frontier consist of the entrenched camps of Bayonne and Perpignan and the various small _forts d'arrêt_ of the Pyrenees. Of the coast defences the principal are Toulon, Antibes, Rochefort, Lorient, Brest, Oléron, La Rochelle, Belle-Isle, Cherbourg, St-Malo, Havre, Calais, Gravelines and Dunkirk. A number of the older fortresses, dating for the most part from Louis XIV.'s time, are still in existence, but are no longer of military importance. Such are Arras, Longwy, Mézières and Montmédy.

_Navy._

_Central Administration._--The head of the French navy is the Minister of Marine, who like the other ministers is appointed by decree of the head of the state, and is usually a civilian. He selects for himself a staff of civilians (the _cabinet du ministre_), which is divided into bureaux for the despatch of business. The head of the cabinet prepares for the consideration of the minister all the business of the navy, especially questions of general importance. His chief professional assistant is the _chef d'état-major général_ (chief of the general staff), a vice-admiral, who is responsible for the organization of the naval forces, the mobilization and movements of the fleet, &c.

The central organization also comprises a number of departments (_services_) entrusted with the various branches of naval administration, such as administration of the active fleet, construction of ships, arsenals, recruiting, finance, &c. The minister has the assistance of the _Conseil supérieur de la Marine_, over which he presides, consisting of three vice-admirals, the chief of staff and some other members. The _Conseil supérieur_ devotes its attention to all questions touching the fighting efficiency of the fleet, naval bases and arsenals and coast defence. Besides the _Conseil supérieur_ the minister is advised on a very wide range of naval topics (including pay, quarters and recruiting) by the _Comité consultatif de la Marine_. Advisory committees are also appointed to deal with special subjects, e.g. the _commissions de classement_ which attend to questions of promotion in the various branches of the navy, the naval works council and others.

The French coast is divided into five naval arrondissements, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports, of which Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon are the most important, Lorient and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out yards. Each arrondissement is divided into sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, who is naval prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister of marine, and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which is his headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also governor-designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend to ships belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a certain number of other officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff having relation principally to the efficiency and _personnel_ of the fleet, while the "major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral, is concerned chiefly with the _matériel_. There are also directors of stores, of naval construction, of the medical service, and of the submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works, The prefect directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in reserve. In regard to the constitution and maintenance of the naval forces, the administration of the arsenals is divided into three principal departments, the first concerned with naval construction, the second with ordnance, including gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third with the so-called submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo _matériel_.

The French navy is manned partly by voluntary enlistment, partly by the transference to the navy of a certain proportion of each year's recruits for the army, but mainly by a system known as _inscription maritime_. This system, devised and introduced by Colbert in 1681, has continued, with various modifications, ever since. All French sailors between the ages of eighteen and fifty must be enrolled as members of the _armée de mer_. The term sailor is used in a very wide sense and includes all persons earning their living by navigation on the sea, or in the harbours or roadsteads, or on salt lakes or canals within the maritime domain of the state, or on rivers and canals as far as the tide goes up or sea-going ships can pass. The inscript usually begins his service at the age of twenty and passes through a period of obligatory service lasting seven years, and generally comprising five years of active service and two years furlough.

Besides the important harbours already referred to, the French fleet has naval bases at Oran in Algeria, Bizerta in Tunisia, Saigon in Cochin China and Hongaj in Tongking, Diégo-Suarez in Madagascar, Dakar in Senegal, Fort de France in Martinique, Nouméa in New Caledonia.

The ordnance department of the navy is carried on by a large detachment of artillery officers and artificers provided by the war office for this special duty.

The fleet is divided into the Mediterranean squadron, the Northern squadron, the Atlantic division, the Far Eastern division, the Pacific division, the Indian Ocean division, the Cochin China division.

The chief naval school is the _École navale_ at Brest, which is devoted to the training of officers; the age of admission is from fifteen to eighteen years, and pupils after completing their course pass a year on a frigate school. At Paris there is a more advanced school (_École supérieure de la Marine_) for the supplementary training of officers. Other schools are the school of naval medicine at Bordeaux with annexes at Toulon, Brest and Rochefort; schools of torpedoes and mines and of gunnery at Toulon, &c., &c. The _écoles d'hydrographie_ established at various ports are for theoretical training for the higher grades of the merchant service. (See also NAVY.)

The total personnel of the _armée de mer_ in 1909 is given as 56,800 officers and men. As to the number of vessels, which fluctuates from month to month, little can be said that is wholly accurate at any given moment, but, very roughly, the French navy in 1909 included 25 battleships, 7 coast defence ironclads, 19 armoured cruisers, 36 protected cruisers, 22 sloops, gunboats, &c., 45 destroyers, 319 torpedo boats, 71 submersibles and submarines and 8 auxiliary cruisers. It was stated that, according to proposed arrangements, the principal fighting elements of the fleet would be, in 1919, 34 battleships, 36 armoured cruisers, 6 smaller cruisers of modern type, 109 destroyers, 170 torpedo boats and 171 submersibles and submarines. The budgetary cost of the navy in 1908 was stated as 312,000,000 fr. (£12,480,000). (C. F. A.)

_Education._

The burden of public instruction in France is shared by the communes, departments and state, while side by side with the public schools of all grades are private schools subjected to a state supervision and certain restrictions. At the head of the whole organization is the minister of public instruction. He is assisted and advised by the superior council of public instruction, over which he presides.

France is divided into sixteen _académies_ or educational districts, having their centres at the seats of the universities. The capitals of these _académies_, together with the departments included in them, are tabulated below:

Académies. Departments included in them.