Chapter I: Front Matter

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

AUTHOR LIST: "W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, M.A., Ph.D." 'M.A.'
amended from 'A.M.'.

ARTICLE FRANCS-TIREURS: "... and prevented him from gaining
information, and that their soldierly qualities improved with
experience." 'improved' amended from 'inproved'.

ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "... (which, as Franklin discovered,
was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the
north) ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'.

ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "The alternative course permitted
Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued,
and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was
specially commended to him." 'instructions' amended from
'intructions'.

ARTICLE FRAUENBURG: "Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received
the rights of a town in 1310." 'Frauenburg' amended from
'Frauenberg'.

ARTICLE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS: "Historical and religious
sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical
to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the
smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe." 'detestation'
amended from 'destestation'.

ARTICLE FREEMASONRY: "Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was
"made a Free Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring,"
seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge ..."
'brethern' amended from 'brethen'.

ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "... perd (perdit) and perde (perdat)
being generally distinguished as per and perd, and before a vowel
as pert and perd." 'distinguished' amended from 'ditinguished'.

ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "In Early Old French (as in Provencal)
there are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine;
with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and
accusative in both numbers, the latter in neither." 'distinguishes'
amended from 'ditinguishes'.

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

by

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

_All rights reserved_

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XI
FRANCISCANS to GIBSON

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

VOLUME XI, SLICE I

Franciscans to French Language

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

FRANCISCANS FREDERICK I. (king of Prussia)
FRANCK FREDERICK II. (king of Prussia)
FRANCK, CESAR FREDERICK III. (king of Prussia)
FRANCK, SEBASTIAN FREDERICK III. (king of Sicily)
FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN FREDERICK I. (elector of Brandenburg)
FRANCKEN FREDERICK I. (elector of the Rhine)
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR FREDERICK II. (elector of the Rhine)
FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, LOUIS FREDERICK III. (elector of the Rhine)
FRANCONIA FREDERICK IV. (elector of the Rhine)
FRANCS-ARCHERS FREDERICK V. (elector of the Rhine)
FRANCS-TIREURS FREDERICK I. (duke of Saxony)
FRANEKER FREDERICK II. (duke of Saxony)
FRANK, JAKOB FREDERICK III. (elector of Saxony)
FRANK-ALMOIGN FREDERICK (Maryland, U.S.A.)
FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.
FRANKENBERG FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II.
FRANKENHAUSEN FREDERICK CHARLES (KARL NIKOLAUS)
FRANKENSTEIN FREDERICK HENRY
FRANKENTHAL FREDERICK LOUIS
FRANKENWALD FREDERICK WILLIAM I.
FRANKFORT (Indiana, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM II.
FRANKFORT (Kentucky, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM III.
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.
FRANKFORT-ON-ODER FREDERICK WILLIAM (of Brandenburg)
FRANKINCENSE FREDERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE PROSPER
FRANKING FREDERICKSBURG
FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST FREDERICTON
FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD FREDONIA
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN FREDRIKSHALD
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN FREDRIKSTAD
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL FREE BAPTISTS
FRANKLIN (district of Canada) FREEBENCH
FRANKLIN (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH FEDERATION
FRANKLIN (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
FRANKLIN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
FRANKLIN (Tennessee, U.S.A.) FREEDMEN'S BUREAU
FRANKLIN (freeman) FREEHOLD (New Jersey, U.S.A.)
FRANKLINITE FREEHOLD (law)
FRANK-MARRIAGE FREELAND
FRANKPLEDGE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS
FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON FREEMAN
FRANKS FREEMASONRY
FRANZ, ROBERT FREEPORT
FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL FREE PORTS
FRANZENSBAD FREE REED VIBRATOR
FRANZ JOSEF LAND FREESIA
FRANZOS, KARL EMIL FREE SOIL PARTY
FRASCATI FREE-STONE
FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FREETOWN
FRASER, JAMES FREE TRADE
FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE FREGELLAE
FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS FREIBERG
FRASER (river) FREIBURG
FRASERBURGH FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
FRASERVILLE FREIDANK
FRATER FREIENWALDE
FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE FREIESLEBENITE
FRATICELLI FREIGHT
FRAUD FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND
FRAUENBURG FREIND, JOHN
FRAUENFELD FREINSHEIM, JOHANN
FRAUENLOB FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE
FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM FREISCHUeTZ
FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON FREISING
FRAUSTADT FREJUS
FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE
FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE FREMANTLE
FREDEGOND FREMIET, EMMANUEL
FREDERIC, HAROLD FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES
FREDERICIA FREMONT (Nebraska, U.S.A.)
FREDERICK (name) FREMONT (Ohio, U.S.A.)
FREDERICK I. (Roman emperor) FREMY, EDMOND
FREDERICK II. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER
FREDERICK III. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, NICHOLAS
FREDERICK III. (German king) FRENCH CONGO
FREDERICK II. (king of Denmark) FRENCH GUINEA
FREDERICK III. (king of Denmark) FRENCH LANGUAGE
FREDERICK VIII. (king of Denmark)

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. B. R.
ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c.

Fruit.

A. B. W. K.
SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S.

Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London.
Consulting Engineer to Board of Ordnance.

Friction.

A. Ca.
ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR.

Gauss.

A. E. H. L.
AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.

Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St
John's College, Cambridge. Secretary to the London Mathematical
Society.

Function: _Functions of Real Variables_.

A. E. S.
ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.

Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology,
Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural
History_.

Gastrotricha.

A. Ge.
SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D.

See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A.

Geology.

A. Go.*
REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, MA.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Franck, Sebastian;
Gallars.

A. G. B.*
HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E.

Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member
of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E.

Georgetown, British Guiana.

A. G. D.
ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R., HIST.S.

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor
of _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.

Frontenac et Palluau.

A. H. Sm.
ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A.

Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the
British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British
Museum_; &c.

Gem: II. (_in part_).

A. M.*
REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D.

Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St
Andrews. Author of _History of Religion_; &c. Editor of _Review
of Theology and Philosophy_.

Free Church of Scotland (_in part_).

A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.

See the biographical article, CLERKE, AGNES M.

Galileo.

A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.

Frigate-Bird;
Gadwall;
Gannet;
Gare Fowl.

A. N. B.
ALFRED NEAVE BRAYSHAW, LL.B.

Author of _Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets_.

Friends, Society of.

A. N. W.
ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.

Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge.
Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_; &c.

Geometry: VI. (_in part_) and VII.

A. R. C.
ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In
charge of the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey,
1854-1881.

Geodesy (_in part_).

A. S. M.
ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D.

See the biographical article, MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART.

Gem: II. (_in part_).

A. W. H.*
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
Gray's Inn, 1900.

Frederick II., _Roman Emperor_;
French Revolution: _Republican Calendar_;
Germany: _History (in part) and Bibliography_.

A. W. W.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.

See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.

Garrick, David (_in part_).

B. A. W. R.
HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of
_Foundations of Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c._

Geometry: VI. (_in part_).

B. S. P.
BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).

Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge.

Germany: _Archaeology_.

C. B.*
CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.).

See the biographical article, Bemont, C.

Fustel De Coulanges;
Gascony.

C. D. W.
HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT.

See the biographical article, WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON.

Friendly Societies: _United States_.

C. E.*
CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Geometry: _History_.

C. F. A.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
Harbour_.

Franco-German War (_in part_);
French Revolutionary Wars: _Military Operations_;
Germany: _Army_;
Gibraltar: _History_.

C. H. Ha.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, M.A., PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
City. Member of the American Historical Association.

Gelasius II.

C. K. S.
CLEMENT KING SHORTER.

Editor of _The Sphere_. Author of _Sixty Years of Victorian
Literature_; _Immortal Memories_; _The Brontes, Life and Letters_;
&c.

Gaskell, Elizabeth.

C. Mi.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's,
1895-1900 and 1902-1903.

Garashanin.

C. M. K.
SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908).

Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer
on International Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in
the Levant, 1870-1871, at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary,
Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor of Kennedy's _Ethnological and
Linguistic Essays_; _Diplomacy and International Law_.

Free Ports.

C. Pf.
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES.-L.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_; _Le
Duche merovingien d'Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile_.

Franks;
Fredegond;
Germanic Laws, Early.

C. R. B.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
_The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.

Gerard of Cremona.

C. R. C.
CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of
Palestine. Author of _The City of Jerusalem_; _The Bible and the
East_; _The Hittites and their Language_; &c.

Galilee (_in part_);
Galilee, Sea of (_in part_).

C. T.*
REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908).

Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor,
Cambridge University, 1887-1888. Author of _Geometrical Conies_;
&c.

Geometrical Continuity.

C. We.
CECIL WEATHERLY.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.

Gate.