Chapter V: H. B (17)

With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the United States, Fremont was eager for a railway from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out at his own and Senator Benton's expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the headwaters of the Rio Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led astray by a guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several of his men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger, he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and then westward through the valley of the Gila into southern California. Late in the year 1853, however, he returned to the place where the guide had led him astray, found passes through the mountains to the westward between latitudes 37 deg. and 38 deg. N., and arrived in San Francisco early in May 1854. From the conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, when he removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in December 1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators from the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only from the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. Although a candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the pro-slavery party. His opposition to slavery, however, together with his popularity--won by the successes, hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions, and by his part in the conquest of California--led to his nomination, largely on the ground of "availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the Republicans (this being their first presidential campaign), and by the National Americans or "Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he was defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes.

Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed major-general and placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St Louis, but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became apparent, the affairs of his department fell into disorder, and Fremont seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted. On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which he declared the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves emancipated. For this he was applauded by the radical Republicans, but his action was contrary to an act of congress of the 6th of August and to the policy of the Administration. On the 11th of September President Lincoln, who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he was trying to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by serious charges against Fremont, the president sent Montgomery Blair, the postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, the quartermaster-general, to investigate the department; they reported that Fremont's management was extravagant and inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of consideration for the "Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in command of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated with General N. P. Banks against "Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability as a commander, was defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his troops were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form the Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed in command, Fremont declined to serve under Pope, whom he outranked, and retired from active service. On the 31st of May 1864 he was nominated for the presidency by a radical faction of the Republican party, opposed to President Lincoln, but his following was so small that on the 21st of September he withdrew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890.

See J. C. Fremont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844_
(Washington, 1845); Fremont's _Memoirs of my Life_ (New York, 1887);
and J. Bigelow, _Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of John C.
Fremont_ (New York, 1856).

FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, Nebraska, U.S.A., about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank of the Platte river, which here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; (1900) 7241 (1303 foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of the Union Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago & North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the formerly independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and the Sioux City & Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive situation and is beautifully shaded. It has a public library and is the seat of the Fremont College, Commercial Institute and School of Pharmacy (1875), a private institution. There is considerable local trade with the rich farming country of the Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale grain interests are especially important. Among the manufactures are flour, carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators and beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became the county-seat in 1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) in 1871, and became a city of the first class in 1901.

FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, of whom 1074 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river is navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public library (1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, Sardis Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural region; oil and natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city has various manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, cutlery, bricks, agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, safety razors, carriage irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet sugar, canned vegetables, malt extract, garters and suspenders. The total factory product was valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900. Fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a trading post was at times maintained here; but the place is best known in history as the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of 1812, and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against about 1000 British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry A. Proctor. In 1906 Croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort. Until 1849, when the present name was adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the place was known as Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in 1829 and was first chartered as a city in 1867.

FREMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born at Versailles on the 29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he became _preparateur_ at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1834 and at the College de France in 1837. His next post was that of _repetiteur_ at the Ecole Polytechnique, where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in 1850 he succeeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to M. E. Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd of February 1894. His work included investigations of osmic acid, of the ferrates, stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, attempts to obtain free fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides, and the discovery of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of _acides sulphazotes_, the precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion. He also studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of bone, cerebral matter and other animal substances, and the processes of fermentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a teacher to the training of industrial chemists. In this field he contributed to our knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, sulphuric acid, glass and paper, and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making. In the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of obtaining alumina in the crystalline form, and succeeded in making rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition but also in physical properties.

FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, the son of Henry Flagg French, a lawyer, who for a time was assistant-secretary of the United States treasury. After a year at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, French spent a month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then began to work on commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received from the town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known statue "The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) on the centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French had gone to Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas Ball. French's best-known work is "Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor," a memorial for the tomb of the sculptor Martin Milmore, in the Forest Hills cemetery, Boston; this received a medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. Among his other works are: a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; "Gen. Cass," National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "Dr Gallaudet and his First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue of the Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; statues of Rufus Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), and Thomas Starr King (San Francisco, California), a memorial to the architect Richard M. Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large "Alma Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York. In collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the "Washington," presented to France by the Daughters of the American Revolution; the "General Grant" in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph Hooker" in Boston. French became a member of the National Academy of Design (1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League, and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome.

FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled "The Unkinde Desertor of Loyall Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards "The Bleeding Iphigenia." The most important of his other pamphlets is the "Narrative of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland" (Louvain, 1668).

The _Historical Works_ of Bishop French, comprising the three
pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H.
Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, _Irish Writers of the 17th
Century_ (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _Contemporary History of
Affairs in Ireland_, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. Carte,
_Life of James, Duke of Ormond_ (new ed., Oxford, 1851).

FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the French possessions in equatorial Africa. They have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with a population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. The whites numbered (1906) 1278, of whom 502 were officials. French Congo, officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910, comprises--(1) the Gabun Colony, (2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. The two last-named divisions form the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony.

The present article treats of French Congo as a unit. It is of highly irregular shape. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) Muni River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the Sahara, E. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian Congo and the Portuguese territory of Kabinda. In the greater part of its length the southern frontier is the middle course of the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the chief northern affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the frontier keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course is partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, some 600 m. long, extends from 5 deg. S. to 1 deg. N. The northern frontier, starting inland from the Muni estuary, after skirting the Spanish settlements follows a line drawn a little north of 2 deg. N. and extending east to 16 deg. E. North of this line the country is part of Cameroon, German territory extending so far inland from the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the Ubangi. From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east until the Shari is reached in 10 deg. 40' N. The Shari then forms the frontier up to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan regions of French West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating the colony from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the northern part of French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI).

_Physical Features._--The coast line, beginning in the north at
Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the
estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly
straight line until the delta of the Ogowe is reached, where Cape
Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly S.E.
without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of Mayumba,
the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be mentioned. A
large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest,
with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but there is a
considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons, mangrove swamps,
scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of tangled
underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches of
cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from 3000
to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with an
elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep
river-valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in
some places 760 ft. high.

The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. On the
higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; on the
second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide grassy
tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin forest,
and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. broad.
The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally
unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowe (q.v.), is, however,
navigable from its mouth to N'Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to the
south of the Ogowe are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. The
latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luete; it has
a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, from east
to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. It is
encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only over 38 m.,
and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. wide. The Muni
river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed by cataracts in
its passage through the escarpment to the coast.

Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right
bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part of
the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo river.
In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, 330 m. of
the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate as
well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. however, the
right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these subsidiary
streams, is in German territory (see CONGO).

_Geology._--Three main divisions are recognized in the French
Congo:--(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial
deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the
mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite,
metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern
portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The core of
the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. Infolded with
them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed to the
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, but
fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO FREE STATE).
Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal Mountains. The
plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red
sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. They have not
yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, with
_Schloenbachia inflata_, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe
basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie
the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented sand,
erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral zone,
on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau.

_Climate._--The whole of the country being in the equatorial region,
the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. On the
coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th of May to
15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September to 15th of
January), then a second dry season (15th of January to 1st of March),
and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of May). The rainfall
at Libreville is about 96 in. a year.

_Flora and Fauna._--The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile and
several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare
gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are various
and beautiful--grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros birds,
weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds,
from the _Cecyle Sharpii_ to the dwarfish _Alcedo cristata_, butterfly
finches, and helmet-birds (_Turacus giganteus_), as well as more
familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious
climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the _Protopterus_ or
lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry
season, the strange and poisonous _Tetrodon guttifer_, and the
herring-like _Pellona africana_, often caught in great shoals--are the
more remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the
lagoons, and the huge _Cardisoma armatum_ or heart-crab is fattened
for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most
familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking
bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one
above the other.

Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs,
silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms--especially _Hyphaene
guineensis_ (a fan-palm), _Raphia_ (the wine-palm), and _Elaeis
guineensis_ (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably _Anona
senegalensis_), and the _pallabanda_, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are
common in the prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft.
along the rivers; the banks are fringed by the cottony _Hibiscus
tiliaceus_, ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound
together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the
upper Shari region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are
species of the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60
ft. Its bean resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality.
Among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the
lemon. Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild.

_Inhabitants and Chief Towns._--A census, necessarily imperfect, taken
in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of 3,652,000,
divided in districts as follows:--Gabun, 376,000; Middle Congo,
259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The country is
peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering Lake
Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab tribes. Among
the best-known tribes living in French Congo are the Fang (Fans), the
Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or Niam-Niam. Several of the
tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship
characteristic of the West African negroes prevails. Their
civilization is of a low order. In the northern regions the majority
of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is only in those districts
that organized and powerful states exist. Elsewhere the authority of a
chief or "king" extends, ordinarily, little beyond the village in
which he lives. (An account of the chief tribes is given under their
names.) The European inhabitants are chiefly of French nationality,
and are for the most part traders, officials and missionaries.

The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with 3000
inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of Stanley
Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat of the
governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowe; Loango, an
important seaport in 4 deg. 39' S.; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on the
lower Ogowe; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of the Chad
territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the Ubangi river,
the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad colony. Kunde,
Lame and Binder are native trading centres near the Cameroon frontier.

_Communications._--The rivers are the chief means of internal
communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by
ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence round the
falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville on
Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation N.E.
into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo and 350 m. on the
Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, where rapids block the
river, but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of
the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to the Nile is possible by
means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. The Sanga, which joins the
Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be navigated by steamers for 350
m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E. frontier of the German colony of
Cameroon. The Shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and
by means of its affluent, the Logone, connects with the Benue and
Niger, affording a waterway between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad.
Stores for government posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by
this route. There is, however, no connecting link between the coast
rivers--Gabun, Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about
500 m. long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys
for the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that
from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from
Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November
1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district
served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai a
caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of the
Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville and
Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe by
submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango and
Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg.

_Trade and Agriculture._--The chief wealth of the colony consists in
the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to
manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and
tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and vanilla
are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, iron and
copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from Mindule since
1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next in importance
coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other woods, coffee, cocoa
and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and metal goods, spirits and
foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin of the Ogowe the French
customs tariff, with some modifications, prevails, but in the Congo
basin, that is, in the greater part of the country, by virtue of
international agreements, no discrimination can be made between French
and other merchandise, whilst customs duties must not exceed 10% _ad
valorem_.[1] In the Shari basin and in Wadai the Anglo-French
declaration of March 1899 accorded for thirty years equal treatment to
British and French goods. The value of the trade rose in the ten years
1896-1905 from L360,000 to L850,000, imports and exports being nearly
equal. The bulk of the export trade is with Great Britain, which takes
most of the rubber, France coming second and Germany third. The
imports are in about equal proportions from France and foreign
countries.

_Land Tenure. The Concessions Regime._--Land held by the natives is
governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native ownership
in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater part of the
country is considered a state domain. Land held by Europeans is
subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates as have been
registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of March 1899,
when, registration having been effected, the title to the land is
guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has been
divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability
companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the
land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered in
1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over L2,000,000, whilst
the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. One
effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the
business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important
were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent of
the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the European
powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial affairs
was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, protests were raised
against the terms of the concessions. The reply was that the critics
confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of
commerce, and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land
and sold the produce regarded as a merchant. Various decisions by the
judges of the colony during 1902 and 1903 and by the French _cour de
cassation_ in 1905 confirmed that contention. The action of the
companies was, however, in most cases, neither beneficial to the
country nor financially successful, whilst the native cultivators
resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former
customers. The case of the Liverpool traders was taken up by the
British government and it was agreed that the dispute should be
settled by arbitration. In September 1908 the French government issued
a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control
exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies,
especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty
of commerce.

De Brazza's treaties.

_History._--The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the Portuguese explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade. It was not, however, till well on in the 19th century that Europeans made any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of their commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Bouet-Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. The primary object of the French settlement was to secure a port wherein men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, Libreville, was founded in 1849, with negroes taken from a slave ship. The settlement in time acquired importance as a trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered about 1000, and the civil population about 5000, while the official reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 sq. m. and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to France in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally, to a length of 200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany the colony was practically abandoned in 1871, the establishment at Libreville being maintained as a coaling depot merely. In 1875, however, France again turned her attention to the Gabun estuary, the hinterland of which had already been partly explored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) to the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant, explored the Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowe, in 1866. In 1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a French naturalist, and the marquis de Compiegne[2] explored a portion of the Ogowe basin, but it was not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that the country east of the Ogowe was reached. This expedition was led by Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's expedition, which was compelled to remain for many months at several places, ascended the Ogowe over 400 m., and beyond the basin of that stream discovered the Alima, which was, though the explorers were ignorant of the fact, a tributary of the Congo. From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay turned north and finally reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate. Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had revealed the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, begun December 1879, the French traveller undertook to find a way to the Congo above the rapids via the Ogowe. In this he was successful, and in September 1880 reached Stanley Pool, on the north side of which Brazzaville was subsequently founded. Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de Brazza met Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE), but de Brazza in reality acted solely in the interests of France and concluded treaties with Makoko, "king of the Batekes," and other chieftains, placing very large areas under the protection of that country. The conflicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in February 1885.[3] In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had more fully explored the country behind the coast regions of Gabun and Loango, the last-named seaport being occupied by France in 1883. The conclusion of agreements with Germany (December 1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal (May 1886) secured France in the possession of the western portion of the colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo Free State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the Ubangi district.

The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda.

The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad and eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though not without involving the country in serious disputes with the other European powers possessing rights in those regions. By creating the posts of Bangi (1890), Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same time the Congo Free State passed the parallel of 4 deg. N.--which, after the compromise of 1887, France had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and, occupying the sultanate of Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed on as far as 9 deg. N. The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and after the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both the German and the French governments protested, the last named because it erected a barrier against the extension of French territory to the Nile valley. By a compromise of the 14th of August the boundary was definitely drawn and, in accordance with this pact, which put the frontier back to about 4 deg. N., France from 1895 to 1897 took possession of the upper Ubangi, with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the French encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition, despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor of the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 and Fashoda in July 1898. A dispute with Great Britain arose, and it was decided that the expedition should evacuate Fashoda. The declaration of the 21st of March 1899 finally terminated the dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the French colony as already stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty of June 1900 settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, the boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was precisely defined by another Franco-German agreement in April 1908, following a detailed survey made by joint commissioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive description of these international rivalries see AFRICA, Sec. 5, and for the conquest of the Chad regions see BAGIRMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In the other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the natives, for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France with Wadai see that article.

Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient Gabun colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 to 1889 Gabun was, however, separately administered. By decree of the 11th of December 1888 the whole of the French possessions were created one "colony" under the style of Congo francais, with various subdivisions; they were placed under a commissioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at Brazzaville. This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic development of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits of the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA, Sec. 5) enjoyed a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December 1903 (which became operative in July 1904) Congo francais was divided into four parts as named in the opening paragraph. The first commissioner-general under the new scheme was Emile Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 de Brazza was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several of which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when on his way home. The French government, after considering the report he had drawn up, decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, making however (decree of 15th of February 1906) various changes in administration with a view to protect the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, who devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the country and the development of its commerce, resigned his post in February 1908. He was succeeded by M. Merlin, whose title was changed (June 1908) to that of governor-general.

_Administration and Revenue._--The governor-general has control over
the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer any part
of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. The
Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the
coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe
river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the
hinterland not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district
excepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun
colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of the
Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the
Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of French Congo;
each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy. As
in other French colonies the legislative power is in the French
chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation presidential
decrees have the force of law. A judicial service independent of the
executive exists, but the district administrators also exercise
judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the missionaries,
upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. The military force
maintained consists of natives officered by Europeans.

Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession
companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts,
supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying the
military expenses, about L100,000 a year, a grant of L28,000 yearly
was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the civil expenses.
In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about L250,000 without the
aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers sanctioned a loan for the
colony of L840,000, guaranteed by France and to be applied to the
establishment of administrative stations and public works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fernand Rouget, _L'Expansion coloniale au Congo
francais_ (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography and
maps; A. Chevalier, _L'Afrique centrale francaise_ (Paris, 1907). For
special studies see Lacroix, _Resultats mineralogiques et zoologiques
des recentes explorations de l'Afrique occidentale francaise et de la
region du Tchad_ (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, _Sur la geologie du Congo
francais_ (Paris, 1895), and _Ann. des mines_, ser. q. t. vii. (1895);
J. Cornet, "Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo," _Ann.
soc, geol. belg._ vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris _Bulletin du Museum_ for
1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. For flora
see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in _Comptes rendus de l'academie
des sciences_ (1902-1904), and the _Journal d'agriculture pratique des
pays chauds_ (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's book, see J.
Ancel, "Etude historique. La formation de la colonie du Congo
francais, 1843-1882," containing an annotated bibliography, in _Bull.
Com. l'Afrique francaise_, vol. xii. (1902); the works cited under
BRAZZA; and E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'empire de Rabah_ (Paris, 1902).
Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:--Paul du Chaillu,
_Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861); _A
Journey to Ashonga Land_ (London, 1867); and Sir R. Burton, _Two Trips
to Gorilla Land_ (London, 1876). Of later works see Mary H. Kingsley,
_Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); A. B. de Mezieres, _Rapport
de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal_
(Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, _A travers l'Afrique centrale du Congo
au Niger_, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). For the story of the concession
companies see E. D. Morel, _The British Case in French Congo_ (London,
1903). (F. R. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see AFRICA:
_History_).

[2] Louis Eugene Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiegne (1846-1877), on
his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schweinfurth at Cairo
as president of the geographical commission. Arising out of this
circumstance de Compiegne was killed in a duel by a German named
Mayer.

[3] A Franco-Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined
precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bamu Island in Stanley
Pool was recognized as French.

FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Africa, formerly known as Rivieres du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Portuguese Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal and the Ivory Coast, and S. by Liberia and Sierra Leone. With a sea-board running N.N.W. and S.S.E. from 10 deg. 50' N. to 9 deg. 2' N., a distance, without reckoning the indentations, of 170 m., the colony extends eastward 450 m. in a straight line and attains a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., covering fully 100,000 sq. m., and containing a population estimated at 2,000,000 to 2,500,000.

_Physical Features._--Though in one or two places rocky headlands jut
into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken by
rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it the
appearance of a vast delta. In about 9 deg. 30' N., off the promontory of
Konakry, lie the Los Islands (q.v.), forming part of the colony. The
coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m.
inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step
in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the
massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite rocks.
While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered with
savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is mainly
covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydrographic centre of
West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts, where heights of
5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier this high land is
continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea, where Mount Kakulima
rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa Jallon the country slopes
to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater part of which is included
in French Guinea. The southern frontier is formed by the escarpments
which separate the Niger basin from those of the coast rivers of
Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and Senegal, all separately
noticed, a large number of streams running direct to the Atlantic rise
in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great and Little Scarcies, whose
lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and the Rio Grande which enters the
sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those whose courses are entirely in French
Guinea include the Cogon (or Componi), the Rio Nunez, the Fatalla
(which reaches the sea through an estuary named Rio Pongo), the
Konkure, whose estuary is named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the
Melakori. The Cogon, Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which
descend from the plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and
cataracts, and are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth.

_Climate._--The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and
unhealthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November,
during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one
another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the "harmattan"
is frequent, is 62 deg. Fahr., in the wet season 86 deg.. Throughout the year
the humidity of the air is very great. There is much rain in the Futa
Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is somewhat drier. In that
region and in the highlands the climate is fairly healthy for
Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast.

_Flora and Fauna._--The seashore and the river banks are lined with
mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the
oil-palm. The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or
rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and kola trees
are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange and citron
growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The cotton and
coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations surround the
villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree) are found only
in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as was formerly the
case, large game having been to a great extent driven out of the coast
regions. The elephant is rare save in the Niger regions. The lion is
now only found in the northern parts of Futa Jallon; panthers,
leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more common and the civet is found.
Hippopotamus, otter and the wild boar are numerous; a species of wild
ox of small size with black horns and very agile is also found. The
forests contain many kinds of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees;
antelope are widespread but rather rare. Serpents are very common,
both venomous and non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size.
Fights between these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all
the rivers are said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the
coasts and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in
the estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves.
Freshwater oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the
rivers, particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed
species, in the Susu tongue called _khokon_, is so numerous as to have
given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous; they
include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the
marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters, are
common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey
parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common.

_Inhabitants._--On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and Iolas,
primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea (q.v.).
All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as comparatively
late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the aborigines.[1]
Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga, the Nalu, the
Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes (q.v.). This
migration southward appears to have taken place before the 17th
century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between the Cogon and
the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country immediately behind that of
the Baga. The other tribes named are but sparsely represented in
French Guinea, the coast region south of the Nunez and all the
interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied by the Susu, a tribe
belonging to the great Mandingan race, which forced its way seaward
about the beginning of the 18th century and pressed back the Timni
into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is peopled principally by Fula (q.v.),
and the rest of the country by Malinke and other tribes of Mandingo
(q.v.). The Mandingo, the Fula and the Susu are Mahommedans, though
the Susu retain many of their ancient rites and beliefs--those
associated with spirit worship and fetish, still the religion of the
Baga and other tribes. In the north-west part of Futa Jallon are found
remnants of the aborigines, such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the
Bassari, all typical Negro tribes. The white inhabitants number a few
hundreds only and are mainly French. Many of the coast peoples show,
however, distinct traces of white blood, the result chiefly of the
former presence of European slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there
are numerous mulattos. South of that river the coast tribes speak
largely pidgin English.

_Towns._--The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boke, on the
Rio Nunez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry, Benty, on
the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa Jallon,
Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger, Kurussa and
Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissandugu,
formerly Samory's capital, an important military station east of the
Niger. Konakry, in 9 deg. 30' N., 13 deg. 46' W., population about 20,000, is
the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little island
of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town being
joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the administration of
Noel Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-1900, Konakry was
transformed from a place of small importance to one of the chief ports
on the west coast of Africa and a serious rival to Freetown, Sierra
Leone. It has since grown considerably, and is provided with wharves
and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long. There is an ample supply of good
water, and a large public garden in the centre of the town. In front
of Government House is a statue of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of
call for French, British and German steamship companies, and is in
telegraphic communication with Europe. It is the starting-point of a
railway to the Niger (see below). The retail trade is in the hands of
Syrians. The town is governed by a municipality.

_Products and Industry._--French Guinea possesses a fertile soil, and
is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber, brought
from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained in the
coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum copal,
ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for export.
Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large herds of cattle
and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these are sent in
considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French Congo. The
trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief grain raised
is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is mainly
exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and the ground-nuts
to France.

The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from Great
Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco,
building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly "trade guns." The
average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was about
L1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth L400,000 or
more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with France and
Great Britain, the last-named country taking about 45% of the total;
Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax of 7% has been imposed
on all goods of other than French origin.

_Communications._--The railway from Konakry to the Niger at Kurussa,
by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in 1900, and from
1902 has been built directly by the colony. The first section to
Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second section, to near Timbo
in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and the rails reached Kurussa
in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is navigable at high water all the way
to Bamako in Upper Senegal, whence there is communication by rail and
river with St Louis and Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an
excellent road, about 390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road
in its lower part being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the
object of diverting trade from that British colony. Several other main
roads have been built by the French, and there is a very complete
telegraphic system, the lines having been connected with those of
Senegal in 1899.

_History._--This part of the Guinea coast was made known by the Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence, largely, of the dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited by the European traders of the 16th-18th centuries so frequently as other regions north and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Matakong (a diminutive island near the mouth of the Forekaria), and elsewhere, slave traders established themselves, and ruins of the strongholds they built, and defended with cannon, still exist. When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers made this difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, and many barracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close of the Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest in this region. At that time the British, from their bases at the Gambia and Sierra Leone, were devoting considerable attention to these Rivieres du Sud (i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa Jallon. Rene Caillie, who started his journey to Timbuktu from Boke in 1827, did much to quicken French interest in the district, and from 1838 onward French naval officers, Bouet-Willaumez and his successors, made detailed studies of the coast. About the time that the British government became wearied of its efforts to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe was appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence. Already in 1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the Nalu, and between that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate were signed with several of the coast tribes. During 1876-1880 new treaties were concluded with the chief tribes, and in 1881 the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his country under French protection, the French thus effectually preventing the junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as far south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great Britain in 1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to acquire a protectorate at Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885, while in 1886 the northern frontier was settled in agreement with Portugal, which had ancient settlements in the same region (see PORTUGUESE GUINEA). In 1899 the limits of the colony were extended, on the dismemberment of the French Sudan, to include the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands were ceded by Great Britain to France, in part return for the abandonment of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also SENEGAL: _History_.)