Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) RN stands for Real Number symbol and (Pd) for Partial derivative
symbol

(7) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE FRUIT: "The covering of the seed is marked i. n is the
nucellus or perisperm, enclosing the embryo-sac es, in which the
endosperm is formed." 'in' amended from 'is'.

ARTICLE FRUIT: "It occupies the whole cavity of the embryo-sac, or
is formed only at certain portions of it, at the apex, as in
Rhinanthus, ..." 'occupies' amended from 'occupied'.

ARTICLE FUEL: "Owing to the siliceous nature of the ash of straw,
it is desirable to have a means of clearing the grate bars from
slags and clinkers at short intervals, and to use a steam jet to
clear the tubes from similar deposits." 'straw' amended from
'sraw'.

ARTICLE FUEL: "In a research upon the heating power and other
properties of coal for naval use, carried out by the German
admiralty, the results tabulated below were obtained with coals
from different localities." 'from' amended from 'form'.

ARTICLE FUEL: "C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2" '+' amended from '='.

ARTICLE FULHAM: "The principal thoroughfares are Fulham Palace Road
running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road and King's Road, W. from
Chelsea, converging and leading to Putney Bridge over the Thames;
..." 'converging' amended from 'coverging'.

ARTICLE FULLER, THOMAS: "Their eldest child, John, baptized at
Broadwindsor by his father, 6th June 1641, was afterwards rector of
Sidney Sussex College, edited the Worthies of England, 1662, and
became rector of Great Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687."
added 'rector'.

ARTICLE FUNCTION: "When Taylor's theorem leads to a representation
of the function by means of an infinite series, the function is
said to be "analytic" (cf. S 21)." 'Taylor's' amended from
'Talyor's'.

ARTICLE FUNCTION: "or a series which converges uniformly may be
integrated term by term." 'uniformly' amended from 'unformly'.

ARTICLE FUNGI: "Parasitism.--Some fungi, though able to live as
saprophytes, occasionally enter the body of living plants, and are
thus termed facultative parasites." 'Parasitism' amended from
'Parasatism'.

ARTICLE FUNGI: "Recent experiments have shown that the difficulties
of getting orchid seeds to germinate are due to the absence of the
necessary fungus, which must be in readiness to infect the young
seedling immediately after it emerges from the seed." added
'after'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XI, SLICE III

FROST to FYZABAD

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

FROST FULMAR
FROSTBITE FULMINIC ACID
FROSTBURG FULTON, ROBERT
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS FULTON (Missouri, U.S.A.)
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY FULTON (New York, U.S.A.)
FRUCTOSE FUM
FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA FUMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS
FRUIT FUMAROLE
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING FUMIGATION
FRUMENTIUS FUMITORY
FRUNDSBERG, GEORG VON FUNCHAL
FRUSTUM FUNCTION
FRUYTIERS, PHILIP FUNDY, BAY OF
FRY FUNERAL RITES
FRY, SIR EDWARD FUNGI
FRY, ELIZABETH FUNJ
FRYXELL, ANDERS FUNKIA
FUAD PASHA FUNNEL
FUCHOW FUR
FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON FURAZANES
FUCHS, LEONHARD FURETIERE, ANTOINE
FUCHSIA FURFOOZ
FUCHSINE FURFURANE
FUCINO, LAGO DI FURIES
FUEL FURLONG
FUENTE OVEJUNA FURNACE
FUENTERRABIA FURNEAUX, TOBIAS
FUERO FURNES
FUERTEVENTURA FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD
FUGGER FURNESS
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS FURNISS, HARRY
FUGLEMAN FURNITURE
FUGUE FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES
FUHRICH, JOSEPH VON FURSE, CHARLES WELLINGTON
FUJI FURST, JULIUS
FU-KIEN FURSTENBERG
FUKUI FURSTENWALDE
FUKUOKA FURTH
FULA FURTWANGLER, ADOLF
FULCHER OF CHARTRES FURZE
FULDA FUSARO, LAGO
FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES FUSELI, HENRY
FULGINIAE FUSEL OIL
FULGURITE FUSIBLE METAL
FULHAM FUSILIER
FULK (king of Jerusalem) FUSION
FULK (archbishop of Reims) FUSSEN
FULKE, WILLIAM FUST, JOHANN
FULK NERRA FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS
FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV FUSTIAN
FULLER, ANDREW FUSTIC
FULLER, GEORGE FUTURES
FULLER, MARGARET FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON FUZE
FULLER, THOMAS FYNE, LOCH
FULLER, WILLIAM FYRD
FULLER'S EARTH FYT, JOHANNES
FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA FYZABAD

FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, _vorst_, Ger. _Frost_, from the common Teutonic verb meaning "to freeze," Dutch, _vriezen_, Ger. _frieren_; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. _pruina_, hoar-frost, cf. _prurire_, to itch, burn, _pruna_, burning coal, Sansk. _plush_, to burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the process, of freezing; hence the terms "hoar-frost" and "white-frost" applied to visible frozen vapour formed on exposed surfaces. A frost can only occur when the surface temperature falls below 32 deg. F., the freezing-point of water; if the temperature be between 28 deg. and 32 deg. it is a "light frost," if below 28 deg. it is a "heavy," "killing" or "black frost"; the term "black frost" is also used when no hoar-frost is present. The number of degrees below freezing-point is termed "degrees of frost." As soon as a mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to be precipitated in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoarfrost is only formed at the immediate surface of the land if the latter be at a temperature below 32 deg., and this may occur even when the temperature of the air a few feet above the ground is 12 deg.-16 deg. above the freezing-point. The heaviest hoar-frosts are formed under weather conditions similar to those under which the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm nights, when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and completely cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil is very moist, as for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it is a practice in America to flood fields on the receipt of a frost warning, radiation being checked by the light fog sheets which develop over moist soils, just as a cloud-layer in the upper atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale. A layer of smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end smoky fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may drift over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from frost. Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town, protected by its smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley with fairly high and steep flanks frost sometimes occurs locally at the bottom, because the layer of air cooled by contact with the cold surface of the higher ground is heavier than that not so cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle downwards along the slope of the land. When meteorological considerations point to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature may be obtained by multiplying the difference between the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometer by 2.5 and subtracting the result from the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the evening air is at about 50 deg. and 30.1 in. pressure, the sky being clear. An instrument has been devised in France for the prediction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and a dry bulb thermometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observations for the night are taken about half an hour before sunset. By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at which the line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is further divided by colours so that the observed point may fall within one of three zones, indicating certain frost, probable frost or no probability of frost.

FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action of extreme cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers, toes, nose, ears, &c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs as "chaps" and "chilblains," but the term frostbite is usually applied only to more severe cases, where the part affected becomes in danger of gangrene. An immediate application of snow, or ice-water, will restore the circulation; the application of heat would cause inflammation. But if the mortification has gone too far for the circulation to be restored, the part will be lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.

FROSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A., 11 m. W. of Cumberland. Pop. (1890) 3804; (1900) 5274 (578 foreign-born and 236 negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania railway and the Cumberland & Westernport electric railway. The town is about 2000 ft. above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and Dans mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state normal school, opened in 1904. Frostburg is in the midst of the coal region of the state, and is itself almost completely undermined; it has planing mills and manufactures large quantities of fire-brick. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from the West Virginia fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in 1812; was called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town's founders; and was incorporated in 1870.

FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American clergyman and author, was born in Boston on the 26th of November 1822, son of Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham (1793-1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of Boston, and through his mother's family related to Phillips Brooks. He graduated from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in 1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1847-1855. From 1855 to 1860 he was pastor of a new Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the Lord's Supper, thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction; and it was as a radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another young church in New York City in 1860. Indeed in 1864 he was recognized as leader of the radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge's address to the graduating students of the Divinity School on _Anti-Supernaturalism in the Pulpit_. In 1865, when he had practically given up "transcendentalism," his church building was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric Hall under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 1875 they removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-health compelled Frothingham's resignation, and the church dissolved. Paralysis threatened him and he never fully recovered his health; in 1881 he returned to Boston, where he died on the 27th of November 1895. To this later period of his life belongs his best literary work. While he was in New York he was for a time art critic of the _Tribune_. Always himself on the unpopular side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the majority, he habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only an anti-slavery leader when abolition was not popular even in New England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible for him to stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he was the first president of the National Free Religious Association (1867) and an early and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer. To his radical views he was always faithful. It is a mistake to say that he grew more conservative in later years; but his judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was a greater orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the Masonic Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and in the charm of his spoken word he was probably surpassed in his day by none save George William Curtis. Personally he seemed cold and distant, partly because of his impressive appearance, and partly because of his own modesty, which made him backward in seeking friendships.

His principal published works are: _Stories from the Life of the
Teacher_ (1863), _A Child's Book of Religion_ (1866), and other works
of religious teaching for children; several volumes of sermons;
_Beliefs of Unbelievers_ (1876), _The Cradle of the Christ: a Study in
Primitive Christianity_ (1877), _The Spirit of New Faith_ (1877), _The
Rising and the Setting Faith_ (1878), and other expositions of the
"new faith" he preached; _Life of Theodore Parker_ (1874),
_Transcendentalism in New England_ (1876), which is largely
biographical, _Gerrit Smith, a Biography_ (1878), _George Ripley_
(1882), in the "American Men of Letters" series, _Memoir of William
Henry Channing_ (1886), _Boston Unitarianism, 1820-1850_ (1890),
really a biography of his father; and _Recollections and Impressions,
1822-1890_ (1891).

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894), English historian, son of R.H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was born at Dartington, Devon, on the 23rd of April 1818. He was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second class and the chancellor's English essay prize, and was elected a fellow of Exeter College (1842). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell Froude (1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High Church movement at Oxford. Froude joined that party and helped J.H. Newman, afterwards cardinal, in his _Lives of the English Saints_. He was ordained deacon in 1845. By that time his religious opinions had begun to change, he grew dissatisfied with the views of the High Church party, and came under the influence of Carlyle's teaching. Signs of this change first appeared publicly in his _Shadows of the Clouds_, a volume containing two stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the pseudonym of "Zeta," and his complete desertion of his party was declared a year later in his _Nemesis of Faith_, an heretical and unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be autobiographical.

On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at Oxford, and mainly at least supported himself by writing, contributing largely to _Fraser's Magazine_ and the _Westminster Review_. The excellence of his style was soon generally recognized. The first two volumes of his _History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_ appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the art with which he represents his conception of the past. He condemns a scientific treatment of history and disregards its philosophy. He held that its office was simply to record human actions and that it should be written as a drama. Accordingly he gives prominence to the personal element in history. His presentations of character and motives, whether truthful or not, are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should be "no theorizing" about history tended to narrow his survey, and consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign policy of Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a period on which he is writing.

Froude's work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect statements. He wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his _History_ is contained in his assertion that the Reformation was "the root and source of the expansive force which has spread the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe." Hence he overpraises Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his _English in Ireland_ (1872-1874), which was written to show the futility of attempts to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all that can be said against the Irish, touches too lightly on English atrocities, and writes unjustly of the influence of Roman Catholicism. A strong anti-clerical prejudice is manifest in his historical work generally, and is doubtless the result of the change in his views on Church matters and his abandonment of the clerical profession. Carlyle's influence on him may be traced both in his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which led him to write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable, and in his independent treatment of character. His rehabilitation of Henry VIII. was a useful protest against the idea that the king was a mere sanguinary profligate, but his representation of him as the self-denying minister of his people's will is erroneous, and is founded on the false theory that the preambles of the acts of Henry's parliaments represented the opinions of the educated laymen of England. As an advocate he occasionally forgets that sobriety of judgment and expression become an historian. He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been unwilling to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any statement which militated against his case. In his _Divorce of Catherine of Aragon_ (1891) he made an unfortunate attempt to show that certain fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward by Dr Gairdner, Dr Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent with the views which he has expressed in his _History_ nearly forty years before. He worked diligently at original manuscript authorities at Simancas, the Record Office and Hatfield House; but he used his materials carelessly, and evidently brought to his investigation of them a mind already made up as to their significance. His _Life of Caesar_ (1879), a glorification of imperialism, betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and the life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, _The English in the West Indies_ (1888) shows that he made little effort to master his subject, and _Oceana_ (1886), the record of a tour in Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders, notes the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the date of his visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-crop, hundreds were then living on charity. He was constitutionally inaccurate, and seems to have been unable to represent the exact sense of a document which lay before him, or even to copy from it correctly. Historical scholars ridiculed his mistakes, and Freeman, the most violent of his critics, never let slip a chance of hitting at him in the _Saturday Review_. Froude's temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these attacks, which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general interest when it blazed out in a series of articles which Freeman wrote in the _Contemporary Review_ (1878-1879) on Froude's _Short Study_ of Thomas Becket.

Notwithstanding its defects, Froude's _History_ is a great achievement; it presents an important and powerful account of the Reformation period in England, and lays before us a picture of the past magnificently conceived, and painted in colours which will never lose their freshness and beauty. As with Froude's work generally, its literary merit is remarkable; it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in design and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needlessly long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details; every incident is made subordinate to the general idea, appears in its appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection of the whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty of its style, for Froude was a master of English prose. The most notable characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it is never affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy, and follow one another naturally. He is always lucid. He was never in doubt as to his own meaning, and never at a loss for the most appropriate words in which to express it. Simple as his language is, it is dignified and worthy of its subject. Nowhere perhaps does his style appear to more advantage than in his four series of essays entitled _Short Studies on Great Subjects_ (1867-1882), for it is seen there unfettered by the obligations of narrative. Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the most part flowing easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour, picturesque beauty or pathos. Few more brilliant pieces of historical writing exist than his description of the coronation procession of Anne Boleyn through the streets of London, few more full of picturesque power than that in which he relates how the spire of St Paul's was struck by lightning; and to have once read is to remember for ever the touching and stately words in which he compares the monks of the London Charterhouse preparing for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae. Proofs of his power in the sustained narration of stirring events are abundant; his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the murder of Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of it. Nor is he less successful when recording pathetic events, for his stories of certain martyrdoms, and of the execution of Mary queen of Scots, are told with exquisite feeling and in language of well-restrained emotion. And his characters are alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but the men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life with which he endows them and animated by the motives which he attributes to them. His successes must be set against his failures. At the least he wrote a great history, one which can never be disregarded by future writers on his period, be their opinions what they may; which attracts and delights a multitude of readers, and is a splendid example of literary form and grace in historical composition.

The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each instalment of his _History_, in common with almost everything which he wrote, was widely read, and in spite of some adverse criticisms was received with eager applause. In 1868 he was elected rector of St Andrews University, defeating Disraeli by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in the United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on Ireland which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction. On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed, on the recommendation of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as regius professor of modern history at Oxford. Except to a few Oxford men, who considered that historical scholarship should have been held to be a necessary qualification for the office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures on Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely attended. With some allowance for the purpose for which they were originally written, they present much the same characteristics as his earlier historical books. His health gave way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 20th of October.

His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as an author, he was for fourteen years editor of _Fraser's Magazine_. He was one of Carlyle's literary executors, and brought some sharp criticism upon himself by publishing Carlyle's _Reminiscences_ and the _Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle_, for they exhibited the domestic life and character of his old friend in an unpleasant light. Carlyle had given the manuscripts to him, telling him that he might publish them if he thought it well to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their publication. Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world he was carrying out his friend's wish by enabling him to make a posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these manuscripts he wrote a _Life of Carlyle_. His earlier study of Irish history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel entitled _The Two Chiefs of Dunboy_ (1889). In spite of one or two stirring scenes it is a tedious book, and its personages are little more than machines for the enunciation of the author's opinions and sentiments. Though Froude had some intimate friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to please, his manners and conversation were charming. Those who knew him well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical affairs. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent Froude to South Africa to report on the best means of promoting a confederation of its colonies and states, and in 1875 he was again sent to the Cape as a member of a proposed conference to further confederation. Froude's speeches in South Africa were rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (see SOUTH AFRICA: _History_). He was twice married. His first wife, a daughter of Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley, died in 1860; his second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for Taunton, died in 1874.

Froude's _Life_, by Herbert Paul, was published in 1905. (W. Hu.)

FRUCTOSE, LAEVULOSE, or FRUIT-SUGAR, a carbohydrate of the formula C6H12O6. It is closely related to ordinary d-glucose, with which it occurs in many fruits, starches and also in honey. It is a hydrolytic product of inulin, from which it may be prepared; but it is more usual to obtain it from "invert sugar," the mixture obtained by hydrolysing cane sugar with sulphuric acid. Cane sugar then yields a syrupy mixture of glucose and fructose, which, having been freed from the acid and concentrated, is mixed with water, cooled in ice and calcium hydroxide added. The fructose is precipitated as a saccharate, which is filtered, suspended in water and decomposed by carbon dioxide. The liquid is filtered, the filtrate concentrated, and the syrup so obtained washed with cold alcohol. On cooling the fructose separates. It may be obtained as a syrup, as fine, silky needles, a white crystalline powder, or as a granular crystalline, somewhat hygroscopic mass. When anhydrous it melts at about 95 deg. C. It is readily soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is sweeter than cane sugar and is more easily assimilated. It has been employed under the name diabetin as a sweetening agent for diabetics, since it does not increase the sugar-content of the urine; other medicinal applications are in phthisis (mixed with quassia or other bitter), and for children suffering from tuberculosis or scrofula in place of cane sugar or milk-sugar.

Chemically, fructose is an oxyketone or ketose, its structural formula being CH2OH.(CH.OH)3.CO.CH2OH; this result followed from its conversion by H. Kiliani into methylbutylacetic acid. The form described above is _laevo_-rotatory, but it is termed d-fructose, since it is related to d-glucose. Solutions exhibit mutarotation, fresh solutions having a specific rotation of -104.0 deg., which gradually diminishes to -92 deg. It was synthesized by Emil Fischer, who found the synthetic sugar which he named [alpha]-acrose to be (d + l)-fructose, and by splitting this mixture he obtained both the d and l forms. Fructose resembles d-glucose in being fermentable by yeast (it is the one ketose which exhibits this property), and also in its power of reducing alkaline copper and silver solutions; this latter property is assigned to the readiness with which hydroxyl and ketone groups in close proximity suffer oxidation. For the structural (stereochemical) relations of fructose see SUGAR.

FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA (1692-1768), Italian poet, was born at Genoa on the 21st of November 1692. He was originally destined for the church and at the age of fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a convent; but although in the following year he was induced to pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. He acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of Latin and Italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he filled the chairs of rhetoric at Brescia, Rome, Genoa, Bologna and Modena successively, attracting by his brilliant fluency a large number of students at each university. Through Cardinal Bentivoglio he was recommended to Antonio Farnese, duke of Parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained at the court of Parma until the death of Antonio, after which he returned to Genoa. Shortly afterwards, through the intercession of Bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering a portion of his paternal inheritance. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he returned to the court of Parma, and there devoted the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. He died on the 20th of December 1768. As a poet Frugoni was one of the best of the school of the Arcadian Academy, and his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance.

His collected works were published at Parma in 10 vols. in 1799, and a
more complete edition appeared at Lucca in the same year in 15 vols. A
selection from his works was published at Brescia in 1782, in 4 vols.

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. _fructus_; _frui_, to enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly in the Bible, and extended, as a Hebraism, to offspring or progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as "the fruit of the body," "of the womb," "fruit of thy cattle" (Deut. xxviii. 4), &c., and generally to the product of any action or effort. Between this wide and frequently figurative use of the word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and differentiating them roughly from those other products of the soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. In this sense "fruit" is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy or of a refreshing flavour. But applications of the word in this sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion of the time.

Fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower as the result of fertilization of the ovule. After fertilization various changes take place in the parts of the flower. Those more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry, the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged, forming the _pericarp_; and the ovules are developed as the seeds, containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior; but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts and floral envelopes. Thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear, of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pine-apple, of the whole inflorescence. Such fruits are sometimes distinguished as _pseudocarps_. In popular language, the fruit includes all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of fertilization. In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertilization has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect, while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are seedless oranges, grapes and pineapples. When the ovules are unfertilized, it is common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and bread-fruit, the non-development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth and a greater succulence of fruit.

The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of
several. It may have one cell or cavity, being _unilocular_; or many,
_multilocular_, &c. The number and nature of the divisions depend on
the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are folded
inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not always remain
permanent in the fruit. Great changes are observed to take place, not
merely as regards the increased size of the ovary, its softening or
hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing to the
suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts. Thus, in
the ash (fig. 1) an ovary with two cells, each containing an ovule
attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular fruit
with one seed; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, g,
gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites
with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal.
In the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively,
and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed. In
the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary produces a one-celled,
one-seeded fruit. This abortion may depend on the pressure caused by
the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from
non-fertilization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement of
the carpels. Again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding
inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which
did not exist in the ovary. In _Cathartocarpus Fistula_ a one-celled
ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate
cell, in consequence of spurious dissepiments being produced
horizontal from the inner wall of the ovary. In flax (_Linum_) by the
folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes
a ten-celled fruit. In _Astragalus_ the folding inwards of the dorsal
suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in
_Oxytropis_ the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar
change. The development of cellular or pulpy matter, and the
enlargement of parts not forming whorls of the flower, frequently
alter the appearance of the fruit, and render it difficult to discover
its formation. In the gooseberry (fig. 29), grape, guava, tomato and
pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp formed by the placentas. In the
orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed by succulent
cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned lining of the
pericarp. In the strawberry the receptacle becomes succulent, and
bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2); in the rose
there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels on its
concave surface (fig. 3). In the juniper the scaly bracts grow up
round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the
receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence.

Fig. 1.--Samara or winged fruit of Ash (_Fraxinus_). 1, Entire, with
its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it
consists of two cells; one of which, l, is abortive, and is reduced
to a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled
with a seed g.

Fig. 2.--Fruit of the Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), consisting of
an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small
dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (After Duchartre.)

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

Fig. 3.--Fruit of the Rose cut vertically. s', Fleshy hollowed
receptacle; s, persistent sepals; _fr_, ripe carpels; e, stamens,
withered.

Fig. 4.--Peduncle of Fig (_Ficus Carica_), ending in a hollow
receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers.

Fig. 5.--Fruit of Cherry (_Prunus Cerasus_) in longitudinal section.
ep, Epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.]

The pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or
_epicarp_ (fig. 5, ep); the middle, or _mesocarp_, m; and the
internal, or _endocarp_, _en_. These layers are well seen in such a
fruit as the peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from
the other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the skin;
the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp, and hence has
sometimes been called _sarcocarp_; while the endocarp, hardened by the
production of woody cells, forms the _stone_ or _putamen_ immediately
covering the kernel or seed. The pulpy matter found in the interior of
fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape and others, is formed from the
placentas, and must not be confounded with the sarcocarp. In some
fruits, as in the nut, the three layers become blended together and
are indistinguishable. In bladder senna (_Colutea arborescens_) the
pericarp retains its leaf-like appearance, but in most cases it
becomes altered both in consistence and in colour. Thus in the date
the epicarp is the outer brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the
mesocarp or sarcocarp, and the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp
covering the hard seed. In the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony
hardness. In the melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while
the mesocarp forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and
taste in its external and internal parts. The rind of the orange
consists of epicarp and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions
in the interior, filled with pulpy cells. The part of the pericarp
attached to the peduncle is the base, and the point where the style or
stigma existed is the apex. This latter is not always the apparent
apex, as in the case of the ovary; it may be lateral or even basilar.
The style sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit
_apiculate_; at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its
existence. The presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish
certain single-seeded pericarps from seeds.

FIG. 6.--Seed-vessel or capsule of Campion, opening by ten teeth at
the apex. The calyx c is seen surrounding the seed-vessel.

FIG. 7.--Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores p, under the radiating
peltate stigma s.]

Dehiscence of fruits.

When the fruit is mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels usually
give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both, and so
allow the seeds to escape. The fruit in this case is _dehiscent_. But
some fruits are _indehiscent_, falling to the ground entire, and the
seeds eventually reaching the soil by their decay. By dehiscence the
pericarp becomes divided into different pieces, or _valves_, the fruit
being univalvular, bivalvular or multivalvular, &c., according as
there are one, two or many valves. The splitting extends the whole
length of the fruit, or is partial, the valves forming teeth at the
apex, as in the order Caryophyllaceae (fig. 6). Sometimes the valves
are detached only at certain points, and thus dehiscence takes place
by pores at the apex, as in poppy (fig. 7), or at the base, as in
_Campanula_. Indehiscent fruits are either dry, as the nut, or fleshy,
as the cherry and apple. They are formed of one or several carpels. In
the former case they usually contain only a single seed, which may
become so incorporated with the pericarp as to appear to be naked, as
in the grain of wheat and generally in grasses. In such cases the
presence of the remains of style or stigma determines their true
nature.

FIG. 8.--Dry dehiscent fruit. The pod (legume) of the Pea; r, the
dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.

From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan
Sonnenschein & Co.

FIG. 9.--(1) Fruit or capsule of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum
autumnale_), dehiscing along the septa (septicidally); (2) same cut
across, showing the three chambers with the seeds attached along the
middle line (axile placentation).

FIG. 10.--Diagram to illustrate the septicidal dehiscence in a
pentalocular capsule. The loculaments l correspond to the number of
the carpels, which separate by splitting through the septa, s.

FIG. 11.--The seed vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce (_Iris_),
opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the septa in
the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the
loculaments. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous
carpels.

FIG. 12.--Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The
loculaments l, split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing
the septa s on their centres.

FIG. 13.--Diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which the
dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments l, and
the valves separate from the septa s, which are left attached to the
placentas in the centre.]

Dehiscent fruits, when composed of single carpels, may open by the
ventral suture only, as in the paeony, hellebore, _Aquilegia_ (fig.
28) and _Caltha_; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some
_Proteaceae_, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean; in
these cases the dehiscence is _sutural_. When composed of several
united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur--a longitudinal and a
transverse. In the longitudinal the separation may take place by the
dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved
into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in
rhododendron, _Colchicum_, &c.; this dehiscence, in consequence of
taking place through the septum, is called _septicidal_ (figs. 9, 10).
The valves separate from their commissure, or central line of union,
carrying the placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the
centre, so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical
or prismatic shape. Dehiscence is _loculicidal_ when the union between
the edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by the dorsal
suture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the lily and
iris (figs. 11, 12). In these cases each valve consists of a half of
each of two contiguous carpels. The placentas either remain united to
the axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the septa on the
valves. When the outer walls of the carpels break off from the septa,
leaving them attached to the central column, the dehiscence is said to
be _septifragal_ (fig. 13), and where, as in _Linum catharticum_ and
_Calluna_, the splitting takes place first of all in a septicidal
manner, the fruit is described as _septicidally septifragal_; while in
other cases, as in thorn apple (_Datura Stramonium_), where the
splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is _loculicidally
septifragal_. In all those forms the separation of the valves takes
place either from above downwards or from below upwards. In
_Saxifraga_ a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of
the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. In the
fruit of Cruciferae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate from
the base of the fruit, leaving a central _replum_, or frame, which
supports the false septum formed by a prolongation from the parietal
placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the
ventral sutures of the carpels. In Orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp,
when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner, but
the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached, often
remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after the valves
bearing the seeds have fallen. The other type of dehiscence is
transverse, or _circumscissile_, when the upper part of the united
carpels falls off in the form of a lid or operculum, as in _Anagallis_
and in henbane (_Hyoscyamus_) (fig. 16).

FIG. 14.--Siliqua or seed-vessel of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus
Cheiri_), opening by two valves, which separate from the base
upwards, leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is
supported by the replum.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 15.--Capsule of an Orchid (_Xylobium_). v, valve.

FIG. 16.--Seed-vessel of _Anagallisarvensis_, opening by
circumscissile dehiscence.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 17.--Lomentum of _Hedysarum_ which, when ripe, separates
transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.

FIG. 18.--Fruit of _Geranium pratense_, after splitting.]

Sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels, as in
the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it
throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without
opening. In the Umbelliferae the two carpels separate from the lower
part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a
prolongation of it, called a _carpophore_ or _podocarp_, which splits
into two (fig. 25) and suspends them; hence the fruit is termed a
_cremocarp_, which divides into two _mericarps_. The general term
_schizocarp_ is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or
more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in _Hedysarum_ (fig. 17). In
the order Geraniaceae the styles remain attached to a central column,
and the mericarps separate from below upwards, before dehiscing by
their ventral suture (fig. 18). Carpels which separate one from
another in this manner are called _cocci_. They are well seen in the
order Euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such carpels, and
the fruit is termed tricoccus. In many of them, as _Hura crepitans_,
the cocci separate with great force and elasticity. In many leguminous
plants, such as _Ornithopus_, _Hedysarum_ (fig. 17), _Entada_,
_Coronilla_ and the gum-arabic plant (_Acacia arabica_), the fruit
becomes a schizocarp by the formation of transverse partitions from
the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separations
taking place at these partitions.

Fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several flowers
combined. In the former case they are either _apocarpous_, of one
mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or _syncarpous_, of
several carpels, more or less completely united. When the fruit is
composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is usual to find
the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them, so as to form
one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple, confluent or
_anthocarpous_. The term simple is applied to fruits which are formed
by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are composed of one or
several carpels, and whether these carpels are separate or combined.

FIG. 19.--Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (_Rumex_) cut vertically. ov,
Pericarp formed from ovary wall; s, seed; e, endosperm; pl, embryo
with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards--enlarged.

FIG. 20.--Achene of _Ranunculus arvensis_ in longitudinal section;
e, endosperm; pl, embryo. (After Baillon, enlarged.)

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 21.--Fruit of Common Sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), dividing
into two mericarps m; s, pedicel; fl, wings (nat. size).]

Dispersal of fruit or seed.

The object of the fruit in the economy of the plant is the protection
and nursing of the developing seed and the dispersion of the ripe
seeds. Hence, generally, one-seeded fruits are indehiscent, while
fruits containing more than one seed open to allow of the dispersal of
the seeds over as wide an area as possible. The form, colour,
structure and method of dehiscence of fruits and the form of the
contained seeds are intimately associated with the means of dispersal,
which fall into several categories. (1) By a mechanism residing in the
fruit. Thus many fruits open suddenly when they are dry, and the seeds
are ejected by the twisting or curving of the valves, or in some other
way; e.g. in gorse, by the spiral curving of the valves; in
_Impatiens_, by the twisting of the cocci; in squirting cucumber, by
the pressure exerted on the pulpy contents by the walls of the
pericarp. (2) By aid of various external agencies such as water.
Fruits or seeds are sometimes sufficiently buoyant to float for a long
time on sea- or fresh-water; e.g. coco-nut, by means of its thick,
fibrous coat (mesocarp), is carried hundreds of miles in the sea, the
tough, leathery outer coat (epicarp) preventing it from becoming
water-soaked. Fruits and seeds of West Indian plants are thrown up on
the coasts of north-west Europe, having been carried by the Gulf
Stream, and will often germinate; many are rendered buoyant by
air-containing cavities, and the embryo is protected from the seawater
by the tough coat of fruit or seed. Water-lily seeds are surrounded
with a spongy tissue when set free from the fruit, and float for some
distance before dropping to the bottom. (3) The most general agent in
the dispersal of seeds is the wind or currents of air--the fruit or
seed being rendered buoyant by wing-developments as in fruits of ash
(fig. 1) or maple (fig. 21), seeds of pines and firs, or many members
of the order Bignoniaceae; or hair-developments as in fruits of
clematis, where the style forms a feathery appendage, fruits of many
Compositae (dandelion, thistle, &c.), which are crowned by a plumose
pappus, or seeds of willow and poplar, or _Asclepias_ (fig. 36), which
bear tufts of silky hairs; to this category belong bladder-like
fruits, such as bladder-senna, which are easily rolled by the wind, or
cases like the so-called rose of Jericho, a small cruciferous plant
(_Anastatica hierocuntica_), where the plant dries up after developing
its fruits and becomes detached from the ground; the branches curl
inwards, and the whole plant is rolled over the dry ground by the
wind. The wind also aids the dispersal of the seeds in the case of
fruits which open by small teeth (many Caryophyllaceae [fig. 6]) or
pores (poppy [fig. 7], _Campanula_, &c.); the seeds are in these cases
small and numerous, and are jerked through the pores when the
capsules, which are generally borne on long, dry stems or stalks, are
shaken by the wind. (4) In other cases members of the animal world aid
in seed-dispersal. Fruits often bear stiff hairs or small hooks, which
cling to the coat of an animal or the feathers of a bird; such are
fruits of cleavers (_Galium Aparine_), a common hedge-row plant,
_Ranunculus arvensis_ (fig. 20), carrot, _Geum_, &c.; or the fruit or
seed has an often bright-coloured, fleshy covering, which is sought by
birds as food, as in stone-fruits such as plum, cherry (fig. 5), &c.,
where the seed is protected from injury in the mouth or stomach of the
animal by the hard endocarp; or the hips of the rose (fig. 3), where
the succulent scarlet "fruit" (the swollen receptacle) envelops a
number of small dry true fruits (achenes), which cling by means of
stiff hairs to the beak of the bird.

FIG. 22.--Vertical section of a grain of wheat, showing embryo below
at the base of the endosperm e; s, scutellum separating embryo from
endosperm; f.l, foliage leaf; p.s, sheath of plumule; p.r, primary
root; s.p.r, sheath of primary root.

FIG. 23.--Fruit of Comfrey (_Symphytum_) surrounded by persistent
calyx, c. The style s appears to arise from the base of the carpels,
enlarged.

FIG. 24.--Ovary of _Foeniculum officinale_ with pendulous ovules, in
longitudinal section. (After Berg and Schmidt, magnified.)

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 25.--Fruit of _Carum Carui_. A, Ovary of the flower; B, ripe
fruit. The two carpels have separated so as to form two mericarps
(m). Part of the septum constitutes the carpophore (a). p, Top of
flower-stalk; d, disk on top of ovary; n, stigma.

From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan
Sonnenschein & Co.]

Forms of fruit.

Simple fruits have either a _dry_ or _succulent_ pericarp. The
_achene_ is a dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of
which is closely applied to the seed, but separable from it. It is
solitary, forming a single fruit, as in the dock (fig. 19) and in the
cashew, where it is supported on a fleshy peduncle; or _aggregate_, as
in _Ranunculus_ (fig. 20), where several achenes are placed on a
common elevated receptacle. In the strawberry the achenes (fig. 2) are
aggregated on a convex succulent receptacle. In the rose they are
supported on a concave receptacle (fig. 3), and in the fig the
succulent receptacle completely encloses the achenes (fig. 4). In
_Dorstenia_ the achenes are situated on a flat or slightly concave
receptacle. Hence what in common language are called the seeds of the
strawberry, rose and fig, are in reality ripe carpels. The styles
occasionally remain attached to the achenes in the form of feathery
appendages, as in _Clematis_. In Compositae, the fruit is an inferior
achene (_cypsela_), to which the pappus (modified calyx) remains
adherent. Such is also the nature of the fruit in Dipsacaceae (e.g.
scabious). When the pericarp is thin, and appears like a bladder
surrounding the seed, the achene is termed a _utricle_, as in
Amarantaceae. When the pericarp is extended in the form of a winged
appendage, a _samara_ or _samaroid achene_ is produced, as in the ash
(fig. 1) and common sycamore (fig. 21). In these cases there are
usually two achenes united, one of which, however, as in _Fraxinus_
(fig. 1), may be abortive. The wing surrounds the fruit longitudinally
in the elm. When the pericarp becomes so incorporated with the seed as
to be inseparable from it, as in grains of wheat (fig. 22), maize,
oats and other grasses, then the name _caryopsis_ is given. The
one-seeded portions (mericarps) of schizocarps often take the form of
achenes, e.g. the mericarps of the mallows or of umbellifers (figs.
24, 25). In Labiatae and Boraginaceae (e.g. comfrey, fig. 23), where
the bicarpellary ovary becomes our one-seeded portions in the fruit,
the partial fruits are of the nature of achenes or nutlets according
to the texture (leathery or hard) of the pericarp.

FIG. 26.--Cupule of _Quercus Aegilops_. cp, cupule; gl, fruit.
(After Duchartre.)]

The _nut_ or _glans_ is a dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with a
hardened pericarp, often surrounded by bracts at the base, and, when
mature, containing only one seed. In the young state the ovary often
contains two or more ovules, but only one comes to maturity. It is
illustrated by the fruits of the hazel and chestnut, which are covered
by leafy bracts, in the form of a _husk_, and by the acorn, in which
the bracts and receptacle form a _cupula_ or _cup_ (fig. 26). The
parts of the pericarp of the nut are united so as to appear one. In
common language the term nut is very vaguely applied both to fruit and
seeds.