Chapter I: Functions of Real Variables (11)

SEAL, HAIR.--There are several varieties of these seals in the seas
stretching north from Scotland, around Newfoundland, Greenland and the
north-west coast of America, and they are far more numerous than fur
seals. Generally they have coarse rigid hair and none possess any
underwool. They are taken principally for the oil and leather they
yield. Some of the better haired sorts are dyed black and brown and
used for men's motor coats when quite a waterproof garment is wanted,
and they are used also for this quality in China. The young of the
Greenland seals are called whitecoats on account of the early growth
being of a yellowish white colour; the hair is 3/4 to 1 in. long, and
at this early stage of their life is soft compared to that of the
older seals. These fur skins are dyed black or dark brown and are used
for military caps and hearth-rugs. Value 2s. to 15s. There are fewer
hair seals in the southern than in the northern seas.

SHEEP.--Vary much in size and in quality of wool. Many of the domestic
kind in central and northern Europe and Canada are used for drivers'
and peasants' coat linings, &c. In Great Britain many coats of the
home-reared sheep, having wools two and a half to five inches long,
are dyed various colours and used as floor rugs. Skins with very short
wool are dyed black and used for military saddle-cloths. The bulk,
however, is used in the wool trade. The Hungarian peasants are very
fond of their natural brown sheep coats, the leather side of which is
not lined, but embellished by a very close fancy embroidery, worked
upon the leather itself; these garments are reversible, the fur being
worn inside when the weather is cold. Chinese sheep are largely used
for cheap rugs. Value of English sheep from 3s. to 10s.

SKUNK or BLACK MARTEN.--Size 15 X 8 in. The underwool is full and
fairly close with glossy, flowing top hair about 2-1/2 in. long. The
majority have two stripes of white hair, extending the whole length of
the skin, but these are cut out by the manufacturing furrier and sold
to the dealers in pieces for exportation. The animals are found widely
spread throughout North and South America. The skins which are of the
greatest interest to the European trade are those from North America,
the South American species being small, coarse and generally brown.
The best skins come from Ohio and New York. If it were not for its
disagreeable odour, skunk would be worth much more than the usual
market value, as it is naturally the blackest fur, silky in appearance
and most durable. The improved dressing processes have to a large
extent removed the naturally pungent scent. The fur is excellent for
stoles, boas, collars, cuffs, muffs and trimmings. Value 1s. 6d. to
11s.

SOUSLIK.--Size 7 in. X 2-1/4. Is a small rodent found in the south of
Russia and also in parts of America. It has very short hair and is a
poor fur even for the cheapest linings, which is the only use to which
the skin could be put. It is known as kaluga when imported in
ready-made linings from Russia where the skins are dressed and worked
in an inferior way. Value 1d. to 3d.

SQUIRREL.--Size 10 X 5 in. This measurement refers to the Russian and
Siberian sorts, which are the only kind imported for the fur. The
numerous other species are too poor in their coats to attract notice
from fur dealers. The back of the Russian squirrel has an even close
fur varying from a clear bluish-grey to a reddish-brown, the bellies
in the former being of a flat quality and white, in the latter
yellowish. The backs are worked into linings separately, as are the
bellies or "locks." The pelts, although very light, are tough and
durable, hence their good reputation for linings for ladies' walking
or driving coats. The best skins also provide excellent material for
coats, capes, stoles, ties, collars, cuffs, gloves, muffs, hoods and
light-weight carriage aprons. The tails are dark and very small, and
when required for ends of boas three or four are made as one. Value
per skin from 2-1/2d. to 1s. 1d.

TIBET LAMB.--Size 27 X 13 in. These pretty animals have a long, very
fine, silky and curly fleece of a creamy white. The majority are
consigned to the trade auction sales in London ready dressed and
worked into cross-shaped coats, and the remainder, a fourth of the
total, come as dressed skins. They are excellent for trimmings of
evening mantles and for children's ties, muffs and perambulator
aprons. The fur is too long and bulky for linings. Value per skin from
4s. 6d. to 8s. 6d.

TIGER.--Size varies considerably, largest about 10 ft. from nose to
root of tail. Tigers are found throughout India, Turkestan, China,
Mongolia and the East Indies. The coats of the Bengal kind are short
and of a dark orange brown with black stripes, those from east or
further India are similar in colour, but longer in the hair, while
those from north of the Himalayas and the mountains of China are not
only huge in size, but have a very long soft hair of delicate orange
brown with very white flanks, and marked generally with the blackest
of stripes. The last are of a noble appearance and exceedingly scarce.
They all make handsome floor rugs.

Value of the Indian from L3 to L15.
" " Chinese " L10 to L65.

VICUNA is a species of long-necked sheep native to South America,
bearing some resemblance to the guanaco, but the fur is shorter,
closer and much finer. The colour is a pale golden-brown and the fur
is held in great repute in South America for carriage rugs. The supply
is evidently small as the prices are high. There is scarcely a
commercial quotation in London, few coming in except from private
sources. 2s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. may be considered as the average value.

WALLABY.--See _Kangaroo_, above.

WALLAROO.--See _Kangaroo_, above.

WOLF.--Size 50 X 25 in. Is closely allied to the dog tribe and, like
the jackals, is found through a wide range of the world,--North and
South America, Europe and Asia. Good supplies are available from North
America and Siberia and a very few from China. The best are the full
furred ones of a very pale bluish-grey with fine flowing black top
hair, which are obtained from the Hudson Bay district. Those from the
United States and Asia are harsher in quality and browner. A few black
American specimens come into the market, but usually the quality is
poor compared to the lighter furred animal. The Siberian is smaller
than the North American and the Russian still smaller. Besides the
wolf proper a large number of prairie or dog wolves from America and
Asia are used for cheaper rugs. In size they are less than half that
of a large wolf and are of a motley sandy colour. Numbers of the
Russian are retained for home use. The finest wolves are very light
weighted and most suitable for carriage aprons, in fact, ideal for the
purpose, though lacking the strength of some other furs.

Wolves value 2s. 6d. to 64s.
Dog wolves " 1s. to 2s. 6d.

WOLVERINE.--Size 16 X 18 in. Is native to America, Siberia, Russia and
Scandinavia and generally partakes of the nature of a bear. The
underwool is full and thick with strong and bright top hair about
2-1/2 in. long. The colour is of two or three shades of brown in one
skin, the centre being an oval dark saddle, edged as it were with
quite a pale tone and merging to a darker one towards the flanks. This
peculiar character alone stamps it as a distinguished fur, in addition
to which it has the excellent advantage of being the most durable fur
for carriage aprons, as well as the richest in colour. It is not
prolific, added to which it is very difficult to match a number of
skins in quality as well as colour. Hence it is an expensive fur, but
its excellent qualities make it valuable. The darkest of the least
coarse skins are worth the most. Prices from 6s. to 37s.

WOMBAT, KOALA or Australian Bear.--Size 20 X 12 in. Has light grey or
brown close thick wool half an inch deep without any top hair, with a
rather thick spongy pelt. It is quite inexpensive and only suitable
for cheap rough coats, carriage rugs, perambulator aprons and linings
for footbags. The coats are largely used in western America and
Canada. Value 3d. to 1s. 8-1/2d.

_Preparing and Dressing._--A furrier or skin merchant must possess a good eye for colour to be successful, the difference in value on this subtle matter solely (in the rarer precious sorts, especially sables, natural black, silver and blue fox, sea otters, chinchillas, fine mink, &c.) being so considerable that not only a practised but an intuitive sense of colour is necessary to accurately determine the exact merits of every skin. In addition to this a knowledge is required of what the condition of a pelt should be; a good judge knows by experience whether a skin will turn out soft and strong, after dressing, and whether the hair is in the best condition of strength and beauty. The dressing of the pelt or skin that is to be preserved for fur is totally different to the making of leather; in the latter tannic acid is used, but never should be with a fur skin, as is so often done by natives of districts where a regular fur trade is not carried on. The results of applying tannic acid are to harden the pelt and discolour and weaken the fur. The best methods for dressing fur skins are those of a tawer or currier, the aim being to retain all the natural oil in the pelt, in order to preserve the natural colour of the fur, and to render the pelt as supple as possible. Generally the skins are placed in an alkali bath, then by hand with a blunt wooden instrument the moisture of the pelt is worked out and it is drawn carefully to and fro over a straight, dull-edged knife to remove any superfluous flesh and unevenness. Special grease is then rubbed in and the skin placed in a machine which softly and continuously beats in the softening mixture, after which it is put into a slowly revolving drum, fitted with wooden paddles, partly filled with various kinds of fine hard sawdust according to the nature of the furs dealt with. This process with a moderate degree of heat thoroughly cleans it of external greasy matter, and all that is necessary before manufacturing is to gently tap the fur upon a leather cushion stuffed with horsehair with smooth canes of a flexibility suited to the strength of the fur. After dressing most skins alter in shape and decrease in size.

With regard to the merits of European dressing, it may be fairly taken that English, German and French dressers have specialities of excellence. In England, for instance, the dressing of sables, martens, foxes, otters, seals, bears, lions, tigers and leopards is first rate; while with skunk, mink, musquash, chinchillas, beavers, lambs and squirrels, the Germans show better results, particularly in the last. The pelt after the German dressing is dry, soft and white, which is due to a finishing process where meal is used, thus they compare favourably with the moister and consequently heavier English finish. In France they do well with cheaper skins, such as musquash, rabbit and hare, which they dye in addition to dressing. Russian dressing is seldom reliable; not only is there an unpleasant odour, but in damp weather the pelts often become clammy, which is due to the saline matter in the dressing mixture. Chinese dressing is white and supple, but contains much powder, which is disagreeable and difficult to get rid of, and in many instances the skin is rendered so thin that the roots of the fur are weakened, which means that it is liable to shed itself freely, when subject to ordinary friction in handling or wearing. American and Canadian dressing is gradually improving, but hitherto their results have been inferior to the older European methods.

In the case of seal and beaver skins the process is a much more difficult one, as the water or hard top hairs have to be removed by hand after the pelt has been carefully rendered moist and warm. With seal skins the process is longer than with any other fur preparation and the series of processes engage many specialists, each man being constantly kept upon one section of the work. The skins arrive simply salted. After being purchased at the auction sales they are washed, then stretched upon a hoop, when all blubber and unnecessary flesh is removed, and the pelt is reduced to an equal thickness, but not so thin as it is finally rendered. Subsequently the hard top hairs are taken out as in the case of otters and beavers and the whole thoroughly cleaned in the revolving drums. The close underwool, which is of a slightly wavy nature and mostly of a pale drab colour, is then dyed by repeated applications of a rich dark brown colour, one coat after another, each being allowed to thoroughly dry before the next is put on, till the effect is almost a lustrous black on the top. The whole is again put through the cleaning process and evenly reduced in thickness by revolving emery wheels, and eventually finished off in the palest buff colour.

The English dye for seals is to-day undoubtedly the best; its constituents are more or less of a trade secret, but the principal ingredients comprise gall nuts, copper dust, camphor and antimony, and it would appear after years of careful watching that the atmosphere and particularly the water of London are partly responsible for good and lasting results. The Paris dyers do excellent work in this direction, but the colour is not so durable, probably owing to a less pure water. In America of late, strides have been made in seal dyeing, but preference is still given to London work. In Paris, too, they obtain beautiful results in the "topping" or colouring Russian sables and the Germans are particularly successful in dyeing Persian lambs black and foxes in all blue, grey, black and smoke colours and in the insertion of white hairs in imitation of the real silver fox. Small quantities of good beaver are dyed in Russia occasionally, and white hairs put in so well that an effect similar to sea otter is obtained.

The process of inserting white hairs is called in the trade "pointing, "and is either done by stitching them in with a needle or by adhesive caoutchouc.

The Viennese are successful in dyeing marmot well, and their cleverness in colouring it with a series of stripes to represent the natural markings of sable which has been done after the garments have been made, so as to obtain symmetry of lines, has secured for them a large trade among the dealers of cheap furs in England and the continent.

_Manufacturing Methods and Specialities._--In the olden times the Skinners' Company of the city of London was an association of furriers and skin dressers established under royal charter granted by Edward III. At that period the chief concern of the body was to prevent buyers from being imposed upon by sellers who were much given to offering old furs as new; a century later the Skinners' Company received other charters empowering them to inspect not only warehouses and open markets, but workrooms. In 1667 they were given power to scrutinize the preparing of rabbit or cony wool for the wool trade and the registration of the then customary seven years' apprenticeship. To-day all these privileges and powers are in abeyance, and the interest that they took in the fur trade has been gradually transferred to the leather-dressing craft.

The work done by English furriers was generally good, but since about 1865 has considerably improved on account of the influx of German workmen, who have long been celebrated for excellent fur work, being In their own country obliged to satisfy officially appointed experts and to obtain a certificate of capacity before they can be there employed. The French influence upon the trade has been, and still is, primarily one of style and combination of colour, bad judgment in which will mar the beauty of the most valuable furs. It is a recognized law among high-class furriers that furs should be simply arranged, that is, that an article should consist of one fur or of two furs of a suitable contrast, to which lace may be in some cases added with advantage. As illustrative of this, it may be explained that any brown tone of fur such as sable, marten, mink, black marten, beaver, nutria, &c., will go well upon black or very dark-brown furs, while those of a white or grey nature, such as ermine, white lamb, chinchilla, blue fox, silver fox, opossum, grey squirrel, grey lamb, will set well upon seal or black furs, as Persian lamb, broadtail, astrachan, caracul lamb, &c. White is also permissible upon some light browns and greys, but brown motley colours and greys should never be in contrast. One neutralizes the other and the effect is bad. The qualities, too have to be considered--the fulness of one, the flatness of the other, or the coarseness or fineness of the furs. The introduction of a third fur in the same garment or indiscriminate selection of colours of silk linings, braids, buttons, &c., often spoils an otherwise good article.

With regard to the natural colours of furs, the browns that command the highest prices are those that are of a bluish rather than a reddish tendency. With greys it is those that are bluish, not yellow, and with white those that are purest, and with black the most dense, that are most esteemed and that are the rarest.

Perhaps for ingenuity and the latest methods of manipulating skins in the manufacturing of furs the Americans lead the way, but as fur cutters are more or less of a roving and cosmopolitan character the larger fur businesses in London, Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg, Paris and New York are guided by the same thorough and comparatively advanced principles.

During the period just mentioned the tailors' methods of scientific pattern cutting have been adopted by the leading furriers in place of the old chance methods of fur cutters, so that to-day a fur garment may be as accurately and gracefully fitted as plush or velvet, and with all good houses a material pattern is fitted and approved before the skins are cut.

Through the advent of German and American fur sewing-machines since about 1890 fur work has been done better and cheaper. There are, however, certain parts of a garment, such as the putting in of sleeves and placing on of collars, &c., that can only be sewn by hand. For straight seams the machines are excellent, making as neat a seam as is found in glove work, unless, of course, the pelts are especially heavy, such as bears and sheep rugs.

A very great feature of German and Russian work is the fur linings called rotondes, sacques or plates, which are made for their home use and exportation chiefly to Great Britain, America and France.

In Weissenfels, near Leipzig, the dressing of Russian grey squirrel and the making it into linings is a gigantic industry, and is the principal support of the place. After the dressing process the backs of the squirrels are made up separately from the under and thinner white and grey parts, the first being known as squirrel-back and the other as squirrel-lock linings. A few linings are made from entire skins and others are made from the quite white pieces, which in some instances are spotted with the black ear tips of the animals to resemble ermine. The smaller and uneven pieces of heads and legs are made up into linings, so there is absolutely no waste. Similar work is done in Russia on almost as extensive a scale, but neither the dressing nor the work is so good as the German.

The majority of heads, gills or throats, sides or flanks, paws and pieces of skins cut up in the fur workshops of Great Britain, America and France, weighing many tons, are chiefly exported to Leipzig, and made up in neighbouring countries and Greece, where labour can be obtained at an alarmingly low rate. Although the sewing, which is necessarily done by hand, the sections being of so unequal and tortuous a character, is rather roughly executed, the matching of colours and qualities is excellent. The enormous quantities of pieces admit of good selection and where odd colours prevail in a lining it is dyed. Many squirrel-lock linings are dyed blue and brown and used for the outside of cheap garments. They are of little weight, warm and effective, but not of great durability.

The principal linings are as follows: Sable sides, sable heads and paws, sable gills, mink sides, heads and gills, marten sides, heads and gills, Persian lamb pieces and paws, caracul lamb pieces or paws, musquash sides and heads, nutria sides, genet pieces, raccoon sides or flanks, fox sides, kolinski whole skins, and small rodents as kaluga and hamster. The white stripes cut out of skunks are made into rugs.

Another great source of inexpensive furs is China, and for many years past enormous quantities of dressed furs, many of which are made up in the form of linings and Chinese loose-shaped garments, have been imported by England, Germany and France for the lower class of business; the garments are only regarded as so much fur and are reworked. With, however, the exception of the best white Tibet lambs, the majority of Chinese furs can only be regarded as inferior material. While the work is often cleverly done as to matching and manipulation of the pelt which is very soft, there are great objections in the odour and the brittleness or weakness of the fur. One of the most remarkable results of the European intervention in the Boxer rising in China (1900) was the absurd price paid for so-called "loot" of furs, particularly in mandarins' coats of dyed and natural fox skins and pieces, and natural ermine, poor in quality and yellowish in colour; from three to ten times their value was paid for them when at the same time huge parcels of similar quality were warehoused in the London docks, because purchasers could not be found for them.

With regard to Japanese furs, there is little to commend them. The best are a species of raccoon usually sold as fox, and, being of close long quality of fur, they are serviceable for boas, collars, muffs and carriage aprons. The sables, martens, minks and otters are poor in quality, and all of a very yellow colour and they are generally dyed for the cheap trade. A small number of very pretty guanaco and vicuna carriage rugs are imported into Europe, and many come through travellers and private sources, but generally they are so badly dressed that they are quite brittle upon the leather side. Similar remarks are applicable to opossum rugs made in Australia. From South Africa a quantity of jackal, hyena, fox, leopard and sheep karosses, i.e. a peculiarly shaped rug or covering used by native chiefs, is privately brought over. The skins are invariably tanned and beautifully sewn, the furs are generally flat in quality and not very strong in the hair, and are retained' more as curiosities than for use as a warm covering.

_Hatters' Furs and Cloths and Shawls._--The hat trade is largely interested in the fur piece trade, the best felt hats being made from beaver and musquash wool and the cheaper sorts from nutria, hare and rabbit wools. For weaving, the most valuable pieces are mohair taken from the angora and vicuna. They are limited in quantity and costly, and the trade depends upon various sorts of other sheep and goat wools for the bulk of its productions.

_Frauds and Imitations._--The opportunities for cheating in the fur trade are very considerable, and most serious frauds have been perpetrated in the selling of sables that have been coloured or "topped"; that is, just the tips of the hairs stained dark to represent more expensive skins. It is only by years of experience that some of these colourings can be detected. Where the skins are heavily dyed it is comparatively easy to see the difference between a natural and a dyed colour, as the underwool and top hair become almost alike and the leather is also dark, whereas in natural skins the base of the underwool is much paler than the top, or of a different colour, and the leather Is white unless finished in a pale reddish tone as is sometimes the case when mahogany sawdust is used in the final cleaning. As has been explained, sable is a term applied for centuries past to the darker sorts of the Russian Siberian martens, and for years past the same term has been bestowed by the retail trade upon the American and Canadian martens. The baum and stone martens caught in France, the north of Turkey and Norway are of the same family, but coarser in underwool and the top hair is less in quantity and not so silky. The kolinski, or as it is sometimes styled Tatar sable, is the animal, the tail of which supplies hair for artists' brushes. This is also of the marten species and has been frequently offered, when dyed dark, as have baum and stone martens, as Russian sables. Hares, too, are dyed a sable colour and advertised as sable. The fur, apart from a clumsy appearance, is so brittle, however, as to be of scarcely any service whatever.

Among the principal imitations of other furs is musquash, out of which the top hair has been pulled and the undergrowth of wool clipped and dyed exactly the same colour as is used for seal, which is then offered as seal or red river seal. Its durability, however, is far less than that of seal. Rabbit is prepared and dyed and frequently offered as "electric sealskin." Nutria also is prepared to represent sealskin, and in its natural colour, after the long hairs are plucked out, it is sold as otter or beaver. The wool is, however, poor compared to the otter and beaver, and the pelt thin and in no way comparable to them in strength. White hares are frequently sold as white fox, but the fur is weak, brittle and exceedingly poor compared to fox and possesses no thick underwool. Foxes, too, and badger are dyed a brownish black, and white hairs inserted to imitate silver fox, but the white hairs are too coarse and the colour too dense to mislead any one who knows the real article. But if sold upon its own merits, pointed fox is a durable fur.

Garments made of sealskin pieces and Persian lamb pieces are frequently sold as if they were made of solid skins, the term "pieces" being simply suppressed. The London Chamber of Commerce have issued to the British trade a notice that any misleading term in advertising and all attempts at deception are illegal, and offenders are liable under the Merchandise Marks Act 1887.

The most usual misnaming of manufactured furs is as follow:--

Musquash, pulled and dyed Sold as seal.
Nutria, pulled and dyed Sold as seal.
Nutria, pulled and natural Sold as beaver.
Rabbit, sheared and dyed Sold as seal or electric seal.
Otter, pulled and dyed Sold as seal.
Marmot, dyed Sold as mink or sable.
Fitch, dyed Sold as sable.
Rabbit, dyed Sold as sable or French sable.
Hare, dyed Sold as sable, or fox, or lynx.
Musquash, dyed Sold as mink or sable.
Wallaby, dyed Sold as skunk.
White Rabbit Sold as ermine.
White Rabbit, dyed Sold as chinchilla.
White Hare, dyed or natural Sold as fox, foxaline, and
other similar names.
Goat, dyed Sold as bear, leopard, &c.
Dyed manufactured articles of
all kinds Sold as "natural."
White hairs inserted in foxes
and sables Sold as real or natural furs.
Kids Sold as lamb or broadtails.
American sable Sold as real Russian sable.
Mink Sold as sable.

_The Preservation of Furs._--For many years raw sealskins have been preserved in cold storage, but it is only within a recent period, owing to the difficulty there was in obtaining the necessary perfectly dry atmosphere, that dressed and made-up furs have been preserved by freezing. Furs kept in such a condition are not only immune from the ravages of the larvae of moth, but all the natural oils in the pelt and fur are conserved, so that its colour and life are prolonged, and the natural deterioration is arrested. Sunlight has a tendency to bleach furs and to encourage the development of moth eggs, therefore continued exposure is to be avoided. When furs are wetted by rain they should be well shaken and allowed to dry in a current of air without exposure to sun or open fire.

Where a freezing store for furs is not accessible, furs should be well shaken and afterwards packed in linen and kept in a perfectly cool dry place, and examined in the summer at periods of not less than five weeks. Naphthalene and the usual malodorous powders are not only very disagreeable, but quite useless. Any chemical that is strong enough to destroy the life in a moth egg would also be sufficiently potent to injure the fur itself. In England moth life is practically continuous all the year round, that is, as regards those moths that attack furs, though the destructive element exists to a far greater extent during spring and summer.

_Comparative Durability of Various Furs and Weight of Unlined Skins
per Square Foot._

The following estimates of durability refer to the use of fur when
made up "hair outside" in garments or stoles, not as a lining. The
durability of fur used as linings, which is affected by other
conditions, is set forth separately. Otter, with its water hairs
removed, the strongest of furs for external use, is, in this table,
taken as the standard at 100 and other furs marked accordingly:--

_The Precious Furs._

+---------------------------------------+-------------+------------+
| | Points of | [2]Weight |
| | Durability. | in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+---------------------------------------+-------------+------------+
| Sable | 60 | 2-1/2 |
| Sea | 75 | 3 |
| Fox, Silver or Black | 40 | 3 |
| " White | 20 | 3 |
| Ermine | 25 | 1-1/4 |
| Chinchilla | 15 | 1-1/2 |
| Sea-otter (for stoles or collars) | 100 | 4-1/4 |
+---------------------------------------+-------------+------------+

_The Less Valuable Furs._

+----------------------------------------+-------------+------------+
| | Points of | Weight |
| | Durability. | in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+----------------------------------------+-------------+------------+
| Sable "topped," i.e. top hairs coloured| 55 | 2-1/2 |
| " tinted, i.e. fur all coloured. | 50 | 2-1/2 |
| Baum Marten, natural | 65 | 2-3/4 |
| " " tinted | 45 | 2-3/4 |
| Stone Marten | 40 | 2-3/4 |
| Nutria | 27 | 3-1/4 |
| Musquash, natural | 37 | 3-1/4 |
| " water hairs removed, sheared | | |
| and seal finished. | 33 | 3-1/4 |
| Skunk | 70 | 2-3/4 |
| Mink | 70 | 3-1/4 |
| Lynx, natural | 25 | 2-3/4 |
| " tinted black | 20 | 2-3/4 |
| Marmot, tinted | 10 | 3 |
| Fox, tinted black | 25 | 3 |
| " " blue | 20 | 3 |
| Opossum | 37 | 3 |
| Otter (with water hairs) | 100 | 4 |
| " (water hairs removed) | 95 | 3-15/16 |
| Beaver (water hairs cut level with fur)| 90 | 4 |
| " (water hairs removed). | 85 | 3-15/16 |
| Moleskin | 7 | 1-3/4 |
| Persian Lamb | 65 | 3-1/4 |
| Grey " | 30 | 3-1/4 |
| Broadtail | 15 | 2-1/4 |
| Caracul Kid | 10 | 3-1/4 |
| " Lamb | 15 | 3-1/4 |
| Squirrel | 25 | 1-3/4 |
| Hare | 5 | 1-3/4 |
| Rabbit | 5 | 2-1/4 |
+----------------------------------------+-------------+------------+

_Quantities of Fur needed, in Square Feet._

The "Paris Model" figure is the basis of these estimates for ladies'
garments, the standard measurements being height 5 ft. 6 in., waist 23
in., bust 38 in.

Sq. Ft.
(approximate).

Straight stole 1/2 length (just below the waist line) 2-3/4
Straight stole 3/4 length (just below the knee) 3-3/4
Stole, broad enough at the neck to cover the top of
arm 3/4 length 5
The same, full length (to hem of skirt) 6
Eton jacket, without collar 13
Plain cape, 15 in. long 6-1/2
Deep cape, 30 in. long 15
Full cape with broad stole front, 3/4 length 15
Inverness cape (to knee) 25
Double-breasted, straight, semi-fitting coat, covering
hips 16
Double-breasted sacque jacket, 36 in. long, full sleeves 20
Same, 30 in. long 18
Same, 22 in. long 15
Long, full, shawl cape with points at back and front,
well below knee 15
Shorter shawl cape 16
Motoring or driving coat, 3/4 length 22
Motoring or driving coat, full length 27

_Weight and Durability of Furs for Men's Coat Linings._

Otter with the water hairs removed, the strongest fur suited for
linings, is here taken as the standard.

+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Points of | Weight |
| |Durability.| in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| Otter (the water hairs removed) | 100 | 3-15/16 |
| Beaver " " | 90 | 3-15/16 |
| Mink | 90 | 3-1/4 |
| Sealskin | 75 | 3 |
| Raccoon | 75 | 4-1/2 |
| Persian lamb or astrachan | 70 | 3-1/4 |
| Sable | 65 | 2-1/2 |
| Musquash | 55 | 3-1/2 |
| Nutria | 40 | 3-1/4 |
| Grey Opossum | 40 | 3 |
| Wallaby | 30 | 3-3/4 |
| Squirrel | 30 | 1-3/4 |
| Hamster | 15 | 1-1/4 |
| Rabbit | 10 | 2-1/4 |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+

_Durability and Weight of Linings for Ladies' Coats or Wraps._

Sable gills, the strongest fur suited for ladies' linings, is taken as
the standard.

+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Points of | Weight |
| |Durability.| in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| Sable gills | 100 | 2-7/8 |
| Sable | 85 | 2-1/2 |
| Sable paws | 64 | 1-5/8 |
| Ermine | 57 | 1-1/4 |
| Squirrel back | 50 | 1-3/4 |
| Squirrel heads | 36 | 2-1/2 |
| Squirrel lock | 21 | 1-3/16 |
| Hamster | 10 | 1-1/4 |
| Rabbit | 7 | 2-1/4 |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-------------+

_Durability and Weight of Motoring Furs made up with Fur outside._

Otter with the water hairs, the strongest fur suited for motoring
garments, is taken as the standard.

+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Points of | Weight |
| |Durability.| in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| Otter (with water hairs) | 100 | 4 |
| Sealskin, marble | 80 | 3 |
| "Hair Sealskin" (tinted) with water | | |
| hairs (a special variety of seal) | 75 | 3-1/4 |
| Raccoon | 65 | 4-1/2 |
| Russian Pony | 35 | 2-5/8 |
+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+

_Durability and Weight of Furs for Rugs and Foot-sacks._

+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Points of | Weight |
| |Durability.| in oz. per |
| | | sq. ft. |
+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| Wolverine | 100 | 6 |
| Bear (black or brown natural) | 94 | 7 |
| Bear (tinted black) | 88 | 7-1/2 |
| Beaver | 88 | 4 |
| Raccoon | 77 | 4-1/2 |
| Opossum | 61 | 3 |
| Wolf | 50 | 6-1/2 |
| Jackal | 27 | 4-1/2 |
| Australian Bear | 16 | 6 |
| Goat | 11 | 4-1/6 |
+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------+

Wolverine, the strongest fur suited for rugs and foot-sacks, is taken
as the standard.

For a rug about 20 to 25 sq. ft. of fur are needed, for a foot-sack
14-1/2. (W. S. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The measurements given are from nose to root of tail of average
large sizes after the dressing process, which has a shrinking
tendency. The depths of fur quoted are the greatest, but there are
plenty of good useful skins possessing a lesser depth.

[2] Stout, old-fashioned boxcloth is almost the only cloth that
(after a soft, heavy lining has been added to it) affords even
two-thirds as much protection against cold as does fur. It weighs
4.273 oz. per sq. ft. more than the heaviest of coat-furs, and is so
rigid as to be uncomfortable, while the subtileness of fur makes it
"kind" to the body.

FURAZANES (_furo_--a.a'--_diazoles_), organic compounds obtained by heating the glyoximes (dioximes of ortho-diketones) with alkalis or ammonia. Dimethylfurazane is prepared by heating dimethylglyoxime with excess of ammonia for six hours at 165 deg. C. (L. Wolff, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 70). It is a liquid (at ordinary temperature) which boils at 156 deg. C. (744 mm.). Potassium permanganate oxidizes it first to methylfurazane-carboxylic acid and then to furazanedicarboxylic acid. Methyl-ethylfurazane and diphenylfurazane are also known. By warming oxyfurazane acetic acid with excess of potassium permanganate to 100 deg. C. oxyfurazanecarboxylic acid is obtained (A. Hantzsch and J. Urbahn, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 764). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 175 deg. C. Furazanecarboxylic acid is prepared by the action of a large excess of potassium permanganate on a hot solution of furazanepropionic acid. It melts at 107 deg. C, and dissolves in caustic soda, with a deep yellow colour and formation of nitrosocyanacetic acid (L. Wolff and P.F. Ganz, _Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 1167). Furoxane is an oxide of furazane, considered by H. Wieland to be identical with glyoxime peroxide; Kekules dibromnitroacetonitrile is dibromfuroxane.

The formulae of the compounds above mentioned are:

HC:N\ CH3.C:N\ HC:N\ HC--CH \
. O . O . O .. . O
HC:N/ CH3.C:N/ HO2C.C:N/ N.O.N /

Furazane. Dimethyl- Furazanecarboxylic Furoxane.
furazane. acid.

FURETIERE, ANTOINE (1619-1688), French scholar and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris on the 28th of December 1619. He first studied law, and practised for a time as an advocate, but eventually took orders and after various preferments became abbe of Chalivoy in the diocese of Bourges in 1662. In his leisure moments he devoted himself to letters, and in virtue of his satires--_Nouvelle Allegorique, ou histoire des derniers troubles arrives au royaume d'eloquence_ (1658); _Voyage de Mercure_ (1653)--he was admitted a member of the French Academy in 1662. That learned body had long promised a complete dictionary of the French tongue; and when they heard that Furetiere was on the point of issuing a work of a similar nature, they interfered, alleging that he had purloined from their stores, and that they possessed the exclusive privilege of publishing such a book. After much bitter recrimination on both sides the offender was expelled in 1685; but for this act of injustice he took a severe revenge in his satire, _Couches de l'academie_ (Amsterdam, 1687). His _Dictionnaire universel_ was posthumously published in 1690 (Rotterdam, 2 vols.). It was afterwards revised and improved by the Protestant jurist, Henri Basnage de Beauval (1656-1710), who published his edition (3 vols.) in 1701; and it was only superseded by the compilation known as the _Dictionnaire de Trevoux_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1704; 7th ed., 8 vols., 1771), which was in fact little more than a reimpression of Basnage's edition. Furetiere is perhaps even better known as the author of _Le Roman bourgeois_ (1666). It cast ridicule on the fashionable romances of Mlle de Scudery and of La Calprenede, and is of interest as descriptive of the ~~ everyday life of his times. There is no element of burlesque, as in Scarron's _Roman comique_, but the author contents himself with stringing together a number of episodes and portraits, obviously drawn from life, without much attempt at sequence. The book was edited in 1854 by Edward Fournier and Charles Asselineau and by P. Jannet.

The _Fureteriana_, which appeared in Paris eight years after
Furetiere's death, which took place on the 14th of May 1688, is a
collection of but little value.

FURFOOZ, a village some 10 m. from Dinant in the Ardennes, Belgium. Three caves containing prehistoric remains were here excavated in 1872. Of these the _Trou de Frontal_ is the most famous. In it were found human skeletons with brachycephalic skulls, associated with animal bones, those of the reindeer being particularly plentiful. Among the skeletons was discovered an oval vase of pottery. The Furfooz type of mankind is believed to date from the close of the Quaternary age. G. de Mortillet dates the type in the Robenhausen epoch of the Neolithic period. His theory is that the bones are those of men of that period buried in what had been a cave-dwelling of the Madelenian epoch.

FURFURANE, or FURANE, C4H4O, a colourless liquid boiling at 32 deg. C., found in the distillation products of pine wood. It was first synthetically prepared by H. Limpricht (_Ann._, 1873, 165, p. 281) by distilling barium mucate with soda lime, pyromucic acid C4H3O.CO2H being formed, which, on further loss of carbon dioxide, yielded furfurane. A. Henniger (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1886 [2], 7, p. 220), by distilling erthyrite with formic acid, obtained a dihydrofurfurane

C4H6(OH)4 + 2H2CO2 = C4H6O + CO+CO2 + 4H2O,

which, on treatment with phosphorus pentachloride, yielded furfurane. Furfurane is insoluble in water and possesses a characteristic smell. It does not react with sodium or with phenylhydrazine, but yields dye-stuffs with isatin and phenanthrenequinone. It reacts violently with hydrochloric acid, producing a brown amorphous substance. Methyl and phenyl derivatives have been prepared by C. Paal (_Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 915). Paal prepared acetonyl acetophenone by condensing sodium acetoacetate with phenacylbromide, and this substance on dehydration yields [alpha][alpha]'-phenylmethylfurfurane, the acetonyl acetophenone probably reacting in the tautomeric "enolic" form,

CH3.CO.CHNa.COOR + C6H5.CO.CH2Br = CH3.CO.CH(CH2COC6H5).COOR.

This ester readily hydrolyses, and the acid formed yields acetonyl acetophenone (by loss of carbon dioxide), which then on dehydration yields the furfurane derivative, thus

CH--CH CH--CH
// \\ // \\
CH3.C C.C6H5 = H2O + CH3.C C.C6H5.
\ / \___ ___/
OH OH O

L. Knorr (_Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 158) obtained diacetosuccinic ester by condensing sodium acetoacetate with iodine, and by dehydrating the ester he prepared [alpha][alpha]'-dimethylfurfurane [beta][beta]'-dicarboxylic acid (carbopyrotritaric acid), which on distillation yields [alpha][alpha]'-dimethylfurfurane as a liquid boiling at 94 deg. C. Paal also obtained this compound by using monochloracetone in the place of phenacylbromide. By the distillation of mucic acid or isosaccharic acid, furfurane-[alpha]-carboxylic acid (pyromucic acid), C4H3O.CO2H, is obtained; it crystallizes in needles or leaflets, and melts at 134 deg. C.

_Furfurol_ (furol), C4H3O.CHO, is the aldehyde of pyromucic acid, and is formed on distilling bran, sugar, wood and most carbohydrates with dilute sulphuric acid, or by distilling the pentoses with hydrochloric acid. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 162 deg. C., and is moderately soluble in water; it turns brown on exposure to air and has a characteristic aromatic smell. It shows all the usual properties of an aldehyde, forming a bisulphite compound, an oxime and a hydrazone; whilst it can be reduced to the corresponding furfuryl alcohol by means of sodium amalgam, and oxidized to pyromucic acid by means of silver oxide. It also shows all the condensation reactions of benzaldehyde (q.v.); condensing with aldehydes and ketones in the presence of caustic soda to form more complex aldehydes and ketones with unsaturated side chains, such as furfuracrolein, C4H3O.CH:CH.CHO, and furfuracetone, C4H3O.CH:CH.CO.CH3. With alcoholic potassium cyanide It changes to furoin, C4H3O.CHOH.CO.C4H3O, which can be oxidized to furil, C4H3O.CO.CO.C4H3O, whilst alcoholic potash converts it into furfuryl alcohol. With fatty acids and acid anhydrides it gives the "Perkin" reaction (see CINNAMIC ACID). Furfurol is shown to have its aldehydic group in the a position, by conversion into furfurpropionic acid, C4H3O.CH2.CH2.CO2H, which on oxidation by bromine water and subsequent reduction of the oxidized product is converted into n-pimelic acid, HO2C(CH2)5CO2H. Furfurol in minute quantities can be detected by the red colour it forms with a solution of aniline acetate.

Furfurane--[alpha][alpha]'-dicarboxylic acid or dehydromucic acid,
C4H2O(CO2H)2, is formed when mucic acid is heated with hydrochloric
acid at 100 deg. C. On being heated, it loses carbon dioxide and gives
pyromucic acid. By digesting acetoacetic ester with sodium succinate
and acetic anhydride, methronic acid, C8H8O5, is obtained; for the
constitution of this acid, see L. Knorr, _Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 152, and
R. Fittig, Ann., 1889, 259, p. 166.

Di- and tetrahydrofurfurane compounds are also known (see A. Lipp,
Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1196; W.H. Perkin, junr. _Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1899,
57, p. 944; and S. Ruhemann, ibid., 1896, 69, p. 1383).

FURIES (Lat. _Furiae_, also called DIRAE), in Roman mythology an adaptation of the Greek Erinyes (q.v.), with whom they are generally identical. A special aspect of them in Virgil is that of agents employed by the higher gods to stir up mischief, strife and hatred upon earth. Mention may here be made of an old Italian deity Furina (or Furrina), whose worship fell early into disuse, and who was almost forgotten in the time of Varro. By the mythologists of Cicero's time the name was connected with the verb _furere_ and the noun _furia_, which in the plural (not being used in the singular in this sense) was accepted as the equivalent of the Greek Erinyes. But it is more probably related to _furvus_, _fuscus_, and signifies one of the spirits of darkness, who watched over men's lives and haunted their abodes. This goddess had her own special priest, a grove across the Tiber where Gaius Gracchus was slain, and a festival on the 25th of July. Authorities differ as to the existence of more than one goddess called Furina, and their identity with the Forinae mentioned in two inscriptions found at Rome (_C.I.L._ vi. 422 and 10,200).

FURLONG (from the O. Eng. _furlang_, i.e. "furrow-long"), a measure of length, originally the length of a furrow in the "common field" system. As the field in this system was generally taken to be a square, 10 acres in extent, and as the acre varied in different districts and at different times, the "furlong" also varied. The side of a square containing 10 statute acres is 220 yds. or 40 poles, which was the usually accepted length of the furlong. This is also the length of {1/8}th of the statute mile. "Furlong" was as early as the 9th century used to translate the Latin _stadium_, 1/8th of the Roman mile.

FURNACE, a contrivance for the production and utilization of heat by the combustion of fuel. The word is common to all the Romance tongues, appearing in more or less modified forms of the Latin _fornax_. But in all those languages the word has a more extended meaning than in English, as it covers every variety of heating apparatus; while here, in addition to furnaces proper, we distinguish other varieties as _ovens_, _stoves_ and _kilns_. The first of these, in the form _Ofen_, is used in German as a general term like the French _four_; but in English it has been restricted to those apparatus in which only a moderate temperature, usually below a red heat, is produced in a close chamber. Our bakers' ovens, hot-air ovens or stoves, annealing ovens for glass or metal, &c., would all be called _fours_ in French and _Ofen_ in German, in common with furnaces of all kinds. Stove, an equivalent of oven, is from the German _Stube_, i.e. a heated room, and is commonly so understood; but is also applied to open fire-places, which appears to be somewhat of a departure from the original signification.

Furnaces are constructed according to many different patterns with varying degrees of complexity in arrangement; but all may be considered as combining three essential parts, namely, the fire-place in which the fuel is consumed, the heated chamber, laboratory, hearth or working bed, as it is variously called, where the heat is applied to the special work for which the furnace is designed, and the apparatus for producing rapid combustion by the supply of air under pressure to the fire. In the simplest cases the functions of two or more of these parts may be combined into one, as in the smith's forge, where the fire-place and heating chamber are united, the iron being placed among the coals, only the air for burning being supplied under pressure from a blowing engine by a second special contrivance, the tuyere, tuiron, twyer or blast-pipe; but in the more refined modern furnaces, where great economy of fuel is an object, the different functions are distributed over separate and distinct apparatus, the fuel being converted into gas in one, dried in another, and heated in a third, before arriving at the point of combustion in the working chamber of the furnace proper.

Furnaces may be classified according as the products of combustion are
employed (1) only for heating purposes, or (2) both for heating and
bringing about some chemical change. The furnaces employed for
steam-raising or for heating buildings are invariably of the first
type (see BOILER and HEATING), while those employed in metallurgy are
generally of the second. The essential difference in construction is
that in the first class the substances heated do not come into contact
with either the fuel or the furnace gases, whereas in the second they
do. Metallurgical furnaces of the first class are termed crucible,
muffle or retort furnaces, and of the second shaft and reverberatory
furnaces. The following is a detailed subdivision:--

(1) Fuel and substance in contact.
(a) Height of furnace greater than diameter = shaft furnaces.
([alpha]) No blast = kilns.
([beta]) With blast = blast furnaces.
(b) Height not much greater than diameter = hearth furnaces.

(2) Substance heated by products of combustion = reverberatory
furnaces.
(a) Charge not melted = roasting or calcining furnaces.
(b) Charge melted = melting furnaces.

(3) Substance is not directly heated by the fuel or by the products
of combustion.
(a) Heating chamber fixed and forming part of furnace = muffle
furnaces.
(b) Crucible furnaces.
(c) Retort furnaces.

Another classification may be based upon the nature of the heating agent, according as it is coal (or some similar combustible) oil, gas or electricity. In this article the general principles of metallurgical furnaces will be treated; the subject of gas- and oil-heated furnaces is treated in the article Fuel, and of the electric furnace in the article Electrometallurgy. For special furnaces reference should be made to the articles on the industry concerned, e.g. GLASS, GAS, S MANUFACTURE, &c.

_Shaft, Blast and Hearth Furnaces._--The blast furnace in its simplest form is among the oldest, if not the oldest, of metallurgical contrivances. In the old copper-smelting district of Arabia Petraea, clay blast-pipes dating back to the earlier dynasties of ancient Egypt have been found buried in slag heaps; and in India the native smiths and iron-workers continue to use furnaces of similar types. These, when reduced to their most simple expression, are mere basin-shaped hollows in the ground, containing ignited charcoal and the substances to be heated, the fire being urged by a blast of air blown in through one or more nozzles from a bellows at or near the top. They are essentially the same as the smith's forge. This class of furnace is usually known as an open fire or hearth, and is represented in a more advanced stage of development by the Catalan, German and Walloon forges formerly used in the production of malleable iron.