Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

The _drupe_ is a succulent usually one-seeded indehiscent fruit, with
a pericarp easily distinguishable into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
This term is applied to such fruits as the cherry (fig. 5), peach,
plum, apricot or mango. The endocarp is usually hard, forming the
stone (putamen) of the fruit, which encloses the kernel or seed. The
mesocarp is generally pulpy and succulent, so as to be truly a
sarcocarp, as in the peach, but it is sometimes of a tough texture, as
in the almond, and at other times is more or less fibrous, as in the
coco-nut. In the almond there are often two ovules formed, only one of
which comes to perfection. In the raspberry and bramble several small
drupes or _drupels_ are aggregated so as to constitute an _etaerio_.

The _follicle_ is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from one
carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture. It is rare to meet with a
solitary follicle forming the fruit. There are usually several
aggregated together, either in a whorl on a shortened receptacle, as
in hellebore, aconite, larkspur, columbine (figs. 27, 28) or the order
Crassulaceae, or in a spiral manner on an elongated receptacle, as in
_Magnolia_ and _Banksia_. Occasionally, follicles dehisce by the
dorsal suture, as in _Magnolia grandiflora_ and _Banksia_.

FIG. 27.--Fruit of Columbine (_Aquilegia_), formed of five
follicles.

FIG. 28.--Single follicle, showing dehiscence by the ventral suture.

FIG. 29.--Transverse section of berry of Gooseberry, showing the
seeds attached to the parietal placentas and immersed in pulp, which
is formed partly from the endocarp, partly from the seed-coat.

FIG. 30.--Section of the fruit of the Apple (_Pyrus Malus_), or
pome, consisting of a fleshy covering formed by the floral
receptacle and the true fruit or core with five cavities with
seeds.]

The _legume_ or _pod_ is a dry monocarpellary unilocular many-seeded
fruit, formed from one carpel, dehiscing both by the ventral and the
dorsal suture. It characterizes leguminous plants, as the bean and pea
(fig. 8). In the bladder-senna it forms an inflated legume. In some
Leguminosae, as _Arachis_, _Cathartocarpus Fistula_ and the tamarind,
the fruit must be considered a legume, although it does not dehisce.
The first of these plants produces its fruit underground, and is
called earth-nut; the second has a partitioned legume and is
schizocarpic; and both the second and third have pulpy matter
surrounding the seeds. Some legumes are schizocarpic by the formation
of constrictions externally. Such a form is the _lomentum_ or
_lomentaceous legume_ of _Hedysarum_ (fig. 17), _Coronilla_,
_Ornithopus_, _Entada_ and of some Acacias. In _Medicago_ the legume
~~ is twisted like a snail, and in _Caesalpinia coriaria_, or
Divi-divi, it is vermiform or curved like a worm. Sometimes the number
of seeds is reduced, as in _Erythrina monosperma_ and _Geoffroya
superba_, which are one-seeded, and in _Pterocarpus_ and _Dalbergia_,
which are two-seeded.

The _berry_ (_bacca_) is a term applied generally to all fruits with
seeds immersed in pulp, and includes fruits of very various origin. In
_Actaea_ (baneberry) or _Berberis_ (barberry) it is derived from a
single free carpel; generally, however, it is the product of a
syncarpous ovary, which is superior, as in grape or potato, or
inferior, as in gooseberry (fig. 29) or currant. In the pomegranate
there is a peculiar baccate many-celled inferior fruit, having a tough
rind, enclosing two rows of carpels placed one above the other. The
seeds are immersed in pulp, and are attached irregularly to the wall,
base and centre of the loculi. In the baobab there is a multilocular
syncarpous fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in pulp.

The _pepo_, another indehiscent syncarpous fruit, is illustrated by
the fruit of the gourd, melon (fig. 31) and other Cucurbitaceae. It is
formed of three carpels, surmounted by the calyx; the rind is thick
and fleshy, and there are three or more seed-bearing parietal
placentas, either surrounding a central cavity or prolonged inwards
into it. The fruit of the papaw resembles the pepo, but the calyx is
not superior.

The _hesperidium_ is the name given to such indehiscent fleshy
syncarpous fruits as the orange, lemon and shaddock, in which the
epicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the endocarp sends
prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, to the inner
angle of which the seeds are attached, pulpy cells being developed
around them from the wall. Both pepo and hesperidium may be considered
as modifications of the berry.

The _pome_ (fig. 30), seen in the apple, pear, quince, medlar and
hawthorn, is a fleshy indehiscent syncarpous fruit, in the formation
of which the receptacle takes part. The outer succulent part is the
swollen receptacle, the horny core being the true fruit developed from
the usually five carpels and enclosing the seeds. In the medlar the
core (or true pericarp) is of a stony hardness, while the outer
succulent covering is open at the summit. The pome somewhat resembles
the fruit of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent receptacle
surrounds a number of separate achenes.

The name _capsule_ is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits,
which dehisce by valves. It may thus be unilocular or multilocular,
one- or many-seeded. The true valvular capsule is observed in
_Colchicum_ (fig. 9), lily and iris (fig. 11). The _porose capsule_ is
seen in the poppy (fig. 7), _Antirrhinum_ and _Campanula_. In
_Campanula_ the pores occur at the base of the capsule, which becomes
inverted when ripe. When the capsule opens by a lid, or by
circumscissile dehiscence, it is called a _pyxidium_, as in pimpernel
(_Anagallis arvensis_) (fig. 16), henbane and monkey-pot (_Lecythis_).
The capsule assumes a screw-like form in _Helicteres_, and a star-like
form in star-anise (_Illicium anisatum_). In certain instances the
cells of the capsule separate from each other, and open with
elasticity to scatter the seeds. This kind of capsule is met with in
the sandbox tree (_Hura crepitans_) and other Euphorbiaceae, where the
cocci, containing each a single seed, burst asunder with force; and in
Geraniaceae, where the cocci, each containing, when mature, usually
one seed, separate from the carpophore, become curved upwards by their
adherent styles, and open by the ventral suture (fig. 18).

The _siliqua_ is a dry syncarpous bilocular many-seeded fruit, formed
from two carpels, with a false septum, dehiscing by two valves from
below upwards, the valves separating from the placentas and leaving
them united by the septum (fig. 32). The seeds are attached on both
sides of the septum, either in one row or in two. When the fruit is
long and narrow it is a _siliqua_ (fig. 14); when broad and short,
_silicula_ (fig. 33). It occurs in cruciferous plants, as wallflower,
cabbage and cress. In _Glaucium_ and _Eschscholtzia_ (Papaveraceae)
the dissepiment is of a spongy nature. It may become transversely
constricted (_lomentaceous_), as in radish (_Raphanus_) and sea-kale,
and it may be reduced, as in woad (_Isatis_), to a one-seeded
condition.

It sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as to
form a double fruit (_syncarp_). This may be seen in many species of
honeysuckle. But the fruits which are now to be considered consist
usually of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of several
flowers united into one, and are called _multiple_ or _confluent_. The
term _anthocarpous_ has also been applied as indicating that the
floral envelopes as well as the carpels are concerned in the formation
of the fruit.

The _sorosis_ is a succulent multiple fruit formed by the confluence
of a spike of flowers, as in the fruit of the pine-apple (fig. 34),
the bread-fruit and jack-fruit. Similarly the fruit of the mulberry
represents a catkin-like inflorescence.

The _syconus_ is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the receptacle
completely encloses numerous flowers and becomes succulent. The fig
(fig. 4) is of this nature, and what are called its seeds are the
achenes of the numerous flowers scattered over the succulent hollowed
receptacle. In _Dorstenia_ the axis is less deeply hollowed, and of a
harder texture, the fruit exhibiting often very anomalous forms.

The _strobilus_, or _cone_, is a seed-bearing spike, more or less
elongated, covered with scales, each of which may be regarded as
representing a separate flower, and has often two seeds at its base;
the seeds are naked, no ovary being present. This fruit is seen in the
cones of firs, spruces, larches and cedars, which have received the
name of Coniferae, or cone-bearers, on this account. Cone-like fruit
is also seen in most Cycadaceae. The scales of the strobilus are
sometimes thick and closely united, so as to form a more or less
angular and rounded mass, as in the cypress; while in the juniper they
become fleshy, and are so incorporated as to form a globular fruit
like a berry. The dry fruit of the cypress and the succulent fruit of
the juniper have received the name of _galbulus_. In the hop the fruit
is called also a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and
membranous, and the seeds are not naked but are contained in
pericarps.

FIG. 32.--Honesty (_Lunaria biennis_), showing the septum after the
carpels have fallen away.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 33.--Silicula or pouch of shepherd's purse (_Capsella_),
opening by two folded valves, which separate from above downwards.
The partition is narrow, hence the silicula is angustiseptal.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 34.--Fruit of the pine-apple (_Ananassa sativa_), developed
from a spike of numerous flowers with bracts, united so as to form a
collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple, c,
consists of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.]

The same causes which produce alterations in the other parts of the
flower give rise to anomalous appearances in the fruit. The carpels,
in place of bearing seeds, are sometimes changed into leaves, with
lobes at their margins. Leaves are sometimes produced from the upper
part of the fruit. In the genus _Citrus_, to which the orange and
lemon belong, it is very common to meet with a separation of the
carpels, so as to produce what are called horned oranges and fingered
citrons. In this case a syncarpous fruit has a tendency to become
apocarpous. In the orange we occasionally find a supernumerary row of
carpels produced, giving rise to the appearance of small and imperfect
oranges enclosed within the original one; the navel orange is of this
nature. It sometimes happens that, by the union of flowers, double
fruits are produced. Occasionally a double fruit is produced, not by
the incorporation of two flowers, but by the abnormal development of a
second carpel in the flower.

_Arrangement of Fruits._

A. True fruits--developed from the ovary alone.
1. Pericarp not fleshy or fibrous.
i. Indehiscent--not opening to allow the escape of the
seeds--generally one-seeded. Achene; caryopsis; cypsela;
nut; schizocarp.
ii. Dehiscent--the pericarp splits to allow the escape of the
seeds--generally many-seeded. Follicle; legume; siliqua;
capsule.
2. Pericarp generally differentiated into distinct layers, one
of which is succulent or fibrous. Drupe; berry.
B. Pseudocarps--the development extends beyond the ovary. Pome;
syconus; sorosis.

_The Seed._--The _seed_ is formed from the ovule as the result of
fertilization. It is contained in a seed-vessel formed from the ovary
in the plants called _angiospermous_; while in _gymnospermous_
plants, such as Coniferae and Cycadaceae, it is naked, or, in other
words, has no true pericarp. It sometimes happens in Angiosperms, that
the seed-vessel is ruptured at an early period of growth, so that the
seeds become more or less exposed during their development; this
occurs in mignonette, where the capsule opens at the apex, and in
_Cuphea_, where the placenta bursts through the ovary and floral
envelopes, and appears as an erect process bearing the young seeds.
After fertilization the ovule is greatly changed, in connexion with
the formation of the embryo. In the embryo-sac of most Angiosperms
(q.v.) there is a development of cellular tissue, the endosperm, more
or less filling the embryo-sac. In Gymnosperms (q.v.) the endosperm is
formed preparatory to fertilization. The fertilized egg enlarges and
becomes multicellular, forming the embryo. The embryo-sac enlarges
greatly, displacing gradually the surrounding nucellus, which
eventually forms merely a thin layer around the sac, or completely
disappears. The remainder of the nucellus and the integuments of the
ovules form the seed-coats. In some cases (fig. 35) a delicate inner
coat or _tegmen_ can be distinguished from a tougher outer coat or
_testa_; often, however, the layers are not thus separable. The
consistency of the seed-coat, its thickness, the character of its
surface, &c., vary widely, the variations being often closely
associated with the environment or with the means of seed-dispersal.
An account of the development of the seed from the ovule will be found
in the article ANGIOSPERMS. When the pericarp is dehiscent the
seed-covering is of a strong and often rough character; but when the
pericarp is indehiscent and encloses the seed for a long period, the
outer seed-coat is thin and soft. The cells of the testa are often
coloured, and have projections and appendages of various kinds. Thus
in _Abrus precatorius_ and _Adenanthera pavonina_ it is of a bright
red colour; in French beans it is beautifully mottled; in the almond
it is veined; in the tulip and primrose it is rough; in the snapdragon
it is marked with depressions; in cotton and _Asclepias_ (fig. 36) it
has hairs attached to it; and in mahogany, _Bignonia_, and the pines
and firs it is expanded in the form of wing-like appendages (fig. 37).
In _Collomia_, _Acanthodium_, _Cobaea scandens_ and other seeds, it
contains spiral cells, from which, when moistened with water, the
fibres uncoil in a beautiful manner; and in flax (_Linum_) and others
the cells are converted into mucilage. These structural peculiarities
of the testa in different plants have relation to the scattering of
the seed and its germination upon a suitable nidus. But in some plants
the pericarps assume structures which subserve the same purpose; this
especially occurs in small pericarps enclosing single seeds, as
achenes, caryopsides, &c. Thus in Compositae and valerian, the pappose
limb of the calyx forms a parachute to the pericarp; in Labiatae and
some Compositae spiral cells are formed in the epicarp; and the
epicarp is prolonged as a wing in _Fraxinus_ (fig. 1) and _Acer_ (fig.
21).

FIG. 35.--Seed of Pea (_Pisum_) with one cotyledon removed. c,
Remaining cotyledon; ch, chalaza-point at which the nourishing
vessels enter; e, tegmen or inner coat; f, funicle or stalk; g,
plumule of embryo; m, micropyle; pl, placenta; r, radicle of embryo;
t, tigellum or stalk between root and plumule; te, testa.

FIG. 36.--Seed of _Asclepias_, with a cluster of hairs arising from
the edges of the micropyle.]

Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, formed after
fertilization, to which the name _arillus_ has been given (fig. 38).
This is seen in the passion-flower, where the covering arises from the
placenta or extremity of the funicle at the base of the ovule and
passes upwards towards the apex, leaving the micropyle uncovered. In
the nutmeg and spindle tree this additional coat is formed from above
downwards, constituting in the former case a laciniated scarlet
covering called _mace_. In such instances it has been called an
_arillode_ (fig. 39). This arillode, after growing downwards, may be
reflected upwards so as to cover the micropyle. The fleshy scarlet
covering formed around the naked seed in the yew is by some considered
of the nature of an aril. On the testa, at various points, there are
produced at times other cellular bodies, to which the name of
_strophioles_, or _caruncles_, has been given, the seeds being
strophiolate or carunculate. These tumours may occur near the base of
the seed, as in _Polygala_, or at the apex, as in Castor-oil plant
(_Ricinus_); or they may occur in the course of the raphe, as in
blood-root (_Sanguinaria_) and _Asarabacca_. The funicles of the
ovules frequently attain a great length in the seed, and in some
magnolias, when the fruit dehisces, they appear as long scarlet cords
suspending the seeds outside. The hilum or umbilicus of the seed is
usually well marked, as a scar of varying size; in the calabar bean
and in some species of Mucuna and Dolichos it extends along a large
portion of the edge of the seed; it frequently exhibits marked
colours, being black in the bean, white in many species of Phaseolus,
&c. The micropyle (fig. 35, m) of the seed may be recognizable by the
naked eye, as in the pea and bean tribe, _Iris_, &c., or it may be
very minute or microscopic. It indicates the true apex of the seed,
and is important as marking the point to which the root of the embryo
is directed. At the micropyle in the bean is observed a small process
of integument, which, when the young plant sprouts, is pushed up like
a lid; it is called the _embryotega_. The chalaza (fig. 38, ch) is
often of a different colour from the rest of the seed. In the orange
(fig. 40) it is of a reddish-brown colour, and is easily recognized at
one end of the seed when the integuments are carefully removed. In
anatropal seeds the raphe forms a distinct ridge along one side of the
seed (fig. 41).

The position of the seed as regards the pericarp resembles that of the
ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied--erect, ascending,
pendulous, suspended, curved, &c. These terms have no reference to the
mode in which the fruit is attached to the axis. Thus the seed may be
erect while the fruit itself is pendent, in the ordinary meaning of
that term. The part of the seed next the axis or the ventral suture is
its face, the opposite side being the back. Seeds exhibit great
varieties of form. They may be flattened laterally (_compressed_), or
from above downwards (_depressed_). They may be round, oval,
triangular, polygonal, rolled up like a snail, as in _Physostemon_, or
coiled up like a snake, as in _Ophiocaryon paradoxum_.

FIG. 37.--Seed of Pine (_Pinus_), with a membranous appendage w to
the testa, called a wing.

FIG. 38.--Young anatropal seed of the white Water-lily (_Nymphaea
alba_), cut vertically. It is attached to the placenta by the
funicle f, cellular prolongations from which form an aril a a. The
vessels of the cord are prolonged to the base of the nucellus n by
means of the raphe r. The base of the nucellus is indicated by the
chalaza ch, while the apex is at the micropyle m. The covering of
the seed is marked i. n is the nucellus or perisperm, enclosing the
embryo-sac es, in which the endosperm is formed. The embryo e, with
its suspensor, is contained in the sac, the radicle pointing to the
micropyle m.

FIG. 39.--Arillode a, or false aril, of the Spindle-tree
(_Euonymus_), arising from the micropyle f.

FIG. 40.--Anatropal seed of the Orange (_Citrus Aurantium_) opened
to show the chalaza c, which forms a brown spot at one end.

FIG. 41.--Entire anatropal seed of the Orange (_Citrus Aurantium_),
with its rugose or wrinkled testa, and the raphe r ramifying in the
thickness of the testa on one side.]

The endosperm formed in the embryo-sac of angiosperms after
fertilization, and found previous to it in gymnosperms, consists of
cells containing nitrogenous and starchy or fatty matter, destined for
the nutriment of the embryo. It occupies the whole cavity of the
embryo-sac, or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the apex,
as in _Rhinanthus_, at the base, as in _Vaccinium_, or in the middle,
as in _Veronica_. As the endosperm increases in size along with the
embryo-sac and the embryo, the substance of the original nucellus of
the ovule is gradually absorbed. Sometimes, however, as in Musaceae,
Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, no endosperm is formed; the cells of the
original nucellus, becoming filled with food-materials for the embryo,
are not absorbed, but remain surrounding the embryo-sac with the
embryo, and constitute the _perisperm_. Again, in other plants, as
Nymphaeaceae (fig. 38) and Piperaceae, both endosperm and perisperm
are present. It was from observations on cases such as these that old
authors, imagining a resemblance betwixt the plant-ovule and the
animal ovum, applied the name _albumen_ to the outer nutrient mass or
perisperm, and designated the endosperm as _vitellus_. The term
albumen is very generally used as including all the nutrient matter
stored up in the seed, but it would be advisable to discard the name
as implying a definite chemical substance. There is a large class of
plants in which although at first after fertilization a mass of
endosperm is formed, yet, as the embryo increases in size, the
nutrient matter from the endospermic cells passes out from them, and
is absorbed by the cells of the embryo plant. In the mature seed, in
such cases, there is no separate mass of tissue containing nutrient
food-material apart from the embryo itself. Such a seed is said to be
_exalbuminous_, as in Compositae, Cruciferae and most Leguminosae
(e.g. pea, fig. 35). When either endosperm or perisperm or both are
present the seed is said to be _albuminous_.

The albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and furnishes
important characters. It may be farinaceous or mealy, consisting
chiefly of cells filled with starch, as in cereal grains, where it is
abundant; fleshy or cartilaginous, consisting of thicker cells which
are still soft, as in the coco-nut, and which sometimes contain oil,
as in the oily albumen of _Croton_, _Ricinus_ and poppy; horny, when
the cell-walls are slightly thickened and capable of distension, as in
date and coffee; the cell-walls sometimes become greatly thickened,
filling up the testa as a hard mass, as in vegetable ivory
(_Phytelephas_). The albumen may be uniform throughout, or it may
present a mottled appearance, as in the nutmeg, the seeds of Anonaceae
and some Palms, where it is called _ruminated_. This mottled
appearance is due to a protrusion of a dark lamella of the integument
between folded protuberances of albumen. A cavity is sometimes left in
the centre which is usually filled with fluid, as in the coco-nut. The
relative size of the embryo and of the endosperm varies much. In
Monocotyledons the embryo is usually small, and the endosperm large,
and the same is true in the case of coffee and many other plants
amongst Dicotyledons. The opposite is the case in other plants, as in
the Labiatae, Plumbaginaceae, &c.

The embryo consists of an axis bearing the _cotyledons_ (fig. 42, c),
or the first leaves of the plant. To that part of this axis
immediately beneath the cotyledons the terms _hypocotyl_, _caulicle_
or _tigellum_ (t) have been applied, and continuous backwards with it
is the young root or _radicle_ (r), the descending axis, their point
of union being the collar or neck. The terminal growing bud of the
axis is called the _plumule_ or _gemmule_ (g), and represents the
ascending axis. The radicular extremity points towards the micropyle,
while the cotyledonary extremity is pointed towards the base of the
ovule or the chalaza. Hence, by ascertaining the position of the
micropyle and chalaza, the two extremities of the embryo can in
general be discovered. It is in many cases difficult to recognize the
parts in an embryo; thus in _Cuscuta_, the embryo appears as an
elongated axis without divisions; and in _Caryocar_ the mass of the
embryo is made up by the radicular extremity and hypocotyl, in a
groove of which the cotyledonary extremity lies embedded (fig. 52). In
some monocotyledonous embryos, as in Orchidaceae, the embryo is a
cellular mass showing no parts. In parasitic plants also which form no
chlorophyll, as _Orobanche_, _Monotropa_, &c., the embryo remains
without differentiation, consisting merely of a mass of cells until
the ripening of the seed. When the embryo is surrounded by the
endosperm on all sides except its radicular extremity it is internal
(see figs. 19, 20); when lying outside the endosperm, and only coming
into contact with it at certain points, it is external, as in grasses
(e.g. wheat, fig. 22). When the embryo follows the direction of the
axis of the seed, it is axile or axial (fig. 43); when it is not in
the direction of the axis, it becomes abaxile or abaxial. In
campylotropal seeds the embryo is curved, and in place of being
embedded in endosperm, is frequently external to it, following the
concavity of the seed (fig. 44), and becoming peripherical, with the
chalaza situated in the curvature of the embryo, as in
Caryophyllaceae.

It has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo is directed
to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. In some cases, by
the growth of the integuments, the former is turned round so as not to
correspond with the apex of the nucellus, and then the embryo has the
radicle directed to one side, and is called excentric, as is seen in
Primulaceae, Plantaginaceae and many palms, especially the date. The
position of the embryo in different kinds of seeds varies. In an
orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or _antitropal_, the radicle
pointing to the apex of the seed, or to the part opposite the hilum.
Again, in an anatropal seed the embryo is erect or _homotropal_ (fig.
43), the radicle being directed to the base of the seed. In curved or
campylotropal seeds the embryo is folded so that its radicular and
cotyledonary extremities are approximated, and it becomes
_amphitropal_ (fig. 44). In this instance the seed may be
exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself; or albuminous,
the embryo surrounding more or less completely the endosperm and being
peripherical. According to the mode in which the seed is attached to
the pericarp, the radicle may be directed upwards or downwards, or
laterally, as regards the ovary. In an orthotropal seed attached to
the base of the pericarp it is superior, as also in a suspended
anatropal seed. In other anatropal seeds the radicle is inferior. When
the seed is horizontal as regards the pericarp, the radicle is either
centrifugal, when it points to the outer wall of the ovary; or
centripetal, when it points to the axis or inner wall of the ovary.
These characters are of value for purposes of classification, as they
are often constant in large groups of genera.

Plants in which there are two cotyledons produced in the embryo are
_dicotyledonous_. The two cotyledons thus formed are opposite to each
other (figs. 42 and 45), but are not always of the same size. Thus, in
Abronia and other members of the order Nyctaginaceae, one of them is
smaller than the other (often very small), and in _Carapa guianensis_
there appears to be only one, in consequence of the intimate union
which takes place between the two. The union between the cotyledonary
leaves may continue after the young plant begins to germinate. Such
embryos have been called _pseudomonocotyledonous_. The texture of the
cotyledons varies. They may be thick, as in the pea (fig. 42),
exhibiting no traces of venation, with their flat internal surfaces in
contact, and their backs more or less convex; or they may be in the
form of thin and delicate laminae, flattened on both sides, and having
distinct venation, as in _Ricinus_, _Jatropha_, _Euonymus_, &c. The
cotyledons usually form the greater part of the mature embryo, and
this is remarkably well seen in such exalbuminous seeds as the bean
and pea.

FIG. 43.--Seed of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_) cut vertically. The
embryo pl is axial, in the midst of fleshy endosperm al. The seed is
anatropal, and the embryo is homotropal; the cotyledons co point to
the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, while the radicle, or the
other extremity of the embryo, points to the micropyle, close to the
hilum h. The hilum or base of the seed, and the chalaza or base of
the nucellus are united by means of the raphe r.

FIG. 44.--Seed of the Red Campion (_Lychnis_), cut vertically,
showing the peripheral embryo, with its two cotyledons and its
radicle. The embryo is curved round the albumen, so that its
cotyledons and radicle both come near the hilum (_amphitropal_).

FIG. 45.--Mature dicotyledonous embryo of the Almond, with one of
the cotyledons removed. r, Radicle; t, young stem or caulicle; c,
one of the cotyledons left; i, line of insertion of the cotyledon
which has been removed; g, plumule.

FIG. 46.--Exalbuminous seed of Wallflower (Cheiranthus) cut
vertically. The radicle r is folded on the edges of the cotyledons c
which are accumbent.

FIG. 47.--Transverse section of the seed of the Wallflower
(_Cheiranthus_), showing the radicle r folded on the edges of the
accumbent cotyledons c.

FIG. 48.--Transverse section of the seed of the Dame's Violet
(_Hesperis_). The radicle r is folded on the back of the cotyledons
c, which are said to be incumbent.]

Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. But they occasionally
become lobed, as in the walnut and the lime; or petiolate, as in
_Geranium molle_; or auriculate, as in the ash. Like leaves in the
bud, cotyledons may be either applied directly to each other, or may
be folded in various ways. In geranium the cotyledons are twisted and
doubled; in convolvulus they are corrugated; and in the potato and in
_Bunias_, they are spiral,--the same terms being applied as to the
foliage leaves. The radicle and cotyledons are either straight or
variously curved. Thus, in some cruciferous plants, as the wallflower,
the cotyledons are applied by their faces, and the radicle (figs. 46,
47) is folded on their edges, so as to be lateral; the cotyledons are
here _accumbent_. In others, as _Hesperis_, the cotyledons (fig. 48)
are applied to each other by their faces, and the radicle, r, is
folded on their back, so as to be dorsal, and the cotyledons are
_incumbent_. Again, the cotyledons are _conduplicate_ when the radicle
is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds. In other divisions the
radicle is folded in a spiral manner, and the cotyledons follow the
same course.

In many gymnosperms more than two cotyledons are present, and they are
arranged in a whorl. This occurs in Coniferae, especially in the pine,
fir (fig. 49), spruce and larch, in which six, nine, twelve and even
fifteen have been observed. They are linear, and resemble in their
form and mode of development the clustered or fasciculated leaves of
the larch. Plants having numerous cotyledons are termed
_polycotyledonous_. In species of _Streptocarpus_ the cotyledons are
permanent, and act the part of leaves. One of them is frequently
largely developed, while the other is small or abortive.

FIG. 49.--Polycotylodonous embryo of the Pine (_Pinus_) beginning to
sprout. t, Hypocotyl; r, radicle. The cotyledons c are numerous.
Within the cotyledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting
the plumule or first bud of the plant.

FIG. 50.--Embryo of a species of Arrow-grass (_Triglochin_), showing
a uniform conical mass, with a slit s near the lower part. The
cotyledon c envelops the young bud, which protrudes at the slit
during germination. The radicle is developed from the lower part of
the axis r.

FIG. 51.--Grain of wheat (_Triticum_) germinating, showing (b) the
cotyledon and (c) the rootlets surrounded by their sheaths
(_coleorrhizae_).

FIG. 52.--Embryo of _Caryocar_. t, Thick hypocotyl, forming nearly
the whole mass, becoming narrowed and curved at its extremity, and
applied to the groove s. In the figure this narrowed portion is
slightly separated from the groove; c, two rudimentary cotyledons.]

In those plants in which there is only a single cotyledon in the
embryo, hence called _monocotyledonous_, the embryo usually has a
cylindrical form more or less rounded at the extremities, or elongated
and fusiform, often oblique. The axis is usually very short compared
with the cotyledon, which in general encloses the plumule by its lower
portion, and exhibits on one side a small slit which indicates the
union of the edges of the vaginal or sheathing portion of the leaf
(fig. 50). In grasses, by the enlargement of the embryo in a
particular direction, the endosperm is pushed on one side, and thus
the embryo comes to lie outside at the base of the endosperm (figs.
22, 51). The lamina of the cotyledon is not developed. Upon the side
of the embryo next the endosperm and enveloping it is a large
shield-shaped body, termed the _scutellum_. This is an outgrowth from
the base of the cotyledon, enveloping more or less the cotyledon and
plumule, in some cases, as in maize, completely investing it; in other
cases, as in rice, merely sending small prolongations over its
anterior face at the apex. By others this scutellum is considered as
the true cotyledon, and the sheathing structure covering the plumule
is regarded as a ligule or axillary stipule (see GRASSES). In many
aquatic monocotyledons (e.g. _Potamogeton_, _Ruppia_ and others) there
is a much-developed hypocotyl, which forms the greater part of the
embryo and acts as a store of nutriment in germination; these are
known as _macropodous_ embryos. A similar case is that of _Caryocar_
among Dicotyledons, where the swollen hypocotyl occupies most of the
embryo (fig. 52). In some grasses, as oats and rice, a projection of
cellular tissue is seen upon the side of the embryo opposite to the
scutellum, that is, on the anterior side. This has been termed the
_epiblast_. It is very large in rice. This by some was considered the
rudimentary second cotyledon; but is now generally regarded as an
outgrowth of the sheath of the true cotyledon. (A. B. R.)

FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING. The different sorts of fruits and flowers are dealt with in articles under their own headings, to which reference may be made; and these give the substantial facts as to their cultivation. See also the article HORTICULTURE.

TABLE I.--_Extent of Orchards in Great Britain in each Year, 1887 to 1901._

+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+
| Year.| Acres. || Year.| Acres. || Year.| Acres. |
+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+
| 1887 | 202,234 || 1892 | 208,950 || 1897 | 224,116 |
| 1888 | 199,178 || 1893 | 211,664 || 1898 | 226,059 |
| 1889 | 199,897 || 1894 | 214,187 || 1899 | 228,603 |
| 1890 | 202,305 || 1895 | 218,428 || 1900 | 232,129 |
| 1891 | 209,996 || 1896 | 221,254 || 1901 | 234,660 |
+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+

TABLE II.--_Areas under Orchards in England, Wales and Scotland--Acres._

+------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+
| Year.| England. | Wales. |Scotland.|Great Britain.|
+------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+
| 1896 | 215,642 | 3677 | 1935 | 221,254 |
| 1897 | 218,261 | 3707 | 2148 | 224,116 |
| 1898 | 220,220 | 3690 | 2149 | 226,059 |
| 1899 | 222,712 | 3666 | 2225 | 228,603 |
| 1900 | 226,164 | 3695 | 2270 | 232,129 |
| 1901 | 228,580 | 3767 | 2313 | 234,660 |
| 1908 | 244,430 | 3577 | 2290 | 250,297 |
+------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+

GREAT BRITAIN

The extent of the fruit industry may be gathered from the figures for the acreage of land under cultivation in orchards and small fruit plantations. The Board of Agriculture returns concerning the orchard areas of Great Britain showed a continuous expansion year by year from 199,178 acres in 1888 to 234,660 acres in 1901, as will be learnt from Table I. There was, it is true, an exception in 1892, but the decline in that year is explained by the circumstance that since 1891 the agricultural returns have been collected only from holdings of more than one acre, whereas they were previously obtained from all holdings of a quarter of an acre or more. As there are many holdings of less than an acre in extent upon which fruit is grown, and as fruit is largely raised also in suburban and other gardens which do not come into the returns, it may be taken for granted that the actual extent of land devoted to fruit culture exceeds that which is indicated by the official figures. In the Board of Agriculture returns up to June 1908, 308,000 acres are stated to be devoted to fruit cultivation of all kinds in Great Britain. Table II. shows that the expansion of the orchard area of Great Britain is mainly confined to England, for it has slightly decreased in Wales and Scotland. The acreage officially returned as under orchards is that of arable or grass land which is also used for fruit trees of any kind. Conditions of soil and climate determine the irregular distribution of orchards in Great Britain. The dozen counties which possess the largest extent of orchard land all lie in the south or west of the island. According to the returns for 1908 (excluding small fruit areas) they were the following:--

+----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+
| County. | Acres. || County. | Acres. || County. |Acres.|
+----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+
| Kent | 32,751 || Worcester | 23,653 || Salop | 4685 |
| Devon | 27,200 || Gloucester| 20,424 || Dorset | 4464 |
| Hereford | 28,316 || Cornwall | 5,415 || Monmouth | 3914 |
| Somerset | 25,279 || Middlesex | 5,300 || Wilts | 3630 |
+----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+

Leaving out of consideration the county of Kent, which grows a greater variety of fruit than any of the others, the counties of Devon, Hereford, Somerset, Worcester and Gloucester have an aggregate orchard area of 124,872 acres. These five counties of the west and south-west of England--constituting in one continuous area what is essentially the cider country of Great Britain--embrace therefore rather less than half of the entire orchard area of the island, while Salop, Monmouth and Wilts have about 300 less than they had a few years ago. Five English counties have less than 1000 acres each of orchards, namely, the county of London, and the northern counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, Northumberland and Durham. Rutland has just over 100 acres. The largest orchard areas in Wales are in the two counties adjoining Hereford--Brecon with 1136 acres and Radnor with 727 acres; at the other extreme is Anglesey, with a decreasing orchard area of only 22 acres. Of the Scottish counties, Lanark takes the lead with 1285 acres, Perth, Stirling and Haddington following with 684 and 129 acres respectively. Ayr and Midlothian are the only other counties possessing 100 acres or more of orchards, whilst Kincardine, Orkney and Shetland return no orchard area, and Banff, Bute, Kinross, Nairn, Peebles, Sutherland and Wigtown return less than 10 acres each. It may be added that in 1908 Jersey returned 1090 acres of orchards, Guernsey, &c., 144 acres, and the Isle of Man, 121 acres; the two last-named places showing a decline as compared with eight years previously.

Outside the cider counties proper of England, the counties in which orchards for commercial fruit-growing have increased considerably in recent years include Berks, Buckingham, Cambridge, Essex, Lincoln, Middlesex, Monmouth, Norfolk, Oxford, Salop, Sussex, Warwick and Wilts. Apples are the principal fruit grown in the western and south-western counties, pears also being fairly common. In parts of Gloucestershire, however, and in the Evesham and Pershore districts of Worcestershire, plum orchards exist. Plums are almost as largely grown as apples in Cambridgeshire. Large quantities of apples, plums, damsons, cherries, and a fair quantity of pears are grown for the market in Kent, whilst apples, plums and pears predominate in Middlesex. In many counties damsons are cultivated around fruit plantations to shelter the latter from the wind.

Of small fruit (currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, &c.) no return was made of the acreage previous to 1888, in which year it was given as 36,724 acres for Great Britain. In 1889 it rose to 41,933 acres.

Later figures are shown in Table III. It will be observed that, owing to corrections made in the enumeration in 1897, a considerable reduction in the area is recorded for that year, and presumably the error then discovered existed in all the preceding returns. The returns for 1907 gave the acreage of small fruit as 82,175 acres, and in 1908 at 84,880 acres--an area more than double that of 1889.

TABLE III.--_Areas of Small Fruit in Great Britain._

+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
| Year. | Acres. | Year. | Acres. | Year. | Acres. |
+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
| 1890 | 46,234 | 1894 | 68,415 | 1898 | 69,753 |
| 1891 | 58,704 | 1895 | 74,547 | 1899 | 71,526 |
| 1892 | 62,148 | 1896 | 76,245 | 1900 | 73,780 |
| 1893 | 65,487 | 1897 | 69,792 | 1901 | 74,999 |
+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+

TABLE IV.--_Areas under Small Fruit in England, Wales and Scotland--Acres._

+-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+
| Year. | England. | Wales. | Scotland. | Great Britain. |
+-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+
| 1898 | 63,438 | 1044 | 5271 | 69,753 |
| 1899 | 64,867 | 1106 | 5553 | 71,526 |
| 1900 | 66,749 | 1109 | 5922 | 73,780 |
| 1901 | 67,828 | 1092 | 6079 | 74,999 |
| 1908 | 75,750 | 1200 | 7930 | 84,880 |
+-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+

There has undoubtedly been a considerable expansion, rather than a contraction, of small fruit plantations since 1896. The acreage of small fruit in Great Britain is about one-third that of the orchards. As may be seen in Table IV., it is mainly confined to England, though Scotland has over 4000 more acres of small fruit than of orchards. About one-third of the area of small fruit in England belongs to Kent alone, that county having returned 24,137 acres in 1908. Cambridge now ranks next with 6878 acres, followed by Norfolk with 5876 acres, Worcestershire with 4852 acres, Middlesex with 4163 acres, Hants with 3320 acres and Essex with 2150 acres. It should be remarked that between 1900 and 1908 Cambridgeshire had almost doubled its area of small fruits, from 3740 to 6878 acres; whilst both Norfolk and Worcestershire in 1908 had larger areas devoted to small fruits than Middlesex--in which county there had been a decrease of about 400 acres during the same period. The largest county area of small fruit in Wales is 806 acres in Denbighshire, and in Scotland 2791 acres in Perthshire, 2259 acres in Lanarkshire, followed by 412 acres in Forfarshire. The only counties in Great Britain which make no return under the head of small fruit are Orkney and Shetland; and Sutherland only gives 2-1/2 acres. It is hardly necessary to say that considerable areas of small fruit, in kitchen gardens and elsewhere, find no place in the official returns, which, however, include small fruit grown between and under orchard trees.

Gooseberries are largely grown in most small fruit districts. Currants are less widely cultivated, but the red currant is more extensively grown than the black, the latter having suffered seriously from the ravages of the black currant mite. Kent is the great centre for raspberries and for strawberries, though, in addition, the latter fruit is largely grown in Cambridgeshire (2411 acres), Hampshire (2327 acres), Norfolk (2067 acres) and Worcestershire (1273 acres). Essex, Lincolnshire, Cheshire, Cornwall and Middlesex each has more than 500 acres devoted to strawberry cultivation.

The following statement from returns for 1908 shows the area under different kinds of fruit in 1907 and 1908 in Great Britain, and also whether there had been an increase or decrease:

+-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+
| | 1907. | 1908. | Increase or |
| | | | Decrease. |
+-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+
| | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. |
| Small Fruit-- | | | |
| Strawberries | 27,827 | 28,815 | + 988 |
| Raspberries | 8,878 | 9,323 | + 445 |
| Currants and | | | |
| Gooseberries | 25,590 | 26,241 | + 651 |
| Other kinds | 19,880 | 20,501 | + 621 |
| +---------+---------+-------------+
| | 82,175 | 84,880 | +2705 |
| +---------+---------+-------------+
| Orchards-- | | | |
| Apples | 172,643 | 172,751 | + 108 |
| Pears | 8,911 | 9,604 | + 693 |
| Cherries | 12,027 | 11,868 | - 159 |
| Plums | 14,901 | 15,683 | + 782 |
| Other kinds | 41,694 | 40,391 | -1303 |
| +---------+---------+-------------+
| | 250,176 | 250,297 | + 121 |
+-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+

It appears from the Board of Agriculture returns that 27,433 acres of small fruit was grown in orchards, so that the total extent of land under fruit cultivation in Great Britain at the end of 1908 was about 308,000 acres.

There are no official returns as to the acreage devoted to orchard cultivation in Ireland. The figures relating to small fruit, moreover, extend back only to 1899, when the area under this head was returned as 4809 acres, which became 4359 acres in 1900 and 4877 acres in 1901. In most parts of the country there are districts favourable to the culture of small fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants, and of top fruits, such as apples, pears, plums and damsons. The only localities largely identified with fruit culture as an industry are the Drogheda district and the Armagh district. In the former all the kinds named are grown except strawberries, the speciality being raspberries, which are marketed in Dublin, Belfast and Liverpool. In the Armagh district, again, all the kinds named are grown, but in this case strawberries are the speciality, the markets utilized being Richhill, Belfast, and those in Scotland. In the Drogheda district the grower bears the cost of picking, packing and shipping, but he cannot estimate his net returns until his fruit is on the market. Around Armagh the Scottish system prevails--that is, the fruit is sold while growing, the buyer being responsible for the picking and marketing.

The amount of fruit imported into the United Kingdom has such an important bearing on the possibilities of the industry that the following figures also may be useful:

The quantities of apples, pears, plums, cherries and grapes imported
in the raw condition into the United Kingdom in each year, 1892 to
1901, are shown in Table V. Previous to 1892 apples only were
separately enumerated. Up to 1899 inclusive the quantities were given
in bushels, but in 1900 a change was made to hundred-weights. This
renders the quantities in that and subsequent years not directly
comparable with those in earlier years, but the comparison of the
values, which are also given in the table, continues to hold good. The
figures for 1908 have been added to show the increase that had taken
place. In some years the value of imported apples exceeds the
aggregate value of the pears, plums, cherries and grapes imported. The
extreme values for apples shown in the table are L844,000 in 1893 and
L2,079,000 in 1908. Grapes rank next to apples in point of value, and
over the seventeen years the amount ranged between L394,000 in 1892
and L728,000 in 1908. On the average, the annual outlay on imported
pears is slightly in excess of that on plums. The extremes shown are
L167,000 in 1895 and L515,000 in 1908. In the case of plums, the
smallest outlay tabulated is L166,000 in 1895, whilst the largest is
L498,000 in 1897. The amounts expended upon imported cherries varied
between L96,000 in 1895 and L308,000 in 1900. In 1900 apricots and
peaches, imported raw, previously included with raw plums, were for
the first time separately enumerated, the import into the United
Kingdom for that year amounting to 13,689 cwt., valued at L25,846; in
1901 the quantity was 13,463 cwt. and the value L32,350. The latter
rose in 1908 to L60,000. In 1900, also, currants, gooseberries and
strawberries, hitherto included in unenumerated raw fruit, were
likewise for the first time separately returned. Of raw currants the
import was 64,462 cwt., valued at L87,170 (1908, L121,850); of raw
gooseberries 26,045 cwt., valued at L14,626 (1908, L25,520); and of
raw strawberries, 52,225 cwt., valued at L85,949. In 1907 only 44,000
cwt. of strawberries were imported. In 1901 the quantities and values
were respectively--currants, 70,402 cwt., L75,308; gooseberries,
21,735 cwt., L11,420; strawberries, 38,604 cwt., L51,290. Up to 1899
the imports of tomatoes were included amongst unenumerated raw
vegetables, so that the quantity was not separately ascertainable. For
1900 the import of tomatoes was 833,032 cwt., valued at L792,339,
which is equivalent to a fraction under 2-1/2d. per lb. For 1901 the
quantity was 793,991 cwt., and the value L734,051; for 1906, there
were 1,124,700 cwt., valued at L953,475; for 1907, 1,135,499 cwt.,
valued at L1,020,805; and for 1908, 1,160,283 cwt., valued at
L955,983.

TABLE V.--_Imports of Raw Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries and Grapes
into the United Kingdom, 1892 to 1901. Quantities in Thousands of
Bushels (thousands of cwt. in 1900 and 1901). Values in Thousands of
Pounds Sterling._

+------+-------------------------------------------------+
| | Quantities. |
| Year.+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| | Apples. | Pears. | Plums. | Cherries. | Grapes. |
+------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| 1892 | 4515 | 637 | 413 | 217 | 762 |
| 1893 | 3460 | 915 | 777 | 346 | 979 |
| 1894 | 4969 | 1310 | 777 | 311 | 833 |
| 1895 | 3292 | 407 | 401 | 196 | 865 |
| 1896 | 6177 | 483 | 560 | 219 | 883 |
| 1897 | 4200 | 1052 | 1044 | 312 | 994 |
| 1898 | 3459 | 492 | 922 | 402 | 1136 |
| 1899 | 3861 | 572 | 558 | 281 | 1158 |
| 1900 | 2129* | 477* | 423* | 243* | 593* |
| 1901 | 1830* | 349* | 264* | 213* | 680* |
+------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| Values. |
+------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
| 1892 | 1354 | 297 | 200 | 135 | 394 |
| 1893 | 844 | 347 | 332 | 195 | 530 |
| 1894 | 1389 | 411 | 302 | 167 | 470 |
| 1895 | 960 | 167 | 166 | 96 | 487 |
| 1896 | 1582 | 207 | 242 | 106 | 443 |
| 1897 | 1187 | 378 | 498 | 178 | 495 |
| 1898 | 1108 | 222 | 435 | 231 | 550 |
| 1899 | 1186 | 266 | 294 | 154 | 588 |
| 1900 | 1225 | 367 | 393 | 308 | 595 |
| 1901 | 1183 | 296 | 244 | 214 | 695 |
| 1908 | 2079 | 515 | 428 | 235 | 728 |
+------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+
* Thousands of cwts.

In 1908 the outlay of the United Kingdom upon imported raw fruits,
such as can easily be produced at home, was L4,195,654, made up as
follows:

Apples L2,079,703 | Plums L428,966
Grapes 728,026 | Currants 121,852
Pears 515,914 | Apricots and peaches 60,141
Cherries 235,523 | Gooseberries 25,529

In addition about L280,000 was spent upon "unenumerated" raw fruit,
and L560,000 on nuts other than almonds "used as fruit," which would
include walnuts and filberts, both produced at home. It is certain,
therefore, that the expenditure on imported fruits, such as are grown
within the limits of the United Kingdom, exceeds four millions
sterling per annum. The remainder of the outlay on imported fruit in
1908, amounting to over L5,000,000, was made up of L2,269,651 for
oranges, L471,713 for lemons, L1,769,249 for bananas, and L560,301 for
almond-nuts; these cannot be grown on an industrial scale in the
British Isles.

It may be interesting to note the source of some of these imported
fruits. The United States and Canada send most of the apples, the
quantity for 1907 being 1,413,000 cwt. and 1,588,000 cwt.
respectively, while Australia contributes 280,000 cwt. Plums come
chiefly from France (200,000 cwt.), followed with 38,000 cwt. from
Germany and 28,000 cwt. from the Netherlands. Pears are imported
chiefly from France (204,000 cwt.) and Belgium (176,000); but the
Netherlands send 52,000 cwt., and the United States 24,000 cwt. The
great bulk of imported tomatoes comes from the Canary Islands, the
quantity in 1907 being 604,692 cwt. The Channel Islands also sent
223,800 cwt., France 115,500 cwt., Spain 169,000 cwt., and Portugal a
long way behind with 11,700 cwt. Most of the strawberries imported
come from France (33,800 cwt.) and the Netherlands (10,300 cwt.).

_Fruit-growing in Kent._--Kent is by far the largest fruit-growing county in England. For centuries that county has been famous for its fruit, and appears to have been the centre for the distribution of trees and grafts throughout the country. The cultivation of fruit land upon farms in many parts of Kent has always been an important feature in its agriculture. An excellent description of this noteworthy characteristic of Kentish farming is contained in a comprehensive paper on the agriculture of Kent by Mr Charles Whitehead,[1] whose remarks, with various additions and modifications, are here reproduced.