Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

FULK, king of Jerusalem (b. 1092), was the son of Fulk IV., count of Anjou, and his wife Bertrada (who ultimately deserted her husband and became the mistress of Philip I. of France). He became count of Anjou in 1109, and considerably added to the prestige of his house. In particular he showed himself a doughty opponent to Henry I. of England, against whom he continually supported Louis VI. of France, until in 1127 Henry won him over by betrothing his daughter Matilda to Fulk's son Geoffrey Plantagenet. Already in 1120 Fulk had visited the Holy Land, and become a close friend of the Templars. On his return he assigned to the order of the Templars an annual subsidy, while he also maintained two knights in the Holy Land for a year. In 1128 he was preparing to return to the East, when he received an embassy from Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, who had no male heir to succeed him, offering his daughter Melisinda in marriage, with the right of eventual succession to the kingdom. Fulk readily accepted the offer; and in 1129 he came and was married to Melisinda, receiving the towns of Acre and Tyre as her dower. In 1131, at the age of thirty-nine, he became king of Jerusalem. His reign is not marked by any considerable events: the kingdom which had reached its zenith under Baldwin II., and did not begin to decline till the capture of Edessa in the reign of Baldwin III., was quietly prosperous under his rule. In the beginning of his reign he had to act as regent of Antioch, and to provide a husband, Raymund of Poitou, for the infant heiress Constance. But the great problem with which he had to deal was the progress of the atabeg Zengi of Mosul. In 1137 he was beaten near Barin, and escaping into the fort was surrounded and forced to capitulate. A little later, however, he greatly improved his position by strengthening his alliance with the vizier of Damascus, who also had to fear the progress of Zengi (1140); and in this way he was able to capture the fort of Banias, to the N. of Lake Tiberias. Fulk also strengthened the kingdom on the south; while his butler, Paganus, planted the fortress of Krak to the south of the Dead Sea, and helped to give the kingdom an access towards the Red Sea, he himself constructed Blanche Garde and other forts on the S.W. to overawe the garrison of Ascalon, which was still held by the Mahommedans, and to clear the road towards Egypt. Twice in Fulk's reign the eastern emperor, John Comnenus, appeared in northern Syria (1137 and 1142); but his coming did not affect the king, who was able to decline politely a visit which the emperor proposed to make to Jerusalem. In 1143 he died, leaving two sons, who both became kings, as Baldwin III. and Amalric I.

Fulk continued the tradition of good statesmanship and sound churchmanship which Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. had begun. William of Tyre speaks of him as a fine soldier, an able politician, and a good son of the church, and only blames him for partiality to his friends, and a forgetfulness of names and faces, which placed him at a disadvantage and made him too dependent on his immediate intimates. Little, perhaps, need be made of these censures: the real fault of Fulk was his neglect to envisage the needs of the northern principalities, and to head a combined resistance to the rising power of Zengi of Mosul.

His reign in Jerusalem is narrated by R. Rohricht (_Geschichte des
Konigreichs Jerusalem_, Innsbruck, 1898), and has been made the
subject of a monograph by G. Dodu (_De Fulconis Hierosolymitani
regno_, Paris, 1894). (E. Br.)

FULK (d. 900), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles the Simple in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected to the see as archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar. In 887 he was engaged in a struggle with the Normans who invaded his territories. Upon the deposition of Charles the Fat he sided with Charles the Simple in his contest for the West Frankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and crowned him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most of the nobles had gone over to Odo (893). Upon the death of Odo he succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a majority of the West Frankish nobility. In 892 he obtained special privileges for his province from Pope Formosus, who promised that thereafter, when the archbishopric became vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by anyone while the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new incumbent, provided the election took place within the canonical limit of three months. From 898 until his death he held the office of chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly filled by the archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the wealthy abbeys and benefices of the church out of the hands of the nobles, he incurred the hatred of Baldwin, count of Flanders, who secured his assassination on the 17th of June 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left unpunished.

Fulk left some letters, which are collected in Migne, _Patrologia
Latina_, vol. cxxxi. 11-14.

FULKE, WILLIAM (1538-1589), Puritan divine, was born in London and educated at Cambridge. After studying law for six years, he became a fellow at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1564. He took a leading part in the "vestiarian" controversy, and persuaded the college to discard the surplice. In consequence he was expelled from St. John's for a time, but in 1567 he became Hebrew lecturer and preacher there. After standing unsuccessfully for the headship of the college in 1569, he became chaplain to the earl of Leicester, and received from him the livings of Warley, in Essex, and Dennington in Suffolk. In 1578 he was elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. As a Puritan controversialist he was remarkably active; in 1580 the bishop of Ely appointed him to defend puritanism against the Roman Catholics, Thomas Watson, ex-bishop of Lincoln (1513-1584), and John Feckenham, formerly abbot of Westminster, and in 1581 he was one of the disputants with the Jesuit, Edmund Campion, while in 1582 he was among the clergy selected by the privy council to argue against any papist. His numerous polemical writings include _A Defense of the sincere true Translations of the holie Scriptures into the English tong_ (London, 1583), and confutations of Thomas Stapleton (1535-1598), Cardinal Allen and other Roman Catholic controversialists.

FULK NERRA (c. 970-1040), count of Anjou, eldest son of Count Geoffrey I., "Grisegonelle" (Grey Tunic) and Adela of Vermandois, was born about 970 and succeeded his father in the countship of Anjou on the 21st of July 987. He was successful in repelling the attacks of the count of Rennes and laying the foundations of the conquest of Touraine (see ANJOU). In this connexion he built a great number of strong castles, which has led in modern times to his being called "the great builder." He also founded several religious houses, among them the abbeys of Beaulieu, near Loches (c. 1007), of Saint-Nicholas at Angers (1020) and of Ronceray at Angers (1028), and, in order to expiate his crimes of violence, made three pilgrimages to the Holy Land (in 1002-1003, c. 1008 and in 1039). On his return from the third of these journeys he died at Metz in Lorraine on the 21st of June 1040. By his first marriage, with Elizabeth, daughter of Bouchard le Venerable, count of Vendome, he had a daughter, Adela, who married Boon of Nevers and transmitted to her children the countship of Vendome. Elizabeth having died in 1000, Fulk married Hildegarde of Lorraine, by whom he had a son, Geoffrey Martel (q.v.), and a daughter Ermengarde, who married Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and was the mother of Geoffrey "le Barbu" (the Bearded) and of Fulk "le Rechin" (see ANJOU).

See Louis Halphen, _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1906).
The biography of Fulk Nerra by Alexandre de Salies, _Histoire de
Foulques Nerra_ (Angers, 1874) is confused and uncritical. A very
summary biography is given by Celestin Port, _Dictionnaire historique,
geographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire_ (3 vols.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 189-192, and there is also a
sketch in Kate Norgate, _England under the Angevin Kings_ (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. ch. iii. (L. H.*)

FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV (1769-1803), German philosopher, philologist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Glogau, Silesia, on the 2nd of March 1769, and died at Breslau on the 6th of February 1803. He was educated at the University of Halle, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his thesis _De Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia_. He took diaconal orders in 1791, but almost immediately became professor of classics at Breslau. His philosophical works include annotations to Garve's translation of the _Politics_ of Aristotle (1799-1800), and a large share in the _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie_ (published in twelve parts between 1791 and 1799), in which he collaborated with Forberg, Reinhold and Niethammer. In philology he wrote _Encyclopaedia philologica sive primae lineae Isagoges in antiquorum studia_ (1798; 2nd ed., 1805); _Kurze Theorie des lateinischen Stils_ (1793); _Leitfaden der Rhetorik_ (1802); and an annotated edition of the _Satires_ of Persius. Under the pseudonym "Edelwald Justus" he published several collections of popular tales--_Bunte Blatter_ (1795); _Kleine Schriften zur Unterhaltung_ (1798); _Nebenstunden_ (1799). After his death were published _Taschenbuch fur Brunnengaste_ (1806) and _Kanzelreden_ (1807). He was a frequent contributor to the press, where his writings were very popular.

See Schummel, _Gedachtnisrede_ (1803) and _Garve und Fulleborn_;
Meusel, _Gelehrtes Teutschland_, vol. ii.

FULLER, ANDREW (1754-1815), English Baptist divine, was born on the 6th of February 1754, at Wicken in Cambridgeshire. In his boyhood and youth he worked on his father's farm. In his seventeenth year he became a member of the Baptist church at Soham, and his gifts as an exhorter met with so much approval that, in the spring of 1775, he was called and ordained as pastor of that congregation. In 1782 he removed to Kettering in Northamptonshire, where he became friendly with some of the most eminent ministers of the denomination. Before leaving Soham he had written the substance of a treatise in which he had sought to counteract the prevailing Baptist hyper-Calvinism which, "admitting nothing spiritually good to be the duty of the unregenerate, and nothing to be addressed to them in a way of exhortation excepting what related to external obedience," had long perplexed his own mind. This work he published, under the title _The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation_, soon after his settlement in Kettering; and although it immediately involved him in a somewhat bitter controversy which lasted for nearly twenty years, it was ultimately successful in considerably modifying the views prevalent among English dissenters. In 1793 he published a treatise, _The Calvinistic and Socinian systems examined and compared as to their moral tendency_, in which he rebutted the accusation of antinomianism levelled by the Socinians against those who over-emphasized the doctrines of free grace. This work, along with another against Deism, entitled _The Gospel its own Witness_, is regarded as the production on which his reputation as a theologian mainly rests. Fuller also published an admirable _Memoir of the Rev. Samuel Pearce_, of Birmingham, and a volume of _Expository Lectures in Genesis_, besides a considerable number of smaller pieces, chiefly sermons and pamphlets, which were issued in a collected form after his death. He was a man of forceful character, more prominent on the practical side of religion than on the devotional, and accordingly not pre-eminently successful in his local ministry. His great work was done in connexion with the Baptist Missionary Society, formed at Kettering in 1792, of which he was secretary until his death on the 7th of May 1815. Both Princeton and Yale, U.S.A., conferred on him the degree of D. D., but he never used it.

Several editions of his collected works have appeared, and a _Memoir_,
principally compiled from his own papers, was published about a year
after his decease by Dr Ryland, his most intimate friend and coadjutor
in the affairs of the Baptist mission. There is also a biography by
the Rev. J.W. Morris (1816); and his son prefixed a memoir to an
edition of his chief works in Bohn's Standard Library (1852).

FULLER, GEORGE (1822-1884), American figure and portrait painter, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1822. At the age of twenty he entered the studio of the sculptor H.K. Brown, at Albany, New York, where he drew from the cast and modelled heads. Having attained some proficiency he went about the country painting portraits, settling at length in Boston, where he studied the works of the earlier Americans, Stuart, Copley and Allston. After three years in that city, and twelve in New York, where in 1857 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, he went to Europe for a brief visit and for study. During all this time his work had received little recognition and practically no financial encouragement, and on his return he settled on the family farm at Deerfield, where he continued to work in his own way with no thought of the outside world. In 1876, however, he was forced by pressing needs to dispose of his work, and he sent some pictures to a dealer in Boston, where he met with immediate success, financial and artistic, and for the remaining eight years of his life he never lacked patrons. He died in Boston on the 21st of March 1884. He was a poetic painter, and a dreamer of delicate fancies and quaint, intangible phases of nature, his canvases being usually enveloped in a brown mist that renders the outlines vague. Among his noteworthy canvases are: "The Turkey Pasture," "Romany Girl," "And she was a Witch," "Nydia," "Winifred Dysart" and "The Quadroon."

FULLER, MARGARET, Marchioness Ossoli (1810-1850), American authoress, eldest child of Timothy Fuller (1778-1835), a lawyer and politician of some eminence, was born at Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of May 1810. Her education was conducted by her father, who, she states, made the mistake of thinking to "gain time by bringing forward the intellect as early as possible," the consequence being "a premature development of brain that made her a youthful prodigy by day, and by night a victim of spectral illusions, nightmare and somnambulism." At six years she began to read Latin, and at a very early age she had selected as her favourite authors Shakespeare, Cervantes and Moliere. Soon the great amount of study exacted of her ceased to be a burden, and reading became a habit and a passion. Having made herself familiar with the masterpieces of French, Italian and Spanish literature, she in 1833 began the study of German, and within the year had read some of the masterpieces of Goethe, Korner, Novalis and Schiller.

After her father's death in 1835 she went to Boston to teach languages, and in 1837 she was chosen principal teacher in the Green Street school, Providence, Rhode Island, where she remained till 1839. From this year until 1844 she stayed at different places in the immediate neighbourhood of Boston, forming an intimate acquaintance with the colonists of Brook Farm, and numbering among her closest friends R.W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne and W.H. Channing. In 1839 she published a translation of Eckermann's _Conversations with Goethe_, which was followed in 1842 by a translation of the correspondence between Karoline von Gunderode and Bettina von Arnim, entitled _Gunderode_. Aided by R.W. Emerson and George Ripley, she in 1840 started _The Dial_, a poetical and philosophical magazine representing the opinions and aims of the New England Transcendentalists. This journal she continued to edit for two years, and while in Boston she also conducted conversation classes for ladies in which philosophical and social subjects were discussed with a somewhat over-accentuated earnestness. These meetings may be regarded as perhaps the beginning of the modern movement in behalf of women's rights. R.W. Emerson, who had met her as early as 1836, thus describes her appearance: "She was then twenty-six years old. She had a face and frame that would indicate fulness and tenacity of life. She was rather under the middle height; her complexion was fair, with strong fair hair. She was then, as always, carefully and becomingly dressed, and of ladylike self-possession. For the rest her appearance had nothing prepossessing. Her extreme plainness, a trick of incessantly opening and shutting her eyelids, the nasal tone of her voice, all repelled; and I said to myself we shall never get far." On better acquaintance this unprepossessing exterior seemed, however, to melt away, and her inordinate self-esteem to be lost in the depth and universality of her sympathy. She possessed an almost irresistible power of winning the intellectual and moral confidence of those with whom she came in contact, and "applied herself to her companion as the sponge applies itself to water." She obtained from each the best they had to give. It was indeed more as a conversationalist than as a writer that she earned the title of the Priestess of Transcendentalism. It was her intimate friends who admired her most. Smart and pungent though she is as a writer, the apparent originality of her views depends more on eccentricity than either intellectual depth or imaginative vigour. In 1844 she removed to New York at the desire of Horace Greeley to write literary criticism for _The Tribune_, and in 1846 she published a selection from her articles on contemporary authors in Europe and America, under the title _Papers on Literature and Art_. The same year she paid a visit to Europe, passing some time in England and France, and finally taking up her residence in Italy. There she was married in December 1847 to the marquis Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, a friend of Mazzini. During 1848-1849 she was present with her husband in Rome, and when the city was besieged she, at the request of Mazzini, took charge of one of the two hospitals while her husband fought on the walls. In May 1850, along with her husband and infant son, she embarked at Leghorn for America, but when they had all but reached their destination the vessel was wrecked on Fire Island beach on the 16th of June, and the Ossolis were among the passengers who perished.

_Life Without and Life Within_ (Boston, 1860) is a collection of
essays, poems, &c., supplementary to her _Collected Works_, printed in
1855. See the _Autobiography of Margaret Fuller Ossoli_, with
additional memoirs by J.F. Clarke, R.W. Emerson and W.H. Channing (2
vols., Boston, 1852); also _Margaret Fuller (Marchesa Ossoli)_, by
Julia Ward Howe (1883), in the "Eminent Women" series; _Margaret
Fuller Ossoli_ (Boston, 1884), by Thomas Wentworth Higginson in the
"American Men of Letters" series, which is based largely on unedited
material; and _The Love Letters of Margaret Fuller, 1845-1846_ (London
and New York, 1903), with an introduction by Julia Ward Howe.

FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910), American jurist, chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was born at Augusta, Maine, on the 11th of February 1833. After graduating at Bowdoin College in 1853 he spent a year at the Harvard Law School, and in 1855 began the practice of law at Augusta, where he was an associate-editor of a Democratic paper, _The Age_, and served in the city council and as city attorney. In 1856 he removed to Chicago, Illinois, where he continued to practise until 1888, rising to a high position at the bar of the Northwest. For some years he was active in Democratic politics, being a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 1862 and of the State House of Representatives from 1863 to 1865. He was a delegate to various National conventions of his party, and in that of 1876 placed Thomas A. Hendricks in nomination for the presidency. In 1888, by President Cleveland's appointment, he succeeded Morrison R. Waite as chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1899 he was appointed by President McKinley a member of the arbitration commission at Paris to settle the Venezuela-British Guiana boundary dispute.

FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661), English divine and historian, eldest son of Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle St Peter's, Northamptonshire, was born at his father's rectory and was baptized on the 19th of June 1608. Dr John Davenant, bishop of Salisbury, was his uncle and godfather. According to Aubrey, Fuller was "a boy of pregnant wit." At thirteen he was admitted to Queens' College, Cambridge, then presided over by Dr John Davenant. His cousin, Edward Davenant, was a tutor in the same college. He was apt and quick in study; and in Lent 1624-1625 he became B.A. and in July 1628 M.A. Being overlooked in an election of fellows of his college, he was removed by Bishop Davenant to Sidney Sussex College, November 1628. In 1630 he received from Corpus Christi College the curacy of St Benet's, Cambridge.

Fuller's quaint and humorous oratory soon attracted attention. He published in 1631 a poem on the subject of David and Bathsheba, entitled _David's Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance, Heavie Punishment_. In June of the same year his uncle gave him a prebend in Salisbury, where his father, who died in the following year, held a canonry. The rectory of Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire, then in the diocese of Bristol, was his next preferment (1634); and on the 11th of June 1635 he proceeded B.D. At Broadwindsor he compiled _The Historie of the Holy Warre_ (1639), a history of the crusades, and _The Holy State and the Prophane State_ (1642). This work describes the holy state as existing in the family and in public life, gives rules of conduct, model "characters" for the various professions and profane biographies. It was perhaps the most popular of all his writings. He was in 1640 elected proctor for Bristol in the memorable convocation of Canterbury, which assembled with the Short Parliament. On the sudden dissolution of the latter he joined those who urged that convocation should likewise dissolve as usual. That opinion was overruled; and the assembly continued to sit by virtue of a royal writ. Fuller has left in his _Church History_ a valuable account of the proceedings of this synod, for sitting in which he was fined L200, which, however, was never exacted. His first published volume of sermons appeared in 1640 under the title of _Joseph's party-coloured Coat_, which contains many of his quaint utterances and odd conceits. His grosser mannerisms of style, derived from the divines of the former generation, disappeared for the most part in his subsequent discourses.

About 1640 he had married Eleanor, daughter of Hugh Grove of Chisenbury, Wiltshire. She died in 1641. Their eldest child, John, baptized at Broadwindsor by his father, 6th June 1641, was afterwards rector of Sidney Sussex College, edited the _Worthies of England_, 1662, and became rector of Great Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687.

At Broadwindsor, early in the year 1641, Thomas Fuller, his curate Henry Sanders, the church wardens, and others, nine persons altogether, certified that their parish, represented by 242 grown-up male persons, had taken the Protestation ordered by the speaker of the Long Parliament. Fuller was not formally dispossessed of his living and prebend on the triumph of the Presbyterian party, but he relinquished both preferments about this time. For a short time he preached with success at the Inns of Court, and thence removed, at the invitation of the master of the Savoy (Dr Balcanqual) and the brotherhood of that foundation, to be lecturer at their chapel of St Mary Savoy. Some of the best discourses of the witty preacher were delivered at the Savoy to audiences which extended into the chapel-yard. In one he set forth with searching and truthful minuteness the hindrances to peace, and urged the signing of petitions to the king at Oxford, and to the parliament, to continue their care in advancing an accommodation. In his _Appeal of Injured Innocence_ Fuller says that he was once deputed to carry a petition to the king at Oxford. This has been identified with a petition entrusted to Sir Edward Wardour, clerk of the pells, Dr Dukeson, "Dr Fuller," and four or five others from the city of Westminster and the parishes contiguous to the Savoy. A pass was granted by the House of Lords, on the 2nd of January 1643, for an equipage of two coaches, four or six horses and eight or ten attendants. On the arrival of the deputation at Uxbridge, on the 4th of January, officers of the Parliamentary army stopped the coaches and searched the gentlemen; and they found upon the latter "two scandalous books arraigning the proceedings of the House," and letters with ciphers to Lord Viscount Falkland and the Lord Spencer. Ultimately a joint order of both Houses remanded the party; and Fuller and his friends suffered a brief imprisonment. The Westminster Petition, notwithstanding, reached the king's hands; and it was published with the royal reply (see J.E. Bailey, _Life of Thomas Fuller_, pp. 245 _et seq._). When it was expected, three months later, that a favourable result would attend the negotiations at Oxford, Fuller preached a sermon at Westminster Abbey, on the 27th of March 1643, on the anniversary of Charles I.'s accession, on the text, "Yea, let him take all, so my Lord the King return in peace." On Wednesday, the 26th of July, he preached on church reformation, satirizing the religious reformers, and maintaining that only the Supreme Power could initiate reforms.

He was now obliged to leave London, and in August 1643 he joined the king at Oxford. He lived in a hired chamber at Lincoln College for 17 weeks. Thence he put forth a witty and effective reply to John Saltmarsh, who had attacked his views on ecclesiastical reform. Fuller subsequently published by royal request a sermon preached on the 10th of May 1644, at St Mary's, Oxford, before the king and Prince Charles, called _Jacob's Vow_.

The spirit of Fuller's preaching, always characterized by calmness and moderation, gave offence to the high royalists, who charged him with lukewarmness in their cause. To silence unjust censures he became chaplain to the regiment of Sir Ralph Hopton. For the first five years of the war, as he said, when excusing the non-appearance of his _Church History_, "I had little list or leisure to write, fearing to be made a history, and shifting daily for my safety. All that time I could not live to study, who did only study to live." After the defeat of Hopton at Cheriton Down, Fuller retreated to Basing House. He took an active part in its defence, and his life with the troops caused him to be afterwards regarded as one of "the great cavalier parsons." In his marches with his regiment round about Oxford and in the west, he devoted much time to the collection of details, from churches, old buildings, and the conversation of ancient gossips, for his _Church-History_ and _Worthies of England_. He compiled in 1645 a small volume of prayers and meditations,--the _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_,--which, set up and printed in the besieged city of Exeter, whither he had retired, was called by himself "the first fruits of Exeter press." It was inscribed to Lady Dalkeith, governess to the infant princess, Henrietta Anne (b. 1644), to whose household he was attached as chaplain. The corporation gave him the Bodleian lectureship on the 21st of March 1645/6, and he held it until the 17th of June following, soon after the surrender of the city to the parliament. _The Fear of losing the Old Light_ (1646) was his farewell discourse to his Exeter friends. Under the Articles of Surrender Fuller made his composition with the government at London, his "delinquency" being that he had been present in the king's garrisons. In _Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician_ (1646), partly authentic and partly fictitious, he satirized the leaders of the Revolution; and for the comfort of sufferers by the war he issued (1647) a second devotional manual, entitled _Good Thoughts in Worse Times_, abounding in fervent aspirations, and drawing moral lessons in beautiful language out of the events of his life or the circumstances of the time. In grief over his losses, which included his library and manuscripts (his "upper and nether millstone"), and over the calamities of the country, he wrote his work on the _Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience_ (1647). It was prepared at Boughton House in his native county, where he and his son were entertained by Edward Lord Montagu, who had been one of his contemporaries at the university and had taken the side of the parliament.

For the next few years of his life Fuller was mainly dependent upon his dealings with booksellers, of whom he asserted that none had ever lost by him. He made considerable progress in an English translation from the MS. of the _Annales_ of his friend Archbishop Ussher. Amongst his benefactors it is curious to find Sir John Danvers of Chelsea, the regicide. Fuller in 1647 began to preach at St Clement's, Eastcheap, and elsewhere in the capacity of lecturer. While at St Clement's he was suspended; but speedily recovering his freedom, he preached wherever he was invited. At Chelsea, where also he occasionally officiated, he covertly preached a sermon on the death of Charles I., but he did not break with his Roundhead patrons. James Hay, 2nd earl of Carlisle, made him his chaplain, and presented him in 1648 or 1649 to the curacy of Waltham Abbey. His possession of the living was in jeopardy on the appointment of Cromwell's "Tryers"; but he evaded their inquisitorial questions by his ready wit. He was not disturbed at Waltham in 1655, when the Protector's edict prohibited the adherents of the late king from preaching. Lionel, 3rd earl of Middlesex, who lived at Copt Hall, near Waltham, gave him what remained of the books of the lord treasurer his father; and through the good offices of the marchioness of Hertford, part of his own pillaged library was restored to him. Fuller was thus able to prosecute his literary labours, producing successively his descriptive geography of the Holy Land, called _A Pisgah-Sight of Palestine_ (1650), and his _Church-History of Britain_ (1655), from the birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648. With the _Church-History_ was printed _The History of the University of Cambridge since the Conquest_ and _The History of Waltham Abbey_. These works were furthered in no slight degree by his connexion with Sion College, London, where he had a chamber, as well for the convenience of the press as of his city lectureships. The _Church-History_ was angrily attacked by Dr P. Heylyn, who, in the spirit of High-Churchmanship, wished, as he said, to vindicate the truth, the church and the injured clergy. About 1652 Fuller married his second wife, Mary Roper, youngest sister of Thomas, Viscount Baltinglass, by whom he had several children. At the Oxford Act of 1657, Robert South, who was _Terrae filius_, lampooned Fuller, whom he described in this _Oratio_ as living in London, ever scribbling and each year bringing forth new _folia_ like a tree. At length, continues South, the _Church-History_ came forth with its 166 dedications to wealthy and noble friends; and with this huge volume under one arm, and his wife (said to be little of stature) on the other, he ran up and down the streets of London, seeking at the houses of his patrons invitations to dinner, to be repaid by his dull jests at table.

His last and best patron was George Berkeley, 1st Earl Berkeley (1628-1698), of Cranford House, Middlesex, whose chaplain he was, and who gave him Cranford rectory (1658). To this nobleman Fuller's reply to Heylyn's _Examen Historicum_, called _The Appeal of Injured Innocence_ (1659), was inscribed. At the end of the _Appeal_ is an epistle "to my loving friend Dr Peter Heylyn," conceived in the admirable Christian spirit which characterized all Fuller's dealings with controversialists. "Why should _Peter_," he asked, "fall out with _Thomas_, both being disciples to the same Lord and Master? I assure you, sir, whatever you conceive to the contrary, I am cordial to the cause of the English Church, and my hoary hairs will go down to the grave in sorrow for her sufferings."

In _An Alarum to the Counties of England and Wales_ (1660) Fuller argued for a free and full parliament--free from force, as he expressed it, as well as from abjurations or previous engagements. _Mixt Contemplations in Better Times_ (1660), dedicated to Lady Monk, tendered advice in the spirit of its motto, "Let your moderation be known to all men: the Lord is at hand." There is good reason to suppose that Fuller was at the Hague immediately before the Restoration, in the retinue of Lord Berkeley, one of the commissioners of the House of Lords, whose last service to his friend was to interest himself in obtaining him a bishopric. _A Panegyrick to His Majesty on his Happy Return_ was the last of Fuller's verse-efforts. On the 2nd of August, by royal letters, he was admitted D.D. at Cambridge. He resumed his lectures at the Savoy, where Samuel Pepys heard him preach; but he preferred his conversation or his books to his sermons. Fuller's last promotion was that of chaplain in extraordinary to Charles II. In the summer of 1661 he visited the west in connexion with the business of his prebend, which had been restored to him. On Sunday, the 12th of August, while preaching at the Savoy, he was seized with typhus fever, and died at his new lodgings in Covent Garden on the 16th of August. He was buried in Cranford church, where a mural tablet was afterwards set up on the north side of the chancel, with an epitaph which contains a conceit worthy of his own pen, to the effect that while he was endeavouring (viz. in _The Worthies_) to give immortality to others, he himself attained it.

Fuller's wit and vivacious good-humour made him a favourite with men of both sides, and his sense of humour kept him from extremes. Probably Heylyn and South had some excuse for their attitude towards his very moderate politics. "By his particular temper and management," said Echard (_Hist. of England_, iii. 71), "he weathered the late great storm with more success than many other great men." He was known as "a perfect walking library." The strength of his memory was proverbial, and some amusing anecdotes are connected with it.

His writings were the product of a highly original mind. He had a fertile imagination and a happy faculty of illustration. Antithetic and axiomatic sentences abound in his pages, embodying literally the wisdom of the many in the wit of one. He was "quaint," and something more. "Wit," said Coleridge, in a well-known eulogy, "was the stuff and substance of Fuller's intellect. It was the element, the earthen base, the material which he worked in; and this very circumstance has defrauded him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the thoughts, for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great men" (_Literary Remains_, vol. ii. (1836), pp. 389-390). This opinion was formed after the perusal of the _Church-History_. That work and _The History of the Worthies of England_ are unquestionably Fuller's greatest efforts. They embody the collections of an entire life; and since his day they have been the delight of many readers. The _Holy State_ has taken rank amongst the best books of "characters." Charles Lamb made some selections from Fuller, and had a profound admiration for the "golden works" of the "dear, fine, silly old angel." Since Lamb's time, mainly through the appreciative criticisms of S.T. Coleridge, Robert Southey and others, Fuller's works have received much attention.

There is an elaborate account of the life and writings of Fuller by
William Oldys in the _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iii. (1750), based
on Fuller's own works and the anonymous _Life of ... Dr Thomas Fuller_
(1661; reprinted in a volume of selections by A.L.J. Gosset, 1893).
The completest account of him is _The Life of Thomas Fuller, with
Notices of his Books, his Kinsmen and his Friends_ (1874), by J.E.
Bailey, who gives a detailed bibliography (pp. 713-762) of his works.
_The Worthies of England_ was reprinted by John Nichols (1811) and by
P.A. Nuttall (1840). His _Collected Sermons_ were edited by J.E.
Bailey and W.E.A. Axon in 1891. Fuller's quaint wit lends itself to
selection, and there are several modern volumes of extracts from his
works.

FULLER, WILLIAM (1670-c. 1717), English impostor, was born at Milton in Kent on the 20th of September 1670. His paternity is doubtful, but he was related to the family of Herbert. After 1688 he served James II.'s queen, Mary of Modena, and the Jacobites, seeking at the same time to gain favour with William III.; and after associating with Titus Oates, being imprisoned for debt and pretending to reveal Jacobite plots, the House of Commons in 1692 declared he was an "imposter, cheat and false accuser." Having stood in the pillory he was again imprisoned until 1695, when he was released; and at this time he took the opportunity to revive the old and familiar story that Mary of Modena was not the mother of the prince of Wales. In 1701 he published his autobiographical _Life of William Fuller_ and some _Original Letters of the late King James_. Unable to prove the assertions made in his writings he was put in the pillory, whipped and fined. He died, probably in prison, about 1717. Fuller's other writings are _Mr William Fuller's trip to Bridewell, with a full account of his barbarous usage in the pillory; The sincere and hearty confession of Mr William Fuller_ (1704); and _An humble appeal to the impartial judgment of all parties in Great Britain_ (1716).

He must be distinguished from WILLIAM FULLER (1608-1675), dean of St
Patrick's (1660), bishop of Limerick (1663), and bishop of Lincoln
(1667), the friend of Samuel Pepys; and also from William Fuller (c.
1580-1659), dean of Ely and later dean of Durham.

FULLER'S EARTH (Ger. _Walkererde_, Fr. _terre a foulon_, _argile smectique_)--so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of the grease and oil of cloth,--a clay-like substance, which from its variability is somewhat difficult to define. In colour it is most often greenish, olive-green or greenish-grey; on weathering it changes to a brown tint or it may bleach. As a rule it falls to pieces when placed in water and is not markedly plastic; when dry it adheres strongly to the tongue; since, however, these properties are possessed by many clays that do not exhibit detergent qualities, the only test of value lies in the capacity to absorb grease or clarify oil. Fuller's earth has a specific gravity of 1.7-2.4, and a shining streak; it is usually unctuous to the touch. Microscopically, it consists of minute irregular-shaped particles of a mineral that appears to be the result of a chloritic or talcose alteration of a felspar. The small size of most of the grains, less than .07 mm., makes their determination almost impossible. Chemical analysis shows that the peculiar properties of this earth are due to its physical rather than its chemical nature.

The following analyses of the weathered and unweathered condition of
the earth from Nutfield, Surrey, represent the composition of one of
the best known varieties:--

Blue Earth (dried at 100 deg. C.).

Insoluble residue 69.96 | Insoluble residue--
Fe2O3 2.48 | SiO2 62.81
Al2O3 3.46 | Al2O3 3.46
CaO 5.87 | Fe2O3 1.30
MgO 1.41 | CaO 1.53
P2O5 0.27 | MgO 0.86
SO3 0.05 | -----
NaCl 0.05 | 69.96
K2O 0.74 | =====
H2O (combined) 15.57 |
----- |
99.86 |
===== |

Yellow Earth (dried at 100 deg. C.).

Insoluble residue 76.13 | Insoluble residue--
Fe2O3 2.41 | SiO2 59.37
Al2O3 1.77 | Al2O3 10.05
CaO 4.31 | Fe2O3 3.86
MgO 1.05 | CaO 1.86
P2O5 0.14 | MgO 1.04
SO3 0.07 | -----
NaCl 0.14 | 76.18
K2O 0.84 | =====
H2O (combined) 13.19 |
------ |
100.05 |
====== |

(Analysis by P.G. Sanford, _Geol. Mag._, 1889, 6, pp. 456, 526.)

Of other published analyses, not a few show a lower silica content
(44%, 50%), along with a higher proportion of alumina (11%, 23%).

Fuller's earth may occur on any geological horizon; at Nutfield in Surrey, England, it is in the Cretaceous formations; at Midford near Bath it is of Jurassic age; at Bala, North Wales, it occurs in Ordovician strata; in Saxony it appears to be the decomposition product of a diabasic rock. In America it is found in California in rocks ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene age; in S. Dakota, Custer county and elsewhere a yellow, gritty earth of Jurassic age is worked; in Florida and Georgia occurs a brittle, whitish earth of Oligocene age. Other deposits are worked in Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Massachusetts and South Carolina.

Fuller's earth is either mined or dug in the open according to local circumstances. It is then dried in the sun or by artificial heat and transported in small lumps in sacks. In other cases it is ground to a fine powder after being dried; or it is first roughly ground and made into a slurry with water, which is allowed to carry off the finer from the coarser particles and deposit them in a creamy state in suitable tanks. After consolidation this fine material is dried artificially on drying floors, broken into lumps, and packed for transport. The use of fuller's earth for cleansing wool and cloth has greatly decreased, but the demand for the material is as great or greater than it ever was. It is now used very largely in the filtration of mineral oils, and also for decolourizing certain vegetable oils. It is employed in the formation of certain soaps and cleansing preparations.

The term "Fuller's Earth" has a special significance in geology, for it was applied by W. Smith in 1799 to certain clays in the neighbourhood of Bath, and the use of the expression is still retained by English geologists, either in this form or in the generalized "Fullonian." The Fullonian lies at the base of the Great Oolite or Bathonian series, but its palaeontological characters place it between that series and the underlying Inferior Oolite. The zonal fossils are _Perisphinctes arbustigerus_ and _Macrocephalus subcontractus_ with _Ostrea acuminata_, _Rhynchonella concinna_ and _Goniomya angulifera_. The formation is in part the equivalent of the "Vesulien" of J. Marcou (Vesoul in Haute-Saone). In Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where it is best developed, it is represented by an Upper Fuller's Earth Clay, the Fuller's Earth Rock (an impersistent earthy limestone, usually fossiliferous), and the Lower Fuller's Earth Clay. Commercial fuller's earth has been obtained only from the Upper Clay. In eastern Gloucestershire and northern Oxfordshire the Fuller's Earth passes downwards without break into the Inferior Oolite; northward it dies out about Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and passes laterally into the Stonesfield Slates series; in the midland counties it may perhaps be represented by the "Upper Estuarine Series." In parts of Dorsetshire the clays have been used for brickmaking and the limestone (rock) for local buildings.

See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," vol. iv. (1894),
_Mem. Geol. Survey_ (London). [J. A. H.]

FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA CHARLOTTE (1812-1885), English novelist and philanthropist, youngest daughter of the 1st Earl Granville, was born at Tixall Hall in Staffordshire on the 23rd of September 1812. In 1833 she married Alexander George Fullerton, then an Irish officer in the guards. After living in Paris for some eight years she and her husband accompanied Lord Granville to Cannes and thence to Rome. In 1843 her husband entered the Roman Catholic church, and in the following year Lady Georgiana Fullerton published her first novel, _Ellen Middleton_, which attracted W.E. Gladstone's attention in the _English Review_. In 1846 she entered the Roman Catholic church. The death of her only son in 1854 plunged her in grief, and she continued to wear mourning until the end of her life. In 1856 she became one of the third order of St Francis, and thenceforward devoted herself to charitable work. In conjunction with Miss Taylor she founded the religious community known as "The Poor Servants of the Mother of God Incarnate," and she also took an active part in bringing to England the sisters of St Vincent of Paul. Her philanthropic work is described in Mrs Augustus Craven's work _Lady Georgiana Fullerton, sa vie et ses [oe]uvres_ (Paris, 1888), which was translated into English by Henry James Coleridge. She died at Bournemouth on the 19th of January 1885. Among her other novels were _Grantley Manor_ (1847), _Lady Bird_ (1852), and _Too Strange not to be True_ (1864).

FULMAR, from the Gaelic _Fulmaire_, the _Fulmarus glacialis_ of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the petrels (_Procellariidae_) of the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the common gull (_Larus canus_) and not unlike it in general coloration, except that its primaries are grey instead of black. This bird, which ranges over the North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the European side below lat. 53 deg. N., but on the American side comes habitually to lat. 45 deg. or even lower. In the Pacific it is represented by a scarcely separable form, _F. glupischa_. It has been commonly believed to have two breeding-places in the British Islands, namely, St Kilda and South Barra; but, according to Robert Gray (_Birds of the West of Scotland_, p. 499), it has abandoned the latter since 1844, though still breeding in Skye. Northward it established itself about 1838 on Myggenaes Holm, one of the Faeroes, while it has several stations off the coast of Iceland and Spitsbergen, as well as at Bear Island. Its range towards the pole seems to be only bounded by open water, and it is the constant attendant upon all who are employed in the whale and seal fisheries, showing the greatest boldness in approaching boats and ships, and feeding on the offal obtained from them. By British seamen it is commonly called the "molly mawk"[1] (corrupted from _Mallemuck_), and is extremely well known to them, its flight, as it skims over the waves, first with a few beats of the wings and then gliding for a long way, being very peculiar. It only visits the land to deposit its single white egg, which is laid on a rocky ledge, where a shallow nest is made in the turf and lined with a little dried grass. Many of its breeding-places are a most valuable property to those who live near them and take the eggs and young, which, from the nature of the locality, are only to be had at a hazardous risk of life. In St Kilda a large number of the young are killed in one week of August, the only time when, by the custom of the community, they are allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is extracted from them, serve the islanders with food for the winter. The oil has been chemically analysed and found to be a fish-oil, and to possess nearly all the qualities of that obtained from the liver of the cod, with a lighter specific gravity. It, however, has an extremely strong scent, which is said by those who have visited St Kilda to pervade every thing and person on the island, and is certainly retained by an egg or skin of the bird for many years. Whenever a live example is seized in the hand it ejects a considerable quantity of this oil from its mouth.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A name misapplied in the southern hemisphere to _Diomedea
melanophrys_, one of the albatrosses.

FULMINIC ACID, HCNO or H2C2N2O2, an organic acid isomeric with cyanic and cyanuric acids; its salts, termed fulminates, are very explosive and are much employed as detonators. The free acid, which is obtained by treating the salts with acids, is an oily liquid smelling like prussic acid; it is very explosive, and the vapour is poisonous to about the same degree as that of prussic acid. The first fulminate prepared was the "fulminating silver" of L.G. Brugnatelli, who found in 1798 that if silver be dissolved in nitric acid and the solution added to spirits of wine, a white, highly explosive powder was obtained. This substance is to be distinguished from the black "fulminating silver" obtained by C.L. Berthollet in 1788 by acting with ammonia on precipitated silver oxide. The next salt to be obtained was the mercuric salt, which was prepared in 1799 by Edward Charles Howard, who substituted mercury for silver in Brugnatelli's process. A similar method is that of J. von Liebig (1823), who heated a mixture of alcohol, nitric acid and mercuric nitrate; the salt is largely manufactured by processes closely resembling the last. A laboratory method is to mix solutions of sodium nitromethane, CH2:NO(ONa), and mercuric chloride, a yellow basic salt being formed at the same time. Mercuric fulminate is less explosive than the silver salt, and forms white needles (with 1/2H2O) which are tolerably soluble in water. The use of mercuric fulminate as a detonator dates from about 1814, when the explosive cap was invented. It is still the commonest detonator, but it is now usually mixed with other substances; the British service uses for percussion caps 6 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, and for time fuses 4 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, the mixture being damped with a shellac varnish; for use in blasting, a home office order of 1897 prescribes a mixture of 4 parts of fulminate and 1 of potassium chlorate. In 1900 Bielefeldt found that a fulminate placed on top of an aromatic nitro compound, such as trinitrotoluene, formed a useful detonator; this discovery has been especially taken advantage of in Germany, in which country detonators of this nature are being largely employed. Tetranitromethylaniline (tetryl) has also been employed (Brit. Pat. 13340 of 1905). It has been proposed to replace fulminate by silver azoimide (Wohler & Matter, Brit. Pat. 4468 of 1908), and by lead azoimide (Hyronimus, Brit. Pat. 1819 of 1908).

The constitution of fulminic acid has been investigated by many
experimenters, but apparently without definitive results. The
researches of Liebig (1823), Liebig and Gay-Lussac (1824), and of
Liebig again in 1838 showed the acid to be isomeric with cyanic acid,
and probably (HCNO)2, since it gave mixed and acid salts. Kekule, in
1858, concluded that it was nitroacetonitrile, NO2.CH2.CN, a view
opposed by Steiner (1883), E. Divers and M. Kawakita (1884), R. Scholl
(1890), and by J.U. Nef (1894), who proposed the formulae: